(1060-1100)
[Illustration: Crusaders. [TN]]
In the year 1094 the Turks besieged the Holy City of Jerusalem, then
ruled by the Fatimite caliphs, and took it. Pilgrims were then
subjected to every form of violence and insult. The Greek emperor
Alexius Comnenus, whom the Turks had recently defeated, implored the
assistance of the great Christian states against this new and
formidable foe. Pope Urban, to whom the letter was addressed, summoned
a council of nobles and prelates in Auvergne and, with solemn and
weighty words, appealed to the princes and soldiers of France who were
seated before him. He reminded them of the national exploits of their
fathers, whom Charles Martel and Charlemagne led against the Saracens,
and called on the sons of such fathers to achieve yet greater deeds.
As the burning words dropped from his lips they lighted a flame in
every heart, and the whole assembly suddenly rose, and shouted with
one voice, "It is God's will! It is God's will!" Urban caught up the
cry: "Yes, without doubt, it is God's will. He has dictated to you
the words, let them be your war-cry, and be this your badge!" As he
spoke he held up a crucifix. The great meeting was moved like one man;
and, falling on their knees, all confessed their sins, received
absolution, and took vows of service in the Holy War. A red cross,
embroidered on the right shoulder, was the common sign assumed by all
the soldiers, who thence acquired the name of "Crusaders." Estates
were pawned and sold to obtain money for the expenses of the
undertaking, and many commercial cities purchased important liberties
from their lords at this favorable opportunity. The chief of one of
three great divisions into which the Christian army was formed was a
man whom we have taken as the very type and model of a true
Crusader,--Godfrey de Bouillon.
[Illustration: Godfrey de Bouillon. [TN]]
He was the son of Gustavus, Count of Bouillon, or Boulogne, in the
district of Ardennes and province of Luxembourg, and was born about
the year 1060. His profession had been from his youth that of arms,
and his earliest services in the field were rendered to his lord, the
Emperor of Germany. In the war of Investiture he had taken an active
part against Gregory VII., and bore the Imperial standard at the
battle of Merseberg. By his hand the usurper, Rudolph, Duke of Suabia,
fell in that decisive encounter. Godfrey's sword, swayed by his young
and powerful wrist, is said to have shorn off the right arm of Rudolph
at a single stroke. For this valiant deed, Henry IV. created Godfrey
Duke of his province of Bouillon; or, according to some historians,
Lower Lorraine. At the subsequent siege of Rome, Godfrey made himself
again prominent by scaling the city walls among the first. This action
colored his whole life. All his contemporaries portray his nature as
displaying the loftiest integrity and deepest piety. Sound and clear
as his intellect was, he yet shared in the superstition of his times,
and was led by reflection to believe that, in bearing arms against
God's vicegerent, and attacking a city where so many apostles and
martyrs lay buried, he had been guilty of a heinous sin. Remorse
worked on his mind so heavily that he took a vow to join in the
Crusade, from a conviction that his glaring crime could only be
blotted out by a heroism equally conspicuous. His noble birth, and yet
nobler character, won for him so high a place in the estimation of his
fellows, that, on announcing his intention of undertaking the Crusade,
hundreds flocked to his standard. A worthy general, truly, of soldiers
thus ardent in a cause which they deemed divine! To the qualities of
bodily strength and beauty, which in those days were chiefly valued in
the head of an army, Godfrey happily united the more durable strength
of intellect and beauty of soul. His knightly heart and statesman's
mind never ran counter, and whatever generous policy the one dictated,
was carried into effect by the wisdom of the other. Although averse to
distinction, it was thrust upon him by the votes of his fellow-chiefs,
and their decision was gladly hailed by the common soldiers, who loved
Godfrey as a father. He would not, therefore, refuse the post of
general, but applied himself to its duties with activity. He first set
an example of unselfish zeal to his brother nobles, by disposing of
his duchy for the purpose of his expedition,--an example faithfully
followed by the leading nobility of France and the Rhine. He then
summoned his army to join him in August, 1096, on the banks of the
rivers Meuse and Moselle. At the appointed time, a force of 80,000
foot and 10,000 horse assembled under his banner, and set out on its
march through Germany,--the two other divisions of the Christian army
taking a different route. On reaching Hungary, Carloman, who then
ruled that country, showed some signs of objection to the passage of
so formidable a body,--remembering the licentious excesses that had
been committed by the rabble which followed Peter the Hermit. Here
Godfrey's wisdom was admirably displayed. By his firm measures of
restraint on the impetuosity of his troops he first proved that they
were under the influence of strict discipline. Then, confiding himself
to the justice and good faith of Carloman, he disarmed that monarch's
suspicions by frankness and simplicity. The result was that, instead
of opposition, the Hungarian prince gave him help, and escorted the
Crusaders with a body of cavalry into the territories of Greece.
Alexius Comnenus was by this time alarmed at the eagerness with which
the Christian states had responded to his appeal for aid against the
infidel. He mistrusted, not without reason, the intentions of some of
the chiefs of the expedition,--mere adventurers, like the Norman
Bohemond of Tarentum for example, who was his avowed foe,--and
therefore deemed it politic to guard against danger to himself by
demanding homage from all the Crusaders who entered his dominions. The
two other divisions of the Christian army were now on their way to
Constantinople, by a different road from that taken by Godfrey. One of
the French nobles, the Count de Vermandois, was shipwrecked on the
coast of Epirus, and Alexius unjustifiably detained him as a prisoner
or hostage for the good faith of the other leaders. On learning these
tidings, Godfrey, who was now in Thrace, sent to the emperor,
requiring the count's release. This was not accorded, and Godfrey
therefore treated the country as hostile, levying contributions on the
people as he marched through. The emperor immediately saw his error,
and promised to grant the count's release on the arrival of the French
army. This promise satisfied Godfrey, and his march was once more
peaceful. The wily emperor, in the meanwhile, obtained from his
prisoner an oath of homage, hoping to induce the other Crusaders to
follow the example. Godfrey, on his arrival, at first refused this,
as unbecoming the rank and character which he bore; but, finding that
the act would appease the jealousies which had already broken out
between the Greeks and Franks, and put a check on the schemes of those
leaders in the crusading ranks whom Alexius especially dreaded, he at
last consented. The other chieftains made a like submission; and this
sacrifice of pride, by healing internal discords, served for a season
to promote the success of the Crusade.
After a sojourn of some time at Constantinople, the Crusaders, now
formed into one army, crossed the Bosphorus, and entered Bithynia.
Here the sight of the carnage which the Turks had inflicted on the
weak and disorderly body that Peter had led forth, stimulated the zeal
and indignation of the Christian host. Its passage through the Turkish
kingdom of Roum was not unresisted. David, then Sultan, a valiant
prince, had already prepared an army, and fortified his capital of
Nice,--a position of great natural strength.
The Crusaders advanced in excellent order, and, after twice routing
the Turkish army of defence, commenced the siege. Godfrey is said to
have distinguished himself by a feat of skill on one occasion during
this assault. A gigantic Turk, who was the hero of the Moslem army,
had greatly harassed the Christians by his wondrous success in the use
of the javelin. Having spent his shafts one day, he ascended a tower,
and showered masses of rock on the besiegers, whom he at the same time
abused and defied to combat. The Christian archers played upon his
person, without bringing him down; until Godfrey grasped a cross-bow,
and at one shot pierced the giant's heart. The siege lasted seven
weeks; and was prosecuted with such vigor and ingenuity by the
Crusaders that the Turks were on the point of yielding, when Alexius,
who had sent a body of Greeks with the army, craftily procured to
himself the glory of conquest by instructing his general to intrigue
with the enemy secretly, and persuade them to yield to his power, on
condition of protection. The Greek general so worked upon the fears
and hopes of the garrison, that his advice was accepted; and, to the
surprise and anger of the Franks, the emperor's flag one day appeared
on the towers of Nice, and the city surrendered. This act of perfidy
reopened the jealousy between the Eastern and Western Christians,
which Godfrey had labored to extinguish; and from this time may be
dated the rise of those internal divisions which eventually proved so
fatal to the Crusaders.
Leaving Nice, the Crusaders advanced in two divisions, both without
guides, and through a hostile and desert country. The Turks, in great
numbers, followed in their rear. Godfrey and the Count of Toulouse
headed one division; Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, and Robert, Duke of
Normandy (son of William the Conqueror), the other. The latter body
had separated from the former at some distance, and was traversing the
plains near Dorylaeum, in Phrygia, when a sudden attack was made upon
it by a powerful army of Turks. The Christians were taken by surprise,
while exhausted with heat and fatigue, and in an unfavorable
situation. In spite of the heroic valor of Bohemond, Robert, and other
knights, the battle was turning against them, when Godfrey's division,
to which a message had been despatched, came up. He shouted aloud the
Crusaders' war-cry: "It is God's will!" and the whole army, echoing
the shout, by a gallant charge retrieved the fortunes of the day and
completely routed the Turks. After this success the Crusaders resolved
to march in a single body, and thus prevent a recurrence of the hazard
which they had escaped. The Turks preceded them, burning the crops as
they went, and the Christians, in consequence, suffered fearful
privations from famine during the march. Hundreds perished from
exhaustion. The horses died for want of sufficient food and water; and
knights were seen either walking on foot, or riding on oxen and asses,
carrying their own armor. In passing through Pisidia, an anecdote is
related of Godfrey which is characteristic of his courage and
gallantry. He was wandering among the recesses of a forest in pursuit
of game, which was needed for the supply of the troops, when he came
upon a private soldier of the army, who was defending himself from the
attack of a bear. Godfrey struck at the beast, which at once turned on
its new assailant, inflicting a deep wound in his thigh. Another
stroke from the skilful hunter's arm terminated the contest; but the
blood streamed from his wound so rapidly, that he scarcely reached the
camp alive. The grief of his soldiers was intense, as they beheld
their beloved leader stretched on a litter, and borne into his tent as
if dead. The skill of his physicians and a long interval of rest
triumphed over the weakness occasioned by the loss of blood, and
Godfrey once more appeared at the head of his army.
Antiochetta, the capital of Pisidia, attempted no resistance; and here
the main body of the Christians recruited for some time. Meanwhile, a
party of Crusaders, headed by Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, and a
famous knight named Tancred, had been sent forward to clear a passage
for the army. Tancred subdued the city of Tarsus; but his victory was
usurped by Baldwin, whose ambitions and covetous nature bore no
resemblance to that of his brother. Tancred, a man after Godfrey's
heart, surrendered this conquest for the sake of peace; but, when
Baldwin showed symptoms of repeating his injustice, resisted by force.
Tancred was defeated, but a reconciliation took place between the
combatants. Baldwin, who had no real interest in the success of the
Crusade, soon afterwards turned aside into Mesopotamia, where he made
himself master of Edessa, and formed a Christian state there. Though
founded by merely personal ambition, this eventually proved of great
assistance to the Crusaders, by checking the progress of the Turkish
arms in Asia.
The main body now crossed the Taurus, after a tedious and painful
passage, and presented itself before the walls of Antioch, then ruled
by an independent Turkish emir named Accien. This city was especially
dear to the Christians, as the first in which their title had been
assumed; and the sight of its walls roused their flagging spirits.
Some of the generals advised that the siege should be deferred for
some months, until reinforcements arrived, and the winter was over;
but the majority of the chiefs, among whom Godfrey was conspicuous,
confident of success, and dreading the depressing influences of delay,
urged an immediate attack, which was accordingly made. The Turks
adopted the stratagem of apparently neglecting to defend the city; and
the Christians, falling into the snare, scattered their forces. The
licentiousness of some of their number, moreover, proved fatal to
their vigilance, and a sudden sortie of the garrison inflicted deadly
havoc. The siege was then commenced in earnest; but the city was so
strongly guarded, that months elapsed without any impression being
made upon its walls; and disease, famine, and the inclemency of the
season, united with the missiles of the Turks to weaken the Christian
force. Many of the leaders (Robert, Duke of Normandy, among them),
withdrew in cowardly disgust at the failure of the siege and the
pressure of want; while despair drove many of those who remained to
courses of reckless vice. Godfrey, firm to his duty and strong in
faith, aided the exertions of the clergy in encouraging the spirits of
his troops, and restraining their profligate excesses. A timely supply
of provisions from some of the Armenian monasteries, and a brilliant
victory obtained by Bohemond and the Count of Toulouse over an army
which the Sultans of Aleppo and Damascus had sent to the succor of
Antioch, rewarded Godfrey's confidence and infused new vigor into the
hearts of his army. This was needed to sustain the brunt of a
desperate encounter which shortly afterward took place between the
besieged and their besiegers. A reinforcement of Italian Crusaders
having arrived, it was suddenly attacked by a large Turkish force, and
thrown into disorder. Godfrey, who had been engaged on the siege,
rapidly marshalled his men, and fell upon the enemy. A sortie of the
garrison was immediately made, and a fearful conflict ensued under the
walls of the city. The Turks were put to flight with immense loss, and
the Christians pursued them up to the very gates. In this scene of
carnage, Godfrey's recorded feats of valor approached the incredible.
His sword clave the stoutest armor asunder at a blow. A gigantic Arab
horseman offered him single combat, and broke his shield by way of
challenge. Godfrey rose in his stirrups, and smote the Arab on the
shoulder with such tremendous force as to split his whole body in
twain; half of which, with the head, fell into the river Orontes,
while the remainder, yet clinging to the terrified horse, was carried
back into the city.
Notwithstanding all these exploits, the Turks held out, and were only
defeated at last by stratagem. This was achieved by the skill of
Bohemond, who intrigued with Phirous, one of the leaders of the
garrison, for the surrender of the city, upon favorable terms to
himself. Bohemond stipulated with his fellow-chiefs that the
principality of Antioch should be granted him in return for his
services; and, after some opposition, this was conceded. Phirous
managed the perilous task of admitting the Crusaders with the utmost
adroitness. At the dead of night the walls were scaled by Bohemond and
his followers, and Antioch was taken, in June, 1098, after a siege of
eight months. Accien, its prince, and 6,000 Turks, are said to have
fallen on this eventful night.
The Crusaders had no sooner obtained this signal success than they
were in their turn besieged by an army raised by the Sultans of
Mossoul and other cities. Antioch had just sustained so long a siege,
that the Christians found scarcely any provisions on their entrance,
and their besiegers now cut off all supplies from without. Famine soon
raged in the city to such an extent, that horses, roots, leaves,
leathern shoes, and even human bodies, were eagerly devoured by the
starving soldiers. Godfrey shared his scanty meals with his comrades,
and is related to have slain his last charger for food. Desertion from
the ranks now occurred in great numbers, and despair led many to
blaspheme who were ashamed to fly. To add to the misery of the
Christians, they learned that the Emperor Alexius, who was advancing
with reinforcements, had judged their case hopeless, and retraced his
steps. The city was now scarcely defended, and many proposed to
surrender it, even on degrading terms, so that their lives were
spared.
Godfrey and the clergy again exerted themselves successfully. They
ventured to challenge the Turkish army to a combat of picked troops;
and when the proposal was spurned, boldly advanced to attack the whole
force. The appearance of the Crusaders, as they marched out of the
city, must have been indeed pitiable. Privations had so reduced them,
that many had no clothing. Some were nearly fainting from weakness.
The barons and knights proceeded chiefly on foot, and camels and asses
supplied the place of horses to most of those who rode. Yet the
burning zeal of the Christians made the march seem like a triumphal
procession; and while the clergy sang hymns of consolation and
victory, the soldiers responded with the war-cry, "It is God's will!
It is God's will!" The Turkish general, fearing nothing from an army
so scantily provided with the means of war, was taken by surprise, but
hastily arranged his troops in order of battle. The sight of several
natural prodigies, such as the sudden appearance of a meteor, and the
favorable direction of the wind, acting upon the superstitious fancy
of the Christians, impelled them to extraordinary exertions. The
Moslem forces, on the other hand, were weakened by the existence of
rivalries and discords in their midst, and lacked the stimulus which
the Christians derived from desperation. The attack was commenced by a
volley of arrows, followed by a charge of the Turkish and Arabian
archers, which the Crusaders not only steadily sustained, but
vigorously returned. Godfrey, who commanded their right wing, broke
the left wing of the Moslem; but the latter had encompassed the river
with a large force, and attacked the Christians in the rear. In spite
of the heroism of Godfrey and Tancred, who slaughtered all that
ventured to compete with them, and the brave resistance of the whole
army, the enemy was evidently gaining ground, when (according to the
historians) three horsemen, in brilliant armor, suddenly appeared at
the head of a reinforcement descending from the adjacent mountains.
Some of the clergy seized on this circumstance to reanimate the
Crusaders. "Behold your heavenly succor!" cried a bishop. "Heaven has
sent the holy martyrs, George, Demetrius, and Theodore to fight for
you!" As he spoke, the whole army seemed inspired with irresistible
strength; and, shouting the well-known war-cry, made another vigorous
charge which broke the Moslem ranks. The Sultan of Mossoul fled, and
his immense force dispersed in the utmost disorder. The extravagant
number of 100,000 is said to have fallen in this engagement.
The Crusaders, instead of proceeding at once to Jerusalem, remained
for several months in Antioch, employing the time in re-establishing
Christianity in that city, and sending to their brethren in the West
for further aid. The delay was prejudicial, as the disputes between
the rival chiefs, which the din of war had silenced, again broke out,
and disease committed terrible ravages in the camp. Certain
expeditions, however, were made in the neighborhood, and several towns
fell into the hands of the Christians. Meantime, news arrived that an
army of Egyptian Arabs--who acknowledged the Fatimite caliphs, and had
as yet resisted the attempt of the Turks to usurp dominion over all
the followers of the Prophet--had captured Jerusalem. The Crusaders,
filled with indignation, resumed their march to the Holy City,
conquering on their way several towns. Embassadors were sent from the
Caliph of Cairo with superb presents to the Christian leaders, and
proposals of peace between them and the Egyptians. But Godfrey would
not be bribed to accept the humiliating terms proposed; one of which
was, that only unarmed Christians should be admitted into the city.
The embassadors were sent back with the answer that the Crusaders were
on their march, and, if opposed, might extend their conquests even to
the Nile.
By daybreak on June 10, 1099, the Christian army came in sight of
Jerusalem. The spectacle transported all with mingled feelings of joy,
reverence, and remorse. Some fell on their knees and prayed; others
kissed the sacred soil; many wept for their sins; and the air ever and
anon resounded with the shout: "It is God's will!" The siege was
commenced at once, Godfrey fixing his camp on Mount Calvary. The
Egyptians had prepared for a protracted defence, by strengthening the
fortifications and furnishing the garrison with ample provisions. They
had likewise ravaged the neighboring country, and filled up the
cisterns so as to harass the besiegers as much as possible. Owing to
these impediments the Christians made slow progress. After various
disappointments, however, they at length manufactured engines of great
size and strength, shaped like towers, which were to be wheeled up to
the walls, so as to enable the besiegers to enter by means of
drawbridges. On July 14, 1099, at daybreak, the Crusaders were in
arms, and at the same moment the assault was made on various points.
Godfrey stood on his wooden tower, which was stationed near one of the
gates, and by voice and action stimulated his soldiers to deeds of
daring. His death-dealing javelin never missed its aim. The Egyptians
employed every possible agent of defence,--showering down boiling oil,
combustible materials, and various descriptions of missile, on the
heads of their assailants. During the first day the Crusaders were
repulsed at every point; but on the morrow fortune turned. The first
half of the day was with the Egyptians, who cast lighted torches
against the wooden engines of the Crusaders, and effected the
destruction of many. Godfrey was, as usual, conspicuous, and became
the mark of repeated attacks,--the cross of gold which surmounted his
tower especially enraging the Moslem. An incident, supposed to be
supernatural, was the immediate cause of the Christians' success.
Godfrey and the Count of Toulouse at the same time observed the figure
of a knight on the Mount of Olives, who with his buckler signalled to
the Christians that they should enter the city. The two leaders,
animated by a common feeling, cried out, "Behold St. George!" The
enthusiasm of the Crusaders from this moment was irresistible.
Godfrey's tower was first pushed close beside the walls, and in spite
of flame and missile the drawbridge was lowered. Then, accompanied by
several of his bravest knights, he dashed into the city. Others
followed at the same point; the gates were broken down, and Jerusalem
was taken. A horrible carnage of the Moslem ensued, in which Godfrey,
although unable to check, refused to share. His first act was to
retire from his comrades, and with three attendants to repair, unarmed
and barefooted, to the Church of the Sepulchre. His vow was
accomplished, and the desecration of one holy site atoned for by the
preservation of another yet holier. This act of devotion, so worthy of
the true Crusader, recalled from carnage those who had forgotten their
vows in the thirst for vengeance, and the whole army, led by the
clergy, followed him to the same church in penitential procession.
[Illustration: Godfrey De Bouillon entering Jerusalem.]
Godfrey's work was now nearly ended, and his reward came. The leaders
of the army, soon after the capture of the city, held a council for
the purpose of deciding to whom should be given the crown of
Jerusalem. No decision was arrived at; so many various opinions being
expressed, and so many interests at stake. Ten of the most esteemed
chiefs were then formed into an elective body, and proceeded to make
careful inquiries into the fitness of those who were proposed for the
kingly office. Godfrey took no part, it would seem, in either
discussion or inquiry, and displayed no sort of anxiety as to his own
claims. But the clergy and the mass of the soldiers were devoted to
him,--endeared as he was by a thousand memories of his piety, courage,
and generosity. On all hands the electors heard his praises sounded,
and, to the joy of the whole army, they concluded their labors by
announcing the choice to have fallen upon him. But, to the surprise of
all, he declined the offered rank. "I will not wear a golden crown,"
said he, "in a city where my king and Saviour has been only crowned
with thorns." All that his fellow-chiefs could persuade him to accept
was the title of Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre, though he
did not deem it right to refuse the kingly authority. He soon had
occasion to exert his power, for the Caliph of Cairo had by this time
collected a large army, and was on his march to Jerusalem. The
Crusaders, though unfitted for a fresh campaign, prepared to defend
their conquest, and, at the head of his troops, Godfrey advanced
toward Ascalon, where the enemy was stationed. A battle took place on
the adjoining plains, in which the Moslem force was routed with
terrific slaughter. The city itself would have fallen but for the
covetous spirit displayed by the Count of Toulouse, who, unable to
obtain a promise that the possession of the place should be given him,
deserted Godfrey with all his men. A quarrel ensued between the two
leaders, but was terminated through the influence of their brothers in
arms,--Godfrey being ready to forgive any injury to himself for the
sake of the common cause.
The Crusade was now completed, but Godfrey's duties as king were yet
to commence. He set about fulfilling them with activity, fortifying
various important positions, subduing revolts of hostile tribes,
dividing the conquered territories equally among his generals,
according to the feudal system, and summoning an Assize, or Assembly
of his wisest councillors to draw up a code of laws. This code, which
long remained in operation, amply testified to the legislative wisdom
of the Crusaders. But the new state was not long favored with his
presence to enforce and exemplify its constitution. In returning from
a successful expedition against some Arabs of Galilee, he was met by
the Emir of Caesarea, who offered him a present of fruits. Godfrey
tasted a cedar apple, and immediately was seized with illness. He
died, not without suspicion of poison having been thus administered,
shortly after reaching Jerusalem, commending to his comrades the care
of the holy places, and the state which he had founded. His age
scarcely exceeded forty years.
One of the most celebrated and beautiful Italian poems, the "Jerusalem
Delivered" of Tasso, has "the pious Godfrey" for the presiding hero of
the glorious scenes which it narrates. But there are no grounds for
supposing that his fame belongs to romance rather than history.
Contemporary writers have painted his portrait in no less flattering
colors than Tasso has used, and the poet's affectionate fancy has
scarcely exaggerated the tribute which the soberest historian may feel
warranted in rendering to the memory of the great and good Crusader,
Godfrey de Bouillon.