The LORD ASHBURTON.--The subjects for our consideration to-day are of
so interesting a character, that I should be doing unwisely if I were
to occupy your time beyond a few moments, in making such preliminary
observations as are expected from your President.
The papers which are about to be read relate altogether to the physical
and geographical facts upon which the proposition has been based for
the extension of the Electric Telegraph line between this country
and America, by the route of the Færöe Islands, Iceland, Greenland,
and Labrador. It comes especially within the province of the Royal
Geographical Society to receive and to record those facts as purely
belonging to the science of Physical Geography. We are so fortunate
as to have a great many labourers working for us in the field of
geography; some who have been sent out by the Society, like Speke and
Livingstone, are doing our work, and at the same time doing work for
many other societies. We have labourers also not less diligent, and
not less useful to us as well as to the world: they are those who are
occupied in other pursuits, but who come to us to record the facts they
have observed, and to enable us to treasure them up as the material
for future research.
Among the labours of this class, not the least valuable are the
researches which we are met to record to-day. They were undertaken
not for the purpose of acquiring geographical knowledge simply, but
in order to carry out the great and beneficent scheme of connecting
the two continents of Europe and America by means of telegraphic
communication. Yet, at the same time that we receive these facts, we
must take care not to suffer ourselves to be led away into that which
is altogether out of our province, an attempt to pronounce any judgment
upon the value of that scheme. That is a question for others to decide,
not for us.
Therefore, whilst we ourselves may look upon the facts that may be
presented to us with philosophic calmness, there may, on the other
hand, be those who are so deeply interested in the material success
of electric telegraph connection with America, as to be drawn into an
eager contest to set up the merits of one scheme in preference to those
of another. Should there be any gentlemen present prepared to carry
these feelings into the discussion, I feel assured they will remember
this, that it is those who are beaten that generally complain, and
that the man who is the winner at chess is not the man to throw the
pieces at his adversary’s head. I believe we shall have no symptoms
of distress exhibited; that we shall not have anybody manifesting the
conviction passing in his mind that he is worsted in the argument.
I will now call upon Sir Leopold M‘Clintock to read the first paper
that is set down on the list.
SURVEY OF THE DEEP SEAS, AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS; BY CAPTAIN SIR
F. LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK, R.N., LL.D., F.R.G.S., LATE COMMANDING HER
MAJESTY’S SHIP “BULLDOG.”
SIR LEOPOLD M‘CLINTOCK then read the following paper:
In compliance with a request from the promoters of the North Atlantic
Telegraph Route, her Majesty’s Government dispatched the “Bulldog”
under my command, on the 1st of July last, with orders to ascertain
the depth of the ocean, and as far as possible the nature of the
bottom, between the Færöe Islands and Iceland, Iceland and Greenland,
and between Greenland and Hamilton Inlet on the Labrador coast. I was
also directed, should my time permit, to make a slight examination of
that inlet--being British territory;--but in no other instance did my
duty extend to the examination of any of the coasts I was required to
approach.
With the exception of Hamilton Inlet, none of the positions for the
shore-ends of the proposed lengths of cable were suggested when I
sailed from England. The duty of selecting them was subsequently
entrusted, by the promoters of this Telegraph Route, to Captain Allen
Young, in the “Fox”; consequently, my lines of soundings have not
in every instance been carried in from the deep sea, so as to unite
exactly with the coast explorations of Captain Young.
Although my visit to the Færöe Islands was not for the purpose of
making any examination of their shores, yet I could not fail to observe
that a submarine cable, in connection with the main island, and a
land-wire across it, could be maintained with perfect ease.
In my official report to the Secretary of the Admiralty, written
previously to my return to England, and which I shall have frequent
occasion to quote, I have remarked that on landing at Thorshaven, the
chief town of the islands, I observed that the little bays near it
afforded ample shelter and security for any cable landed within them.
The best harbour in the group is Westmanshaven, but it is situated in
a channel through which the tide runs fully six miles an hour, and for
this reason it would not be advisable to bring the cable there.
I was informed that the channel between the islands of Stromöe and
Osteröe is almost obstructed in the middle, being contracted to fifty
or eighty yards; hence there can be but a very slight flow of tide
through it, and upon this account I would seek a landing-place for
the Iceland cable near to the north-west outlet of this channel, at
Haldervig or Eide.
Leaving the Færöe Isles on the 6th of July, we sounded across towards
Ingolfshofde upon the S.E. shore of Iceland, a distance of 280 miles,
and found the depth to be generally less than 300 fathoms, the greatest
depth being 680 fathoms. The specimens of the bottom consisted,
chiefly, of fine sand, or mud and broken shells, and in two instances,
of minute volcanic debris; the temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms
below the surface scarcely varied from 46°.
The depth of water upon this section of the telegraph route is so
moderate, that it would be an easy matter to lay down a cable between
Færöe and Iceland.
Since my return I find that Beru Fiord, upon the east coast of
Iceland, has been examined with a view to its selection as the
landing-place for a cable; it is about eighty miles to the north-east
of Ingolfshofde, and has the advantage of being somewhat nearer to
Færöe.
On the 11th of July I arrived at Reikiavik, the chief town of Iceland;
an expected supply of coals had not arrived, therefore I remained only
three days, but returned again in October, when my stay extended from
the 19th to the 28th. During these visits I obtained some interesting
information about its physical aspect, its climatic condition, and
the movements of the ice in the adjacent seas. I was informed that a
telegraphic wire could not be carried along the south shore eastward of
Portland, on account of the many wide rivers which have their sources
amidst the mountains and glaciers of the interior. These rivers are
much swollen in spring, when they carry down vast quantities of ice,
and sometimes change their beds; but to the north of the central
mountains no such difficulty would be experienced.
The east and west coasts are very seldom visited by drift-ice, not
oftener than seven or eight times in each century, whilst it is only
upon two or three of these occasions that the drift of Arctic ice is
sufficiently extensive to reach the south coast. True icebergs are
_never_ seen; the masses sometimes mistaken for them are small enough
to float in comparatively shallow water, so that a cable would remain
undisturbed at the bottom, its shore end being carried into a fiord.
Faxe Bay, on the south-west coast, enjoys a remarkable exemption from
drift-ice; the last mention of its appearance within it is as long ago
as 1683; neither does it freeze over--merchant vessels trade there
throughout the winter. A cable could therefore be landed in this
bay with perfect ease and security, and probably to the westward of
Reikiavik.
The entire population of Iceland scarcely exceeds 60,000 souls.
Education is perhaps more generally diffused than in any other country,
and the topographical maps recently published by the Danish government
delineate its features most fully, and with the greatest possible
accuracy, and would greatly facilitate the survey of a land-line.
Although Iceland is considerably larger than Ireland, and is of
volcanic origin throughout, yet for long ages the disturbance
occasioned by its subterranean fires has been limited almost
exclusively to its south-western quarter, where Hecla is occasionally,
and Katla has been very recently, in an active state, and where
Geysers and boiling springs are numerous; nor is the adjacent sea
free from like convulsions. In 1783, a submarine volcano burst forth
in a probable depth of 200 fathoms, about thirty miles off the S.W.
extreme of the island; by it a new islet was formed; it soon after
subsided, but still exists under water as a dangerous sunken rock. This
volcano was again active in 1830;[1] its action appears to have been
very limited, and within four leagues of it stands the time-honoured
“Grenadiers Cap,” a basaltic column, eighty feet above the sea; within
500 or 600 yards of this most remarkable rock the “Bulldog” sounded in
seventy fathoms.
Fortunately the telegraph route is not required to pass, by sea or
land, through any part of this disturbed or suspected area.
Five days of very calm weather enabled us to complete the line of
soundings between Faxe Bay and the south-east coast of Greenland.
The depths generally were very regular, the greatest being 1572
fathoms, and situated in mid-channel; but when within forty miles of
Greenland the depth decreased from 806 fathoms to 228 fathoms, in the
short distance of 3-1/4 geographical miles.
The nature of the bottom was chiefly oaze, that is fine mud partly
consisting of minute organic remains, but near to Iceland, volcanic mud
and sand was more frequently brought up.
The temperature of the sea at 100 fathoms below the surface gradually
diminished from 46° near Iceland, to 39° off the Greenland coast.
Circumstances which it is unnecessary to allude to here prevented me
from commencing, before 18th August, the line of soundings between the
S.W. coast of Greenland, and Hamilton Inlet on the Labrador coast,--a
distance of 550 miles.
The Greenland shore was still blockaded by such a vast accumulation of
drift-ice that we could not approach within 45 miles of it, at which
distance the depth was ascertained to be 1175 fathoms. This line of
soundings to Hamilton Inlet shows that the greatest depth,--which is in
mid-channel,--is 2032 fathoms; and that the decrease is very gradual
until within about 80 miles of Labrador, where there is a change from
about 900 fathoms to 150 fathoms in 7 or 8 miles.
The ocean bed consisted of oaze, but with fewer microscopic organisms
than previously met with, whilst the average temperature of the sea at
100 fathoms below the surface was 40°.
Seven days were all I could devote to the examination of Hamilton
Inlet. Its length was found to be 120 miles, whilst its width varies
from about 15 miles at its mouth, to scarcely half a mile at “the
Narrows,” which are about half way up to its head, and above which it
expands into an inland sea of about 20 miles in width. All this great
inlet was rapidly explored, its main channel from “the Narrows” to
seaward was sounded, and the whole laid down by Mr. Reed, master and
assistant-surveyor, with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes; but
these soundings are not nearly sufficient to meet the requirements
of a cable-route, nor even to decide whether a cable should be landed
there.
We found the depths to be very irregular, and seldom sufficient to
secure a submerged cable from disturbance by icebergs. A perfect survey
is absolutely necessary, and may show that the shallow water and reefs
of rocks which to our imperfect knowledge appeared intricate and
unfavourable, may not only be avoided, but may afford a sure protection
against the intrusion of icebergs within the mouth of the inlet.
There are some small rocky islets off the mouth of this inlet, and of
these the Hern Islets lie nearly in the middle and contract the widest
channel of entrance to about 5 miles; the greatest depth obtained in
this channel was 49 fathoms. Had the depth of water amounted to 70
fathoms in as far as this position, I would not hesitate in pronouncing
favourably of Hamilton Inlet as a terminus to the cable from Greenland.
The greater part of the local information which I obtained here was
kindly furnished by Captain Norman, a Newfoundland merchant who has
traded here each successive summer for 24 years; during the summer he
resides at Indian Harbour, at the north entrance of the inlet, where
there is a secure anchorage for vessels of moderate size. Captain
Norman states that icebergs very rarely enter the mouth of Hamilton
Inlet, and never pass within the Hern Islets; and for these reasons:
1st, that the current which has borne them from the north is here
deflected off-shore by the Esquimaux Islands, and carries them past the
mouth of the inlet; and 2ndly, that the flow of water caused by the
discharge of several large rivers into the inlet, still further aids in
carrying the drift-ice and icebergs out to seaward.
During winter and spring this drifting ice prevents all access to
Labrador, but by June, Hamilton Inlet is usually quite free from it.
From Captain Norman I also learnt that the deepest water along the
coast is off Cape Harrison, and that a large river runs into Byron Bay
adjoining it; moreover, Sloop Harbour (which is close to the river)
is said to be an excellent one. Unfortunately my time was too limited
to admit of any examination of this promising locality. It is very
desirable to obtain more information respecting the ice and icebergs
upon this coast. It could be furnished by the Newfoundland traders and
seal-fishers and perhaps by persons in the employ of Messrs. Hunt,
Henley & Co., of 8, Broad Street Buildings, E.C., a firm which has
maintained an extensive establishment near to Hamilton Inlet for a
very long period, fifty or sixty years I believe. In addition to these
sources of information, there are intelligent Moravian missionaries,
whose settlements on the Labrador coast have existed for more than one
hundred years.
The shores of Hamilton Inlet appear bold, rocky, and almost devoid of
vegetation when viewed from the sea; as we advance up it, the land
becomes lower, the undulations more gentle, verdure and trees appear,
and at its head the whole country is densely covered with spruce, white
pine, and white birch, but the tallest trees do not exceed forty feet.
I was informed that the interior is similarly wooded, and has an
exceedingly scanty population of Indians, allied to the Cree nation;
they all profess Christianity, and are a strictly honest quiet race.
The residents along the shores of this great inlet are of European or
mixed blood, and do not amount to 200 souls. During summer they catch
codfish, herrings, and salmon; and in winter they are occupied in
trapping fur-bearing animals.
At the Hudson Bay trading post upon North-west River, at the head
of the inlet, I met Mr. Smith, the gentleman in charge, who kindly
supplied me with the only information respecting the interior that I
was able to obtain. He seemed to think there would be no difficulty
in carrying a wire from here overland to Mingan, on the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. The Indians frequently travel from one place to the other,
the distance not exceeding 250 miles. Should the cable be taken to
this inlet, I would suggest that it be landed upon the south shore,
to seaward of “the Narrows,” as the tides run through them with very
great velocity. All other parts of the inlet freeze over to a depth
of three feet, for the winters are very severe. The summers, though
short, are no less remarkable for their warmth. At Northwest River
barley and oats ripen, and potatoes and other vegetables grow tolerably
well. Mosquitoes are such an intolerable plague, especially to new
comers, that unless their faces are carefully veiled or smeared with
camphorated oil, brimstone ointment, or dilute creosote, they cannot
either repel or endure their bloodthirsty attacks.
Leaving Labrador on the 17th September, I returned to Greenland for the
purpose of completing such soundings as the drift ice had previously
compelled me to leave undone. Being, moreover, very desirous of meeting
the “Fox,” and of ascertaining from Captain Young where the cables were
to be landed, so that I might continue the deep-sea soundings in to
those positions, I visited the settlement of Julianshaab on the 29th
September, but no information could there be obtained of the “Fox.”
The season was very remarkable for the great quantity of drift ice
which encumbered the shore, and had hitherto prevented vessels from
approaching Julianshaab; in fact, so much ice had not been known for
nearly 30 years.
This coast, I may remark, is usually quite free from ice by September.
Following up my inquiries, I learnt that the climate is not nearly so
severe as is generally supposed, the fiords are only partially frozen
over in winter; a few cows, goats, and poultry are reared: and although
the summers are cold, turnips, spinach, lettuce, and radishes grow in
the open air.
I was informed that the large fiord of Tessermiut, which lies midway
between Julianshaab and Cape Farewell, was the most likely place to
afford security for a cable: that icebergs never came into it, and that
there would be found ample depth of water from it out to sea; also that
there is safe anchorage in a spacious bay near its mouth as well as
high up in the fiord.
On 3rd October I put to sea, intending to sound into Tessermiut
Fiord should the ice permit; but it was with difficulty we got out,
for a S.E. wind had brought up much more ice from Cape Farewell,
and prevented our approaching within 40 miles of Tessermiut or the
adjoining coast; and the ship sustained considerable damage from
unavoidable collisions with the ice before she got clear out to sea.
It is well known that a current from the North Atlantic Ocean bears
along with it all this ice round Cape Farewell, and up the west coast
of Greenland for several hundred miles. It carries the drift-ice for
the most part along the outer islands, and it is only when there is a
strong wind blowing in from the sea, that the ice comes in between the
islands and enters the fiords; it is almost exclusively low or flat ice
which thus drifts in, the larger masses and icebergs, which draw more
water, nearly always keep themselves in the main stream along the outer
islands.
It is evident, that were a cable brought in from the deep water
existing outside and between these islands, and carried sufficiently
far up a deep fiord, its security from icebergs would be insured; and
that to protect the mere shore-end from the ordinary flat ice would be
a matter of no great difficulty.
Since my return to England I have received a letter from the Resident
Inspector of South Greenland, the well known Dr. Rink, whose writings
on Greenland have added so largely to our knowledge of the physical
condition of that great arctic continent. The opinion of such a man
deserves serious attention, since it is scarcely possible to quote a
higher authority upon the point in question. I therefore do so almost
in his own words.
“I have thought much,” he writes, “over the proposed route for the
North Atlantic Telegraph; at first I doubted the possibility of
accomplishing it, but now I am of a contrary opinion. You can lay down
the cable from Iceland round Cape Farewell into some fiord upon the
south-west coast, where ice cannot ground upon it, or touch it except
for a few fathoms out from the shore, and this last part may be easily
protected. But to carry the wire across the interior of Greenland, as
I have heard of, would be impracticable.” This letter was written in
Greenland, before either the “Bulldog” or “Fox” had arrived there,
and experience has since shown the necessity for acting in accordance
with the suggestion of Dr. Rink. The length of cable required to unite
Iceland with West Greenland will be about 800 miles.
Finding that nothing more could be done upon the Greenland coast, I
commenced a line of soundings towards Rockall, but a succession of
tremendous storms and want of fuel prevented the completion of this
service. One of the few casts obtained deserves particular mention; the
depth was first ascertained to be 1260 fathoms: then a sounding machine
was lowered to obtain a specimen of the bottom, and about fifty fathoms
of line more than the depth required was payed overboard, to insure
its being down. On hauling it in, several small star-fishes were found
adhering to that part of the line which had lain upon the bottom! The
nearest land at the time was Iceland, and it was 250 miles distant. I
simply mention this interesting fact, which I witnessed, leaving it to
be enlarged upon by Dr. Wallich, the able naturalist of the Expedition,
who is still employed by the Admiralty in the microscopic examination
of our specimens of the sea-bottom. The result of his investigations
(which will be published hereafter) may be of great importance to
Marine Telegraphy, proving, as it will do, the existence of animal life
at very great depths.
We are aware that the coating of a Mediterranean cable was attacked
by minute creatures allied to the ordinary Teredo,[2] at the depth of
sixty or seventy fathoms, and should it be found that similar boring
animals exist in great depths, it will become imperative to protect the
insulation of the wire against their ravages; but time does not admit
of a digression from the object of this paper, which is simply to lay
before you my experience and opinion with regard to the physical aspect
of the proposed route; it may not, however, be out of place to mention,
that the great pressure exerted at depths approaching to 2000 fathoms
is sufficient to squeeze the tar freely out of rope: could we recover a
cable from these depths, we would find the tar similarly expressed from
its canvas wrappings. If the tar used were of a sufficiently viscid
description to harden and remain coated upon the wrappings, it would
probably afford quite a sufficient protection against these destructive
creatures.
Once laid in deep water, the North Atlantic Cable will probably be more
secure and more durable than any other; as it will lie at the bottom of
a sea where the temperature is unusually low, and where animal life is
proportionately rare.
If, during the coming summer a final selection and survey of a landing
place in Greenland be made, all that will remain to complete the entire
route will be a landing position in Labrador; and that a cable can be
safety landed upon some part of this coast, if not in Hamilton Inlet,
it is hardly possible to doubt.
Judging then from my own experience, and from the facts which the
voyage of the “Bulldog” has brought to light,--many of which are
supported by the most reliable local authorities,--I am of opinion that
with regard to the practicability of laying a North Atlantic cable,
there are no grounds for serious misgivings; on the contrary, nearly
all the information which has so far been ascertained is of a kind
favourable to the accomplishment of the undertaking.
That there is usually impenetrable ice upon the south-west coast of
Greenland for eight months out of the twelve,--(_i.e._ from January
until September,)--we are well aware; and hence originates the chief
difficulty of the route. It is obvious that the Greenland cables cannot
possibly be laid down whilst this ice remains upon the coast; but in
ordinary seasons it does not clear away until Autumn is far advanced,
and stormy weather becomes frequent. This difficulty, I apprehend,
however, is not an insuperable or extraordinary one, since it is common
to all similar operations at sea, requiring for their accomplishment a
like period of four or five consecutive days.
I have assumed that the ice ceases to obstruct the south-west shore of
Greenland about the middle of September; but we can no more predict its
movements, than we can foretel the temperatures of the seasons, and the
winds by which those movements are governed.
Exceptional seasons occur when it would be imprudent to attempt laying
a Greenland cable: also rare seasons when it could be laid as early as
July: again, there are seasons when the icedrifts are detached from
each other so that vessels watching their opportunity may freely pass,
into harbour, or out to sea, during the summer months.
In order to meet these ever-varying circumstances, it is the more
necessary that the utmost caution be observed in all matters connected
with the laying down of the Greenland lengths of the great cable; that
the most suitable steamers be selected, and the highest engineering and
nautical skill be employed.
And that this country possesses all the needful appliances, and the
amount of professional talent requisite for the accomplishment of this
great undertaking, is no more to be doubted, than that she possesses
men of sagacity to appreciate its vast utility, and of commercial
enterprise to bring about so desirable an issue within the next two or
three years.