influence wrought upon it by settlers from foreign countries, are
difficult subjects to determine. If we allow that Cecrops was the first
who introduced marriage in Attica, and that agriculture and the
cultivation of the olive were discovered in that country, it
unquestionably follows, that the Hellenes were indebted to strangers for
the foundation of domestic civilization. And when we consider that the
families which subsequently held sway were descended directly from the
most powerful of these strangers, their lasting influence can hardly be
a matter of doubt. It must, however, be observed, that what the Greeks
borrowed from foreigners they previously stamped with their own peculiar
character, so that it became, as it were, the original property of the
nation. The question, therefore, is deprived of much of the importance
which it assumes at the first glance.
8. The case was the same with regard to all branches of intellectual
civilization, particularly religion. That many deities and religious
rites were introduced into Greece from Egypt, Asia, and Thrace, and
generally through Crete, hardly admits of a doubt; but they did not
therefore remain Egyptian, Asiatic, or Thracian; they became Grecian
gods. Hence it appears that the investigation of those relations can
hardly lead to any important conclusion. It is a fact, however, of the
highest importance, that whatever gods the Greeks adopted, no separate
order of priesthood was established among them, still less any caste
laying claim to the exclusive possession of knowledge. Several traces,
nevertheless, make it probable, that many of the most ancient
sanctuaries were settlements of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Cretan priests,
who imported with them their own peculiar forms of worship. And
notwithstanding this worship consisted merely of outward ceremonies,
many ideas and institutions which were attached to it, became, in this
manner, the common property of the nation.
9. It was principally, therefore, by religion, that the rude mind became
in some degree polished. But it was the ancient minstrels, ([Greek:
aoidoi],) Orpheus, Linus, etc., who, by disseminating religious
principles, contributed so much towards abolishing revenge, and with it
the perpetual state of warfare which had hitherto distracted the
country. These it was who in their mysteries contrived in some measure
to impress the narrow circle of the initiated with the advantages
resulting from a civilized life.
SAINTE-CROIX, _Recherches sur les Mysteres du Paganisme_, Paris, 1765.
Translated into German, with valuable observations, by C. G. LENZ;
Gotha, 1790.
10. The influence of religion, through the medium of oracles, especially
those of Dodona and Delphi, was not less powerful. The two latter, with
that of Olympia, were perhaps, originally ancient settlements of
priests, such as have been already alluded to. The necessity of
consulting these sanctuaries naturally led men to regard the oracles as
the common property of the nation, to which every one should have
access; it followed therefore as an inevitable consequence, that the
direction of affairs in which all were engaged, depended principally on
those oracles.
A. VAN DALEN, _De Oraculis veterum Ethnicorum Dissertationes_ 6.
Amstel. 1700. A very valuable work. A comprehensive dissertation on
the subject, however, is still wanting: a portion of it is treated
of in
J. GRODDEK, _De Oraculorum veterum, quae in Herodoti libris
continentur, natura, commentatio_; Gotting. 1786.
11. It happened with Greece as with other countries; the tender plant
of civilization grew up under the shelter of the sanctuary. There the
festivals were celebrated, and there the people assembled; and there
various tribes, who had hitherto been strangers to one another, met
in peace, and conversed on their common interests. Hence arose
spontaneously the first idea of a law of nations, and those connections
which led to its development. Among these connections, that of the
Amphictyons at Delphi was the most important, and continued the longest:
it is probable that it did not assume its complete form till a later
period; yet it appears in early times to have adopted the principle,
that none of the cities belonging to the league should be destroyed by
the others.
# FR. WILH. TITTMANN, _Upon the Amphictyonic League_; 1812. A
dissertation which gained the prize of the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin.
12. To religion must likewise be added navigation, and the consequent
intercourse which brought the nation into contact with strangers, and
prepared it to receive civilization. It cannot be denied that the
navigators continued long to be mere pirates; but as Minos of Crete
cleared the sea of freebooters, the want of another state of things must
have been felt long before.
13. In the mean time the chivalrous spirit of the nation was gradually
aroused; and developed the first bloom of its youthful vigour in the
heroic ages. An affection for extraordinary undertakings was excited;
and conducted the chieftains, not only individually, but also in
confederate bodies, beyond the limits of their father-land. These
undertakings were not only important in themselves, but their advantages
were increased by their being preserved in the songs of their bards by
means of a national poesy, such as no other people possessed, and such
as contributed to the further development of the national genius.
Expedition of the Argonauts to Colchis, somewhere about B. C. 1250;
war of the seven confederate princes against Thebes about 1225; the
town, however, was not taken until the second attempt made by the sons
of the chiefs (Epigoni) in 1215.
14. Thus every thing was now ripe for some great national undertaking of
all the combined Hellenic nations; and that object was attained in the
war against Troy. The most important result of that expedition was the
kindling of one common national spirit,--a spirit which in spite of
dissensions and feuds, was never wholly extinguished, and which must
almost necessarily have arisen from an expedition carried on in so
distant a field, which lasted ten years, in which all were joined, and
which was crowned with such signal success. From the time of the Trojan
war downwards the Hellenes always looked upon themselves as but one
people.
General view of the political state of Greece about the time of the
Trojan war.--Division into several small states, the most powerful
of which were Argos and Mycenae.--All those states were governed by
hereditary chieftains or princes from a certain _family_ (kings,
[Greek: basileis],) who combined the offices of leaders in war and
judges in peace. Their authority being more or less extended in
proportion to the qualities they possessed, and particularly to
their valour in battle.--Manner of life among the people: a nation
dwelling in cities, but at the same time cultivating the land and
tending cattle; applying also to war, and already somewhat advanced
in the art of navigation.
A. W. SCHLEGEL, _De Geographia Homeri Commentatio_. Hannov. 1788. A
review of the political geography of Greece at this period.--On the
topography of Troy:
LECHEVALIER, _Description de la Plaine de Troie_. Translated and
accompanied with notes by HEYNE, Leipzig, 1794. Compare CLARKE,
_Travels_, vol. i, c. 4-6, who has thrown doubts on the system of
Lechevalier, which has, however, been again confirmed by LEAKE,
_Travels in Asia Minor_.
SECOND PERIOD.
_From the Trojan war to the breaking out of the Persian war, B. C.
1200-500._
Sources. On no portion of the Grecian history is our information
so scanty as upon this long period, in which we can be hardly said
to have more than a general knowledge of many of the most
important events. As in the foregoing period, its commencement is
but a traditional and poetical history. It was not till towards
the end of it that the use of writing became common among the
Greeks; add to which the period itself was not rife in great
national undertakings, such as might afford appropriate materials
for the poet or historian. Besides the scattered information which
may be gathered from Herodotus, Plutarch, Strabo, and above all
from the introduction to Thucydides's history, Pausanias must not
be forgotten; who, in his description of Greece, has preserved an
abundance of most valuable documents relating to the separate
histories of the minor states. The Books of Diodorus belonging to
this period are lost.
# FR. WILHELM TITTMANN, _Delineation of the Grecian Forms of
Government_, 1822. An industrious collection of all the
information we possess respecting this subject.
# W. WACHSMUTH, _Grecian Antiquities with regard to Politics_, 4
vols. An excellent work.
1. _History of the Hellenic states within Greece._
1. The Trojan war was followed by a very stormy period, in consequence
of the many disorders prevalent in the ruling families, especially in
that of Pelops. But more violent commotions soon arose, caused by the
attempts of the rude tribes of the north, particularly of the Dorians
combined with the Aetolians, who, under the guidance of the descendants
of Hercules, exiled from Argos, strove to obtain possession of
Peloponnesus. Those commotions shook Greece during a whole century, and
as the seats of most of the Hellenic tribes were then changed, the
consequences were lasting and important.
First unsuccessful attempt under Hyllus, son of Hercules, about
1180.--Repeated attempts, until at last the claims of the Heraclidae
are made good by the grandsons of Hyllus, viz. Telephus and
Cresphontes, together with Eurysthenes and Procles, sons of their
brother Aristodemus, 1100.
2. Consequences resulting to the Peloponnesus from this migration. The
territories of Argos, Sparta, Messene, and Corinth, wrested from the
Achaeans who had hitherto inhabited them, become the property of the
Dorians; Elis falls to the share of the Aetolians, who had accompanied
the former. The Achaeans expelled, in their turn expel the Ionians and
settle in the country since called Achaia; the fugitive Ionians are
received by their ancient kinsmen the Athenians.--But among the
consequences of this migration of the Hellenic races must be reckoned
likewise the establishment of Greek colonies in Asia Minor; an
occurrence of the highest importance to the ulterior development of the
nation. This colonization was commenced by the Aeolian Hellenes, whose
example was soon after followed by the Ionians, and even by the Dorians.
For the history of these colonies, see the following section.
3. Although the effect of these migrations and wars, in which the ruder
tribes oppressed the more civilized, must inevitably have been, not only
to interrupt the progress of civilization, but even almost entirely to
annihilate it, yet in this universal movement the foundation was laid
of that constitution of things which afterwards existed in Greece. The
tribes which had migrated, as well as those which had been expelled,
remained at first under the dominion of their hereditary princes, some
for a longer, others for a shorter time. In the two centuries, however,
immediately subsequent to the migrations, B. C. 1100-900, republican
constitutions took the place of hereditary clanship in all the Grecian
countries, the distant Epirus excepted. These republics continued to
exist amid the various revolutions which happened; and the love of
political freedom, deeply impressed on the minds of the people,
constituted from this time the principal feature in the national
character.
4. The sequel proves, that the principal cause of this change so
important for Greece,--this change, by which her future internal policy
was for ever determined, originated in the progress made by the newly
come tribes towards civic life, and consequently at the same time
towards national civilization. In this newly constituted order of
things, each city, with the territory around it, formed a separate
state, and framed its own constitution; hence there arose as many free
states as cities.
The notion that Greece contained the same number of states as
countries is completely false, although it cannot be denied that
the mode of expression in most writings upon Greek history seems to
authorize the assertion. It is true that some of those countries,
such as Attica, Megaris, Laconia, may be each regarded as a
separate state, because each constituted the territory of one city.
The others, however, such as Arcadia, Boeotia, etc. did not each
form one state, but comprised as many separate states as there were
free and independent cities, each of which, with its territory,
formed one. Still, however, it must be observed, (_a_) that the
natural ties of kindred subsisted; Arcadians, Boeotians, etc. spoke
of one another as countrymen. (_b_) Voluntary connections were
entered into between different cities, and sometimes all the cities
of a country, as, for instance, in Achaia, so that the whole formed
one confederation; each individual city nevertheless still
preserved its own system of laws and government. Again, (_c_) in
consequence of a greater share of power, one city assumed a sort of
dominion over the other; as, for instance, that of Thebes over the
Boeotian cities. This dominion, however, was always precarious, and
depended upon the state of affairs. (_d_) It must likewise be
observed, that the constitution of each separate city underwent
many changes, wrought generally by influential citizens, (tyrants,)
who not only possessed themselves of the supreme power, but also
contrived frequently to make it for some time hereditary in their
families. Every one will easily discern that the above are the
fundamental principles of Greek history, which cannot be too
clearly conceived, or too correctly defined; since it is
self-evident what a wide field was by such a constitution of things
thrown open to practical politics. The more improbable the
attainment of fixed constitutions in the separate cities was, the
more frequent must have been the political attempts; (attempts
facilitated by the narrow extent of the state;) and the more
frequently those attempts failed, the more extensive in this
intellectual people became the mass of political ideas; the results
of which in later times were the legislative codes of Solon and
others.
5. Although Greece was thus parcelled out into a number of small states,
united by no common political bond, yet there existed a certain unity of
the Hellenic race, a certain national spirit: this was produced in part
by national festivals and games, occurring at stated periods, among
which those in honour of Jupiter at Olympia were the chief. The nation
at these appeared in all its splendour; and all Hellenes, but no others,
were allowed to join in them. This union, too, was promoted by the
extension of the Amphictyonic council: and the reason why this last
institution was not followed by all the consequences which might have
been expected from it, may perhaps be found in what naturally takes
place in every great confederation whenever any of the component states
become too powerful.
The Amphictyonic council was certainly not a states-general, in
which all national affairs were discussed. Its immediate office was
to attend to the temples and the oracles of Delphi. But then it
must be observed, 1st, that from this council originated the
Grecian ideas of the law of nations; over the preservation of which
the Amphictyons watched. 2. In consequence of its political
influence on the oracle, this council, in certain cases, was
enabled to take a share in the affairs of different states. 3. The
Amphictyons always formed a national institution, since none but
Hellenes were admitted.
ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens federatifs, et de la
legislation de Crete_, Paris, 1796. One of the most invaluable
inquiries, not only into the institutions of the Amphictyons, but
also into other matters of Grecian history connected with them.
6. Among the different states of Greece, Sparta and Athens, even at this
period, became celebrated, not only for their greater power, but also
for their superior constitutions and their laws: and though it may not
perhaps be strictly true, that the history of the rest of Greece is
connected with that of these two cities, yet they certainly possess the
highest claim to our attention.
7. History of Sparta. The Achaeans at first were governed by princes of
the house of Perseus, but after Menelaus's accession to the throne in
virtue of his wife, by princes of the house of Pelops. When the latter
had been expelled by the Dorians, Laconia fell by lot to the sons of
Aristodemus, Procles and Eurysthenes, between whose families the royal
power was divided, so that two kings constantly reigned in common, one
from each family.
Families of the Proclidae and Aegidae; the latter so called from Agis,
the son and successor of Eurysthenes.
# J. C. F. MANSO, _An Essay on the History and Constitution of
Sparta_, Leipzig, 1800 sqq. 3 vols. The most important work upon
this subject, and which likewise contains much information upon
various points of Grecian history connected with it.
CRAGIUS, _De Republica Lacedaemoniorum_, 1642.
MEURSIUS, _De regno Laconico_; and _Miscellanea Laconica_. Both
laborious compilations.
8. The Dorians now gradually conquered, and established themselves in
many cities of the peninsula; forming, if not the whole population, at
least the only part of it that enjoyed any power, as the Achaeans that
remained were reduced to slavery. No long time, however, elapsed ere the
city of Sparta usurped an authority over the whole country, which it
ever afterwards preserved; the other towns, formerly considerable,
becoming unfortified, defenceless, and insignificant.
Relation between the Spartan citizens of the capital as a ruling
body, and the Lacedaemonians, or [Greek: perioikoi], inhabitants of
the country, as subjects who paid tribute and military service. Even
in the time of Agis, the successor of Eurysthenes, this subjection
was effected by force; the inhabitants of Helos were made slaves, as
a punishment for their opposition; while the others, by the
sacrifice of their political freedom, preserved their personal
liberty, however confined it might be.
9. The history of the two following centuries, to the time of Lycurgus,
exhibits nothing but the repeated wars of the Spartans with their
neighbours the Argives; their domestic broils, occasioned by the too
unequal division of property, by the feuds, and the diminished power of
the kings, and which lasted until Lycurgus, the uncle and guardian of
the minor king, Charilaus, about the year 880, gave to Sparta that
constitution to which she was principally indebted for her subsequent
splendour.
_Illustration of the principal features in the Spartan constitution._
Some preliminary observations are necessary. (_a_) As the legislation
of Lycurgus occurred at so early a period, and as his laws were not
written, but conveyed in apophthegms, ([Greek: rhetrai],) which
were confirmed by the oracle of Delphi, many things of later origin
have been attributed to Lycurgus. (_b_) Much that is rightly
attributed to him was not original, but deduced from ancient Dorian
institutions, which being now upon the decline, were reestablished
by force of law. Hence it follows, that the legislation of Lycurgus
must naturally have had many points of resemblance with that of the
Cretans, likewise of Dorian origin, although much, as we are told,
was directly borrowed from them. (_c_) The principal object of the
laws of Lycurgus was to ensure the existence of Sparta by creating
and supporting a vigorous and uncorrupted race of men. Hence those
laws had a more peculiar reference to private life and physical
education, than to the constitution of the state, in which the
legislator appears to have introduced but few alterations.
In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had
hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the
Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from
the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war
and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus
is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],)
consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than
sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and
were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether
the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally
instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question
impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great
power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as
the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the
time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the
popular assemblies, convened according to the division into
[Greek: phylas] and [Greek: obas], at which none but Spartans could
assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or
reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.
In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the
Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with
respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply
impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his
country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience.
Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans,
and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians; permission being given to dispose
of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The
removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly
by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the
citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were
settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in
relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was
so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand
political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens.
4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under
the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded
nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had
the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it
is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan
constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult
and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which
present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject.
Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,)
without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the
constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon
after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be
expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the
centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth,
whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man,
impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of
agriculture were left to the care of slaves.
Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.
HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat.
Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of
DE PAUW.
10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans
with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly
the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an
old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal
division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless
evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by
the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious
multitude by oracular responses and interpretations.
Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene,
783-745.
First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the
frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the
Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to
the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues
of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution,
according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as
vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the
quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The
power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular
assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to
them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a
vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and
Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to
which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of
maintaining domestic tranquillity.
Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the
command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of
Tyrtaeus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was
terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian
territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered
inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves.
11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by
these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before
it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps
to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at
the expense of the Argives and Arcadians.
Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for
the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession
of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation,
about 550.
12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give
rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a
long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But
no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of
his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians,
than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The
Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part,
although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of
Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in
Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political
relations before unknown.
13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important
rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the
state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation
and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other
parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured
the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of
which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most
profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so
perspicuously as the historian might wish.
The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the
works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:
W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically
considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history.
CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful
chronological essay.
1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens
as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father
Aegeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as
that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles,
([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: georgoi],) and
mechanics: ([Greek: demiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our
memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an
earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus
was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since,
instead of the four districts, ([Greek: demoi],) hitherto
independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as
the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of
the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the
last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued
Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068.
2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus,
thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last,
Alcmaeon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance,
but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek:
hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the
migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See
below.
3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between
752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This
period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.
4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly
chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings,
and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of
the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes
above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them,
or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an
oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome,
immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and
the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble
families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears
only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by
its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of
the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to
the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon
themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the
purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for
commotion. The political factions of the Pediaei, of the Diacrii,
and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the
neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a
conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by
Solon.
14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to
whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He
was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the
constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed
this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country.
_Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main
object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however
introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the
statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for
the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novae tabulae,) not so
much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a
rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal
liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to
the constitution and in reference to private life and private
rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the
people by means of divisions: according to property into four
classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of
500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the
Zeugitae, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly
revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according
to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four,
and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a
hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but
citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of
state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a
right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons
annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not
permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at
the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek:
eponumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek:
polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai].
Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boule],)
which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken
from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each
ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a
rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon
office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on
every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons
until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the
people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the
right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklesiai]) of confirming the
laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs
referred to them by the council, and likewise the public
distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to
Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that
tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the
aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not
only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was
charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship
upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the
prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been
approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might
easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might
at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown
the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles.
This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a
deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon
is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm
of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent
citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private
life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded
polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as
subordinate to polity.
SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation
and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law.
CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isaeo caeterisque
oratoribus Graecis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a
principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it
requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as
it was connected with government by clans or families.
An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found
in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth.
15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not
followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that
the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the
aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter,
Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the
state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of
Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the
frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an
usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a
worse tyrant than Pisistratus!
First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a
body guard; flight of the Alcmaeonidae under Megacles. Pisistratus
expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his
matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His
second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation;
obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of
his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmaeonidae into Macedonia, where
they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is
succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly
until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton.
The exiled Alcmaeonidae, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over
the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they
take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies
over to the Persians.
16. This return of the Alcmaeonidae was followed by a change in the
constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of
quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased
the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to
five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of
their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians
and Chalcidians, and aided by Aegina, sought to reestablish monarchy in
Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and
afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of
the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an
additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit,
Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom
carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity
which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the
Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever
have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained.
17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few
data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end
of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves
above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian,
the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more
than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens
had to contend with Megara and Aegina. Sparta and Athens had,
nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more
extended territory than any other of the great cities.
_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._
I. _Within the Peloponnesus._
_a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or
hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia;
the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors
kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in
the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of
Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not
suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably
indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its
king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between
the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the
second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II.
having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by
his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia
now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities
with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea
were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of
control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their
independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the
constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of
the people, ([Greek: demiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boule].)
The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no
general confederation united them.
# See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791.
_b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of
Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as
those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian
state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who
exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his
successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose
sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the
Dorians.--In Mycenae, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne
was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the
Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then
belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by
Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia
Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since
it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops,
as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably
to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos
fell to the share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the
country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son
of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of
that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984
the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a
republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of
which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in
the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boule],) of a college of eighty
citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoekonta],) and of magistrates, who bore
the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a
body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among
themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek:
artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there
were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north
Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The
two last preserved their independence; but Mycenae was destroyed by
the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly
transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised
the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the
southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein.
_c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian
migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at
that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The
Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging
to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of
that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After
the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the
Bacchiadae, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took
possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing
annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus
got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander;
both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and
cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew
Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted
their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the
republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth
assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the
government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state;
for even the Bacchiadae, at least some of them, were merchants.--The
Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic
and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for
such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages,
particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times;
but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens,
and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be
considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west
were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east
Potidaea: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of
independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so
doing.
From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of
protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval
power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave
battle to the Corcyraeans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by
land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign
subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to
pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in
the domestic wars of Greece.
_d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos,
as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and
princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it
probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were
made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the
Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan
war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian
irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon,
which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the
kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the
constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as
usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual.
Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom
was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600.
After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered
from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was
during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the
Achaean league.
_e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which
till then had borne the name of Aegialus, was taken possession of by
Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from
their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the
hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achaeans,
driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of
Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the
land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to
his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that
race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of
monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small
republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each
of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had
democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league,
founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the
policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this
dissolution gave rise to the _Achaean_ league, of such high
importance in subsequent times. The Achaeans lived in peace and
happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the
Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states:
their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by
several other Grecian cities.
_f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of
Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their
ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes,
Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It
appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms,
since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which
however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually
reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration
the Aetolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their
chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient
inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of
Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as
the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which
Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her
from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although
she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for
precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power
supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the
charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicae). These
magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to
ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed
with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a
senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for
life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean
constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which
time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets.
II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._
_a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state
generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at
least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous
to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their
last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of
magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian
irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by
Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently
reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the
Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a
circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara
supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many
subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both
by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the
Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after
the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once
more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of
democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war,
in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the
character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information
respecting its internal organization.
_b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in
Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled
Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the
guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family,
and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants,
who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the
greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian
mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laius, Eteocles, and
Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the
Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in
Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the
land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Aeolians of those
quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was
abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states
as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent
were the towns of Plataeae, Thespiae, Tanagra, and Chaeronea, each
of which had its own separate district and peculiar form of
government; but all those constitutions appear to have been
commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such
had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a
legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this
individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as
the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious
democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were,
however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood
Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a
right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to
the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Plataeae in
particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were
decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the
four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in
conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of
the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The
great extent and population of their territory might have enabled
the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had
they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by
the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which
naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of
Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men
was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles.
_c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said,
from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign
power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but
the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains
undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to
the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged
war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never
mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory
must have formed but one independent state. To that state,
however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did
not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the
harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became
opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this
state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the
Crissaeans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against
them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of
Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred
glebe of Delphi.
_d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the
Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of
Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in
subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the
date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought
about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained
politically distinct. The Locri Ozolae, west of Phocis, possessed
the most extensive territory; each city of which stood
independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The
country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district
appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization,
as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we
know nothing.
_e._ Aetolia. The Aetolians remained the most rude and uncivilized
of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of
freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea
and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes,
Aetolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the
history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire
any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various
insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered
themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose
of carrying on a war with the Achaeans. The earlier period of
their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of
such an union; their political constitution in those times is
wholly unknown.
_f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of
Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the
Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of
this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca.
When and how a republican government was introduced among the
Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we
know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time
is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of
which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those
cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out
of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period,
grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos
Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long
time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from
Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven
out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought
assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of
Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which
thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and
Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with
Ambracia.
III. _Northern Greece._
_a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece,
may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the
history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was
that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here
likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age
Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary
princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were
among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period
subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly
must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of
the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner
in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that
can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the
Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they
were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities,
Pherae and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is
closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of
arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it
almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the
Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadae; a family
who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated
by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power
until the Macedonian period.--In Pherae there arose about the year
380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not
only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring
barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and
successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus,
Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa
by the Aleuadae, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards
worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of
his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and
Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but
were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadae, deposed by
Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at
intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as
_Pharsalus_, etc.
_b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly
Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of
the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the
Aeacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek
family was the only one that held the kingly power for a
permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the
Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the
whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the
Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover
the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state,
generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to
the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed
with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia
itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and
some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be
mighty conquerors. See below.
IV. _Grecian Islands._
Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the
Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as
occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not
take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants,
such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and
the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more
extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally
arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those
little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The
smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small
independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole
island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to
exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had
by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate
Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea,
these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated
little better than subjects, except that their political
constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian
coast, the most remarkable in history are the following:
_a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power
and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry
which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the
principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the
time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her
power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120
galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been
aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a
democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal
commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.
_b._ Aegina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration,
occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off
the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and
navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Aegina was for a
long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled
her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war.
Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer
support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens;
and although subsequently she made another stand for independence,
458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither
must it be forgotten, that Aegina suffered much, even before the
Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of
party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic
factions.
C. O. MUELLER, _Aegineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains
not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and
arts.
_c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and
Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic
constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution
was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the
opulent, (Hippobatae;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis.
After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which
drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions.
The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the
Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever
ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity
presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the
island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in
the Peloponnesian war.
_d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign
of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these
islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders,
belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most
important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under
the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an
extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for
the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and
for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it
afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under
the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution
of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of
the same name as the island which constituted its territory.
_e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but
of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with
whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Aeolian stock. In the earlier
periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were
Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island;
his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed
Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne:
the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican
form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was
powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his
fleets purged the Aegaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and
ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the
Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta
by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not
belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of
Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing
more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which
in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the
proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed
to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the
kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal
commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed,
even under a republican form of government. Those commotions
originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina
and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war,
shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to
one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted
by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities
of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the
country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it
senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten
censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these
cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with
the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans
against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with
one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily
contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise
their national character.
MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious
compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject
by the inscriptions published in
CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticae_; 1728, folio. A work which has been
made use of by
ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.)
The principal work upon Crete.
# C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history,
etc. of this island, 1823.
_f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of
mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their
descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out
of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the
city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There
can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a
long period the dominant race in the island; since in the
flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their
oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition
against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present
day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that
time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close
connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the
Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms
afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of
which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis,
about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses,
525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection,
the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian
dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections
against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now
become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus
joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which
afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was
frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by
Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who
died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out,
but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449.
Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,)
who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in
the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was
obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every
thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in
the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the
Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger
Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and
under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but
matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of
the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom
they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and
thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian
monarchy.
2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._
To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events
connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be
here carried on through the subsequent period.
RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'etablissement des Colonies
Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on
the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later
Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is
much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is
not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.
# D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to
the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of
the subject.
ST. CROIX, _De l'etat et du sort des Colonies des anciens
peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important
enquiries.
1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks:
these colonies became so important in various respects, that an
acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding
the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the
civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately
connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as
to have the greatest influence on political history.
2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are
those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the
Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that
before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some
Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies
however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that
they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the
Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes,
to which we now allude.
3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece,
their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the
Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal
colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the
coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular
settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of
most other countries.
4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives,
being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of
an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was
always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former
was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the
mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of
such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In
fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade,
even when that was not the sole object of their foundation.
5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities
was generally determined by the same causes that led to their
foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent
or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was
naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for
the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the
mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very
independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in
countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate,
and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce,
must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic
race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and
wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the
ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed
among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had
each its own peculiar form of government.
6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the
most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor,
extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever
since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known,
Hellenes of the three great families, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had
planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here
likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian
civilization, of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric,
expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother
country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated
taste.
1. The Aeolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124:
they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration,
having been established during that great movement in Greece. The
Pelopidae, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son
Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais,
successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land,
divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some
Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the
coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence
derived the appellation of Aeolis. They moreover possessed the
islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land,
in the quarter named from them Aeolis, they erected twelve cities,
the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter,
however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their
chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited
five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other
colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as
mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and
possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information,
however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to
enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders,
which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of
unlimited power, under the title of Aesymnetae. These were elected
sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most
celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished
about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaeus. The
Aeolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with
the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and
destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years
afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its
flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to
acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the
islands. The Aeolian cities were not leagued together by any
permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in
common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was
the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and
formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to
Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian
war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the
Athenians.
2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later
period than those of the Aeolians; like them, however, they were a
consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of
Peloponnesus by the Achaeans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence,
sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded
by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus.
They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean
Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the
southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which,
together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the
name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land;
namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomene,
Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the
islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary,
the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale.
Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate
upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still
be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This
independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of
the Mermnadae, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were
compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian
rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of
government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay
tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering
themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history
in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece.
The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period
republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by
continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns
situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus,
Ephesus, and Phocaea. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It
had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians;
but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most
flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the
latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras
against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in
496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour.
Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to
Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade
was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose
shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting,
according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of
these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade
in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on
by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into
the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her
naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once,
to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred
sail.--Phocaea. The flourishing period of this establishment was
contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the
Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocaeans, rather than submit to the
Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and
migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented
of their resolution and returned. Phocaea had the most extensive
trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what
the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far
as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and
Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for
instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all,
Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city
was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently
occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the
time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560.
The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the
hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the
magistrates, ([Greek: epikletoi]): and the family which had once
possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was
not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocaea and
Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in
355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more
sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to
have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocaea
had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus
was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on
the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for
its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of
the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea
and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant,
having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession
of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos
became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a
democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her
troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely
inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the
Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so
powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras,
ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After
the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league,
from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412.
The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those
islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to
inflate them with overweening ambition.
F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to.
3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the
southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but
were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and,
no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians
appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the
islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they
erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city
of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and
Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one
common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they
celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies.
Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the
confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period,
although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to
violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted
into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to
the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names
familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have
grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the
irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its
flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no
period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the
Aeolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.
7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Maeotis,
were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were
colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all
of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each
cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth
and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only
sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the
whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian
sea; that is, to great Bukharia.
On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and
Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of
bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful
and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the
Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of
the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was
Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the
Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was
Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient
proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the
establishment of colonies.
HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duae_, 1809. The first
of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of
Byzantium.
The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of
Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place
preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and
revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic
factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained
the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant,
and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boule?]) the family of the
tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he
himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In
Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian
settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the
sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to
about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus,
and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from
which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish
([Greek: pelamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Maeotis, spread
along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In
Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared
the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of
Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal
mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the
staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the
Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapaeum, capital
city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among
whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350,
are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates
the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the
northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of
the same name at the bottom of the Palus Maeotis. Olbia was situated
at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in
particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade,
which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was
extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western
coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less
notoriety.
8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Aegaean sea, was
likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and
especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the
Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their
dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter
were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the
jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang
up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip.
On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of
Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos,
Cardia, and Aegospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and
Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance,
however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis,
Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidaea. The first of these towns, founded about
B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it
in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the
same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432,
the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook
their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus
derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in
the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of
Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share
in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a
flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon,
and destroyed.--Potidaea was a colony of Corinth, from which it
received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidemiourgoi],) having
become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in
431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were
expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now
became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by
Philip in 358.
9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost
without exception, made at a later period than those in the Aegean and
Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour;
and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable:
these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in
wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by
the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The
foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650;
consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had
already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack
of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for
emigration.
1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and
important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they
extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples.
These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achaean, and
Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political
characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being
generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must
be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions
which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible
to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the
earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies
Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin were Sybaris and Croton,
together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum,
Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and
Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where
Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch
settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri
Ozolae, may be regarded as an Aeolian city. The most remarkable of
these cities in respect of general history are:
_a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It
waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the
Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and
most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of
Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of
wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the
national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence
until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the
Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate
aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a
democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions.
Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boule],) without whose consent
war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot,
half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons.
Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoraean
Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head
of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme
magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form
until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly
corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility.
_b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achaeans, under the guidance of
Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to
very great power during the very first century of its existence;
since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with
probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on
foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they
there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any
length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces,
they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original
constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are
unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was
the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton,
but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher
arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the
league or secret association named after him; the object of which
was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities,
but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This
reform and influence of the Pythagoraeans lasted about thirty years,
when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a
secret association founded with a political view. Probably about
510 the Pythagoraeean league was broken asunder by the democratic
faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not
only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the
supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders,
however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achaeans; and the
Achaean colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities,
but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of
Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already
recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this
league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400.
After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna
Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by
Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles.
Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on
Rome.
_c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the
Achaeans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed
till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its
foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and
luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites
became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of
her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable
territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and
twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the
soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of
citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that
Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into
the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by
Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably
derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa
and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with
certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a
moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession
of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates,
who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the
Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled
between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the
Sybarites and the destruction of their city.
_d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by
Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a
circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the
citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433,
the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The
constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon
converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands
having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had
joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled,
and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new
colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the
adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies
of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390.
The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the
assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines
an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman
dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars,
was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.
_e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to
dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most
other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various
times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of
several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683,
by the Locri Ozolae. After suffering much from violent internal
commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose
institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The
constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the
hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called
cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably
elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or
partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was,
as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri
was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities
above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good
manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with
their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till
the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse,
fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his
mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was
brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347,
the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward
maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus,
who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put
the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the
city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time
Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered
much in the second Punic war.
_f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the
government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands
of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian
families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an
oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole
dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having
been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were
quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a
period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was
captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in
some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a
Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the
place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with
death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of
dependence upon Rome.
_g._ Cumae, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This
city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and
prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy
respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its
colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this
constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus;
but restored after his assassination. Cumae was subject to repeated
annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was
invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474
she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the
Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in
345. Cumae, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli,
preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion.
HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Graecarum per magnam Graeciam et
Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol.
vii.
2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and
southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period
as those of Magna Graecia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly
to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris,
from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acrae, Casmenae, and
Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from
Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded
Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that
name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its
occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by
Cumae, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylae. The most
remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:
_a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and
consequently that concerning which our information is the most
copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a
long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends
nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From
the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred
and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic,
but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of
power: yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 665, Casmenae, 645, and
Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and
Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates,
sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina,
497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic
troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent,
([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the
democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to
Casmenae, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored
to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From
Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers,
Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse.
Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of
Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by
increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other
Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the
Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early
period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to
justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece,
when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent
reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his
life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the
hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by
his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign
of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a
fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's
power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in
Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose
original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged
against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidaeus, tyrants of Agrigentum:
after the expulsion of Thrasidaeus, that town forms an alliance with
Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumae, wins
a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by
his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months,
was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate
cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of
Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405.
Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and
the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many
commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new
citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their
property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now
at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and
soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new
democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident
to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a
remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the
mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in
closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the
Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the
arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the
subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval
victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the
Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding
with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs
the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the
disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the
total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the
power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes
place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently
adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates
were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had
reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee
over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to
Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after
his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences
between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with
Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this
war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid
strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of
Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even
Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within
Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded
first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after
supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405.
4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius
I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela
and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian
army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is
agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall
retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela
and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of
Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon
Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and
the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against
Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before
had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague
once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his
predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till
392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of
Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate
Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief
seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions,
is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383,
against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed
by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption
of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then
had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and
a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the
Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it
ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these
wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most
powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by
poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one
of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his
step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache.
Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to
Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind
had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He
returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of
Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to
stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments
dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he
himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is
compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops
garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch
back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore
the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit,
being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government
till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of
Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence,
Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the
city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas
of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who
leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable
attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother
city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a
small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he
beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to
deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to
Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the
republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of
Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian
cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the
Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans
Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that
history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of
Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus,
disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of
the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect
that liberty could again be established among them, without the
personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that
befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles
assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal
of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and
subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in
which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a
bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his
fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war
until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily
recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are
consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what
they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are
confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the
Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In
the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Maenon,
seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies
over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when,
in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets
with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the
mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of
Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of
Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy;
that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as
Lilybaeum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and
disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The
Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal
family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he
is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war
between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with
Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a
long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under
this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and
prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect.
After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant;
Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's
intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by
contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates
and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the
city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of
Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a
practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent
so many and such various revolutions?
The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by
partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from
Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan.
# A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the
overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816.
MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the
history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would
seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an
impartial spirit.
_b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of
Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its
first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say,
Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its
foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom
noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534.
He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by
Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of
Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned
than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of
Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he
routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son
and successor, Thrasydaeus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470;
whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a
democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which
Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest
degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and
luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public
monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was
indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with
Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions
hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by
envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with
Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of
Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she
recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was,
in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able
to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the
death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took
possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas
of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum
was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot; but was taken by
the Romans as early as 262.