Thorgest gave chase. They came to blows a short distance from the farm
of Drangar. There two of Thorgest's sons were killed, and certain other
men besides. After this each of them retained a considerable body of men
with him at his home. Styr gave Eric his support, as did also Eyiolf of
Sviney, Thorbiorn, Vifil's son, and the sons of Thorbrand of Alptafirth;
while Thorgest was backed by the sons of Thord the Yeller, and Thorgeir
of Hitardal, Aslak of Langadal, and his son, Illugi. Eric and his people
were condemned to outlawry at Thorsness-thing. He equipped his ship for
a voyage in Ericsvag; while Eyiolf concealed him in Dimunarvag, when
Thorgest and his people were searching for him among the islands. He
said to them that it was his intention to go in search of that land
which Gunnbiorn, son of Ulf the Crow, saw when he was driven out of his
course, westward across the main, and discovered Gunnviorns-skerries.
He told them that he would return again to his friends if he should
succeed in finding that country. Thorbiorn and Eyiolf and Styr
accompanied Eric out beyond the islands, and they parted with the
greatest friendliness. Eric said to them that he would render them
similar aid, so far as it might be within his power, if they should ever
stand in need of his help.
Eric sailed out to sea, from Snaefells-iokul, and arrived at that ice
mountain which is called Blacksark. Thence he sailed to the southward
that he might ascertain whether there was habitable country in that
direction. He passed the first winter at Ericsey, near the middle of the
western settlement.
In the following spring he proceeded to Ericsfirth, and selected a site
there for his homestead. That summer he explored the western uninhabited
region, remaining there for a long time, and assigning many local names
there. The second winter he spent at Ericsholms, beyond Hvarfsgnipa. But
the third summer he sailed northward to Snaefell, and into Hrafnsfirth.
He believed then that he had reached the head of Ericsfirth; he turned
back then, and remained the third winter at Ericsey, at the mouth of
Ericsfirth.
The following summer he sailed to Iceland and landed in Breidafirth. He
remained that winter with Ingolf at Holmlatr. In the spring he and
Thorgest fought together, and Eric was defeated; after this a
reconciliation was effected between them.
That summer Eric set out to colonize the land which he had discovered,
and which he called Greenland, because, he said, men would be the more
readily persuaded thither if the land had a good name. Eric was married
to a woman named Thorhild, and had two sons; one of these was named
Thorstein, and the other Leif. They were both promising men. Thorstein
lived at home with his father, and there was not at that time a man in
Greenland who was accounted of so great promise as he.
Leif had sailed to Norway, where he was at the court of King Olaf
Tryggvason. When Leif sailed from Greenland, in the summer, they were
driven out of their course to the Hebrides. It was late before they got
fair winds thence, and they remained there far into the summer.
Leif became enamoured of a certain woman, whose name was Thorgunna. She
was a woman of fine family, and Leif observed that she was possessed of
rare intelligence. When Leif was preparing for his departure, Thorgunna
asked to be permitted to accompany him. Leif inquired whether she had in
this the approval of her kinsmen. She replied that she did not care for
it. Leif responded that he did not deem it the part of wisdom to abduct
so high-born a woman in a strange country, "and we so few in number."
"It is by no means certain that thou shalt find this to be the better
decision," said Thorgunna. "I shall put it to the proof,
notwithstanding," said Leif. "Then I tell thee," said Thorgunna, "that I
foresee that I shall give birth to a male child; and though thou give
this no heed, yet will I rear the boy, and send him to thee in Greenland
when he shall be fit to take his place with other men. And I foresee
that thou will get as much profit of this son as is thy due from this
our parting; moreover, I mean to come to Greenland myself before the end
comes."
Leif gave her a gold finger-ring, a Greenland Wadmal mantle, and a belt
of walrus tusk.
This boy came to Greenland, and was called Thorgils. Leif acknowledged
his paternity, and some men will have it that this Thorgils came to
Iceland in the summer before the Froda-wonder. However, this Thorgils
was afterward in Greenland, and there seemed to be something not
altogether natural about him before the end came. Leif and his
companions sailed away from the Hebrides, and arrived in Norway in the
autumn.
Leif went to the court of King Olaf Tryggvason. He was well received by
the King, who felt that he could see that Leif was a man of great
accomplishments. Upon one occasion the King came to speech with Leif,
and asked him, "Is it thy purpose to sail to Greenland in the summer?"
"It is my purpose," said Leif, "if it be your will."
"I believe it will be well," answered the King, "and thither thou shalt
go upon my errand, to proclaim Christianity there."
Leif replied that the King should decide, but gave it as his belief that
it would be difficult to carry this mission to a successful issue in
Greenland. The King replied that he knew of no man who would be better
fitted for this undertaking; "and in thy hands the cause will surely
prosper."
"This can only be," said Leif, "if I enjoy the grace of your
protection."
Leif put to sea when his ship was ready for the voyage. For a long time
he was tossed about upon the ocean, and came upon lands of which he had
previously had no knowledge. There were self-sown wheat-fields and vines
growing there. There were also those trees there which are called
"mansur," and of all these they took specimens. Some of the timbers were
so large that they were used in building. Leif found men upon a wreck,
and took them home with him, and procured quarters for them all during
the winter. In this wise he showed his nobleness and goodness, since he
introduced Christianity into the country, and saved the men from the
wreck; and he was called Leif "the Lucky" ever after.
Leif landed in Ericsfirth, and then went home to Brattahlid; he was well
received by everyone. He soon proclaimed Christianity throughout the
land, and the Catholic faith, and announced King Olaf Tryggvason's
messages to the people, telling them how much excellence and how great
glory accompanied this faith.
Eric was slow in forming the determination to forsake his old belief,
but Thiodhild embraced the faith promptly, and caused a church to be
built at some distance from the house. This building was called
Thiodhild's church, and there she and those persons who had accepted
Christianity--and there were many--were wont to offer their prayers.
At this time there began to be much talk about a voyage of exploration
to that country which Leif had discovered. The leader of this expedition
was Thorstein Ericsson, who was a good man and an intelligent, and
blessed with many friends. Eric was likewise invited to join them, for
the men believed that his luck and foresight would be of great
furtherance. He was slow in deciding, but did not say nay when his
friends besought him to go. They thereupon equipped that ship in which
Thorbiorn had come out, and twenty men were selected for the expedition.
They took little cargo with them, naught else save their weapons and
provisions.
On that morning when Eric set out from his home he took with him a
little chest containing gold and silver; he hid this treasure and then
went his way. He had proceeded but a short distance, however, when he
fell from his horse and broke his ribs and dislocated his shoulder,
whereat he cried, "Ai, ai!" By reason of this accident he sent his wife
word that she should procure the treasure which he had concealed--for to
the hiding of the treasure he attributed his misfortune. Thereafter they
sailed cheerily out of Ericsfirth, in high spirits over their plan. They
were long tossed about upon the ocean, and could not lay the course they
wished.
They came in sight of Iceland, and likewise saw birds from the Irish
coast. Their ship was, in sooth, driven hither and thither over the sea.
In autumn they turned back, worn out by toil and exposure to the
elements, and exhausted by their labors, and arrived at Ericsfirth at
the very beginning of winter.
Then said Eric: "More cheerful were we in the summer, when we put out of
the firth, but we still live, and it might have been much worse."
Thorstein answers: "It will be a princely deed to endeavor to look well
after the wants of all these men who are now in need, and to make
provision for them during the winter." Eric answers: "It is ever true,
as it is said, that 'It is never clear ere the winter comes,' and so it
must be here. We will act now upon thy counsel in this matter."
All of the men who were not otherwise provided for accompanied the
father and son. They landed thereupon, and went home to Brattahlid,
where they remained throughout the winter.
MAHOMETANS IN INDIA
BLOODY INVASIONS UNDER MAHMUD A.D. 1000
ALEXANDER DOW
(While Buddhism was giving place to Hinduism in India a new faith had
arisen in Arabia. Mahomet, born A.D. 570, created a conquering religion,
and died in 632. Within a hundred years after his death, his followers
had invaded the countries of Asia as far as the Hindu Kush. Here their
progress was stayed, and Islam had to consolidate itself during three
more centuries before it grew strong enough to grasp the rich prize of
India. But almost from the first the Arabs had fixed eager eyes upon
that wealthy empire, and several premature inroads foretold the coming
storm.
About fifteen years after the death of the Prophet, Othman sent a naval
expedition to Thana and Broach on the Bombay coast. Other raids toward
Sind took place in 662 and 664, with no lasting results.
Hinduism was for a time submerged, but never drowned, by the tide of
Mahometan conquest, which set steadily toward India about A.D. 1000. At
the present day the south of India remains almost entirely Hindu. By far
the greater number of the Indian feudatory chiefs are still under
Brahman influence. But in the northwest, where the first waves of
invasion have always broken, about one-third of the population now
profess Islam. The upper valley of the Ganges boasts a succession of
Mussulman capitals; and in the swamps of Lower Bengal the bulk of the
non-Aryan or aboriginal population have become converts to the Mahometan
religion. The Mussulmans now make fifty-seven millions of the total of
two hundred and eighty-eight millions in India.
The armies of Islam had carried the crescent throughout Asia west of the
Hindu Kush, and through Africa and Southern Europe, to distant Spain and
France, before they obtained a foothold in the Punjab.
The brilliant attempt in 711 to found a lasting Mahometan dynasty in
Sind failed. Three centuries later, the utmost efforts of a series of
Mussulman invaders from the northwest only succeeded in annexing a small
portion of the frontier Punjab provinces.
The popular notion that India fell an easy prey to the Mussulmans is
opposed to the historical facts. Mahometan rule in India consists of a
series of invasions and partial conquests, during eleven centuries from
Othman's raid, about A.D. 647, to Ahmad Shah's tempest of devastation in
1761.
At no time was Islam triumphant throughout all India. Hindu dynasties
always ruled over a large area.
The first collision between Hinduism and Islam on the Punjab frontier
was the act of the Hindus. In 977 Jaipal, the Hindu chief of Lahore,
annoyed by Afghan raids, led his troops through the mountains against
the Mahometan kingdom of Ghazni, in Afghanistan. Subuktigin, the
Ghaznivide prince, after severe fighting, took advantage of a hurricane
to cut off the retreat of the Hindus through the pass. He allowed them,
however, to return to India, on the surrender of fifty elephants and the
promise of one million _dirhams_ [about $125,000].
In 997 Subuktigin died, and was succeeded by his son, Mahmud of Ghazni,
aged sixteen. This valiant monarch, surnamed "the Great," reigned for
thirty-three years, and extended his father's little Afghan kingdom into
a great Mahometan sovereignty, stretching from Persia on the west to far
within the Punjab on the east.)
Mahmud was born about the year 357 of the Hegira--or 350, according to
some authorities--and, as astrologers say, with many happy omens
expressed in the horoscope of his life. Subuktigin, being asleep at the
time of his birth, dreamed that he beheld a green tree springing forth
from his chimney, which threw its shadow over the face of the earth and
screened from the storms of heaven the whole animal creation. This
indeed was verified by the justice of Mahmud; for, if we can believe the
poet, in his reign the wolf and the sheep drank together at the same
brook.
When Mahmud had settled his dispute with his brother Ismail, he hastened
to Balik, from whence he sent an ambassador to Munsur, Emperor of
Bokhara, to whom the family of Ghazni still pretended to owe allegiance,
complaining of the indignity which he met with in the appointment of
Buktusin to the government of Khorassan, a country so long in possession
of his father. It was returned to him for answer that he was already in
possession of the territories of Balik, Turmuz, and Herat, which was
part of the empire, and that there was a necessity to divide the favors
of Bokhara among her friends. Buktusin, it was also insinuated, had been
a faithful and good servant; which seemed to throw a reflection upon the
family of Ghazni, who had rendered themselves independent in the
governments they held of the royal house of Samania. Mahmud, not
discouraged by this answer, sent Hasan Jemmavi with rich presents to the
court of Bokhara, and a letter in the following terms: "That he hoped
the pure spring of friendship, which had flowed in the time of his
father, should not now be polluted with the ashes of indignity, nor
Mahmud be reduced to the necessity of divesting himself of that
obedience which he had hitherto paid to the imperial family of Samania."
When Hasan delivered his embassy, his capacity and elocution appeared so
great to the Emperor, that, desirous to gain him over to his interest by
any means, he bribed him at last with the honors of the wazirate, but
never returned an answer to Mahmud. That prince having received
information of this transaction, through necessity turned his face
toward Nishapur, and marched to Murgab. Buktusin, in the mean time,
treacherously entered into a confederacy with Faek, and, forming a
conspiracy in the camp of Munsur, seized upon the person of that prince
and cruelly put out his eyes. Abdul, the younger brother of Munsur, who
was but a boy, was advanced by the traitors to the throne. Being,
however, afraid of the resentment of Mahmud, the conspirators hastened
to Merv, whither they were pursued by the King with great expedition.
Finding themselves, upon their march, hard pressed in the rear by
Mahmud, they halted and gave him battle. But the sin of ingratitude had
darkened the face of their fortune, so that the breeze of victory blew
upon the standards of the King of Ghazni.
Faek carried off the young King, and fled to Bokhara, and Buktusin was
not heard of for some time, but at length he found his way to his
fellows in iniquity and began to collect his scattered troops. Faek, in
the mean time, fell ill and soon afterward expired. Elak, the Usbek
King, seizing upon the opportunity offered him by that event, marched
with an army from Kashgar to Bokhara and deprived Abdul-Mallek and his
adherents of life and empire at the same time. Thus perished the last of
the house of Samania, which had reigned for the space of one hundred and
twenty-seven years.
The Emperor of Ghazni, at this juncture, employed himself in settling
the government of the provinces of Balik and Khorassan, the affairs of
which he regulated in such an able manner that the fame thereof reached
the ears of the Caliph of Bagdad, the illustrious Al-Kadar Balla, of the
noble house of Abbas. The Caliph sent him a rich dress of honor, such as
he had never before bestowed on any king, and dignified Mahmud with the
titles of the Protector of the State and Treasurer of Fortune. In the
end of the month Zikada, in the year of the Hegira 390, Mahmud hastened
from the city of Balak to Herat, and from Herat to Sistan, where he
defeated Khaliph, the son of Achmet, the governor of that province of
the extinguished family of Bokhara, and returned to Ghazni. He then
turned his face toward India, took many forts and provinces, in which,
having appointed his own governors, he returned to his dominions where
he "spread the carpet of justice so smoothly upon the face of the earth
that the love of him, and loyalty, gained a place in every heart."
Having negotiated a treaty with Elak the Usbek, the province of
Maver-ul-nere was ceded to him, for which he made an ample return in
presents of great value; and the closest friendship and familiarity, for
a long time, existed between the kings.
Mahmud made a vow to heaven that if ever he should be blessed with
tranquillity in his own dominions he would turn his arms against the
idolaters of Hindustan. He marched in the year 391 (Ad Hegira) from
Ghazni with ten thousand of his chosen horse, and came to Peshawur,
where Jipal, the Indian prince of Lahore, with twelve thousand horse and
thirty thousand foot, supported by three hundred chain-elephants,
opposed him. On Saturday, the 8th of the month Mohirrim, in the year 392
of the Hegira, an obstinate battle ensued, in which the Emperor was
victorious; Jipal, with fifteen of his principal officers, was taken
prisoner, and five thousand of his troops lay dead upon the field.
Mahmud in this action acquired great wealth and fame, for round the neck
of Jipal alone were found sixteen strings of jewels, each of which was
valued at one hundred and eighty thousand rupees.
After this victory, the Emperor marched from Peshawur, and investing the
fort of Batandi, reduced it, releasing his prisoners upon the payment of
a large ransom, and the further stipulation of an annual tribute, then
returned to Ghazni. It was in those days a custom of the Hindus that
whatever rajah was twice defeated by the Moslems should be, by that
disgrace, rendered ineligible for further command. Jipal, in compliance
with this custom, having raised his son to the government, ordered a
funeral pile to be prepared, upon which he sacrificed himself to his
gods.
A year later, Mahmud again marched into Sistan, and brought Kaliph, who
had mismanaged his government, prisoner to Ghazni. Finding that the
tribute from Hindustan had not been paid, in the year A.H. 395 he
directed his march toward the city of Battea, and, leaving the
boundaries of Multan, arrived at Tahera, which was fortified with an
exceeding high wall and a deep, broad ditch. Tahera was at that time
governed by a prince called Bakhera, who had, in the pride of power and
wealth, greatly troubled the Mahometan governors whom Mahmud had
delegated to rule in Hindustan. Bakhera had also refused to pay his
proportion of the tribute to Annandpal, the son of Jipal, of whom he
held his authority.
When Mahmud entered the territories of Bakhera, that prince called out
his troops to receive him, and, taking possession of a strong position,
engaged the Mahometan army for the space of three days; in which time
they suffered so much that they were on the point of abandoning the
attack. But on the fourth day, Mahmud appeared at the head of his
troops, and addressed them at length, encouraging them to win glory. He
concluded by telling them that this day he had devoted himself to
conquest or to death. Bakhera, on his part, invoked the gods at the
temple, and prepared, with his former resolution, to repel the enemy.
The Mahometans charged with their usual impetuosity, but were repulsed
with great slaughter; yet returning with fresh courage and redoubled
rage, the attack was continued until the evening, when Mahmud, turning
his face to the holy Kaaba, invoked the aid of the Prophet in the
presence of his army.
"Advance! advance!" cried then the King. "Our prayers have found favor
with God!"
Immediately a great shout arose among the host, and the Moslems,
pressing forward as if they courted death, obliged the enemy to give
ground, and pursued them in full retreat to the gates of the city.
The Emperor having next morning invested the place, gave orders to make
preparations for filling up the ditch, which task in a few days was
nearly completed. Bakhera, finding he could not long defend the city,
determined to leave only a small garrison for its defence; and
accordingly, one night, he marched out with the rest of his troops, and
took position in a wood on the banks of the Indus. Mahmud, being
informed of his retreat, detached part of his army to pursue him.
Bakhera, by this time, was deserted by fortune and consequently by most
of his friends; he found himself surrounded by the Mahometans and
attempted in vain to force his way through them. When just on the point
of being taken prisoner, he turned his sword against his breast, while
the most of his adherents were slaughtered in attempting to avenge his
death. Mahmud, in the mean time, had taken Tahera by assault; and found
there one hundred and twenty elephants, many slaves, and much plunder.
He annexed the town and its dependencies to his own dominions, and
returned victorious to Ghazni.
In the year A.H. 396 he formed the design of reconquering Multan, which
had revolted from his rule. Achmet Lodi, the regent of Multan, had
formerly acknowledged the suzerainty of Mahmud, and after him his
grandson Daud, till the expedition against Bakhera, when Daud withdrew
his allegiance. The King marched in the beginning of the spring, with a
great army from Ghazni, and was met by Annandpal, the son of Jipal,
Prince of Lahore, in the hills of Peshawur, whom he defeated and obliged
to fly into Cashmere. Annandpal had entered into an alliance with Daud;
and as there were two passes only by which the Mahometans could enter
Multan, Annandpal had taken upon himself to secure that by the way of
Peshawur, which Mahmud chanced to take. The Sultan, returning from the
pursuit, entered Multan by the way of Betanda, which was his first
intention. When Daud received intelligence of the fate of Annandpal,
thinking himself too weak to keep the field, he shut himself up in his
fortified place and humbly solicited forgiveness for his fault,
promising to pay a large tribute and in the future to obey implicitly
the Sultan's command. Mahmud received him again as a vassal, and
prepared to return to Ghazni, when news was brought to him from
Arsallah, who commanded at Herat, that Elak, the King of Kashgar, had
invaded his realm with an army. The King hastened to settle the affairs
of Hindustan, which he put into the hands of Shokpal, a Hindu prince who
had resided with Abu-Ali, governor of Peshawur, and had turned
Mussulman, taking the name of Zab Sais.
The particulars of the war of Mahmud with Elak are these: It has already
been mentioned that an uncommon friendship had existed between this
Elak, the Usbek king of Kashgar, a kingdom in Tartary, and Mahmud. The
Emperor himself was married to the daughter of Elak, but some factious
men about the two courts, by misrepresentations of the princes to one
another, changed their former friendship to enmity. When Mahmud
therefore marched into Hindustan, and had left the field of Khorassan
almost destitute of troops, Elak took advantage of the opportunity, and
resolved to appropriate that province to himself. To accomplish his
design he ordered his general-in-chief Sapastagi, with a large force, to
enter Khorassan; and Jaffir Taghi at the same time was appointed to
command in the territory of Balak. Arsallah, the governor of Herat,
being informed of these motions, hastened to Ghazni, that he might
secure the capital. In the mean time the chiefs of Khorassan, finding
themselves deserted and being in no condition to oppose the enemy,
submitted themselves to Sapastagi, the general of Elak.
But Mahmud, having by great marches reached Ghazni, flowed onward like a
torrent with his army toward Balak. Taghi, who had by this time
possessed himself of the place, fled toward Turmuz at his approach. The
Emperor then detached Arsallah with a great part of his army to drive
Sapastagi out of Khorassan; and he also, upon the approach of the troops
of Ghazni, abandoned Herat, and marched toward Maber-ul-nere.