[1] The _thalline margin_ (margo thallinus) is the projecting edge of
a special layer of thallus, the amphithecium, round the actual
apothecium; the _proper margin_ (margo proprius) is the projecting
edge of the apothecium itself.
LICHFIELD, a city, county of a city, and municipal borough in the
Lichfield parliamentary division of Staffordshire, England, 118 m. N.W.
from London. Pop. (1901) 7902. The London and North-Western railway has
stations at Trent Valley Junction on the main line, and in the city on a
branch westward. The town lies in a pleasant country, on a small stream
draining eastward to the Trent, with low hills to the E. and S. The
cathedral is small (the full internal length is only 370 ft., and the
breadth of the nave 68 ft.), but beautiful in both situation and style.
It stands near a picturesque sheet of water named Minster Pool. The
present building dates from various periods in the 13th and early 14th
centuries, but the various portions cannot be allocated to fixed years,
as the old archives were destroyed during the Civil Wars of the 17th
century. The earlier records of the church are equally doubtful. A Saxon
church founded by St Chad, who was subsequently enshrined here, occupied
the site from the close of the 7th century; of its Norman successor
portions of the foundations have been excavated, but no record exists
either of its date or of its builders. The fine exterior of the
cathedral exhibits the feature, unique in England, of a lofty central
and two lesser western spires, of which the central, 252 ft. high, is a
restoration attributed to Sir Christopher Wren after its destruction
during the Civil Wars. The west front is composed of three stages of
ornate arcading, with niches containing statues, of which most are
modern. Within, the south transept shows simple Early English work, the
north transept and chapter house more ornate work of a later period in
that style, the nave, with its geometrical ornament, marks the
transition to the Decorated style, while the Lady chapel is a beautiful
specimen of fully developed Decorated work with an apsidal east end. The
west front probably falls in date between the nave and the Lady chapel.
Among numerous monuments are--memorials to Samuel Johnson, a native of
Lichfield, and to David Garrick, who spent his early life and was
educated here; a monument to Major Hodson, who fell in the Indian
mutiny, and whose father was canon of Lichfield; the tomb of Bishop
Hacket, who restored the cathedral after the Civil Wars; and a
remarkable effigy of Perpendicular date displaying Sir John Stanley
stripped to the waist and awaiting chastisement. Here is also the
"Sleeping Children," a masterpiece by Chantrey (1817).
A picturesque bishop's palace (1687) and a theological college (1857)
are adjacent to the cathedral. The diocese covers the greater part of
Staffordshire and about half the parishes in Shropshire, with small
portions of Cheshire and Derbyshire. The church of St Chad is ancient
though extensively restored; on its site St Chad is said to have
occupied a hermit's cell. The principal schools are those of King Edward
and St Chad. There are many picturesque half-timbered and other old
houses, among which is that in which Johnson was born, which stands in
the market-place, and is the property of the corporation and opened to
the public. There is also in the market place a statue to Johnson. A
fair is held annually on Whit-Monday, accompanied by a pageant of
ancient origin. Brewing is the principal industry, and in the
neighbourhood are large market gardens. The city is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 3475 acres.
There is a tradition that "Christianfield" near Lichfield was the site
of the martyrdom of a thousand Christians during the persecutions of
Maximian about 286, but there is no evidence in support of the
tradition. At Wall, 3 m. from the present city, there was a
Romano-British village called Letocetum ("grey wood"), from which the
first half of the name Lichfield is derived. The first authentic notice
of Lichfield (_Lyecidfelth_, _Lychfeld_, _Litchfield_) occurs in Bede's
history where it is mentioned as the place where St Chad fixed the
episcopal see of the Mercians. After the foundation of the see by St
Chad in 669, it was raised in 786 by Pope Adrian through the influence
of Offa, King of Mercia, to the dignity of an archbishopric, but in 803
the primacy was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see of Lichfield was
removed to Chester, and thence a few years later to Coventry, but it was
restored in 1148. At the time of the Domesday Survey Lichfield was held
by the bishop of Chester: it is not called a borough, and it was a small
village, whence, on account of its insignificance, the see had been
moved. The lordship and manor of the town were held by the bishop until
the reign of Edward VI., when they were leased to the corporation. There
is evidence that a castle existed here in the time of Bishop Roger
Clinton (_temp._ Henry I.), and a footpath near the grammar-school
retains the name of Castle-ditch. Richard II. gave a charter (1387) for
the foundation of the gild of St Mary and St John the Baptist; this gild
obtained the whole local government, which it exercised until its
dissolution by Edward VI., who incorporated the town (1548), vesting the
government in two bailiffs and twenty-four burgesses; further charters
were given by Mary, James I. and Charles II. (1664), the last,
incorporating it under the title of the "bailiffs and citizens of the
city of Lichfield," was the governing charter until 1835; under this
charter the governing body consisted of two bailiffs and twenty-four
brethren. Lichfield sent two members to the parliament of 1304 and to a
few succeeding parliaments, but the representation did not become
regular until 1552; in 1867 it lost one member, and in 1885 its
representation was merged in that of the county. By the charter of James
I. the market day was changed from Wednesday to Tuesday and Friday; the
Tuesday market disappeared during the 19th century; the only existing
fair is a small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ash-Wednesday;
the annual fête on Whit-Monday claims to date from the time of Alfred.
In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. The cathedral authorities with
a certain following were for the king, but the townsfolk generally sided
with the parliament, and this led to the fortification of the close in
1643. Lord Brooke, notorious for his hostility to the church, came
against it, but was killed by a deflected bullet on St Chad's day, an
accident welcomed as a miracle by the Royalists. The close yielded and
was retaken by Prince Rupert in this year; but on the breakdown of the
king's cause in 1646 it again surrendered. The cathedral suffered
terrible damage in these years.
See Rev. T. Harwood, _Hist. and Antiquities of Church and City of
Lichfield_ (1806), _Victoria County History, Stafford_.
LICH-GATE, or LYCH-GATE (from O. Eng. _lic_ "a body, a corpse"; cf. Ger.
_Leiche_), the roofed-in gateway or porch-entrance to churchyards.
Lich-gates existed in England certainly thirteen centuries ago, but
comparatively few early ones survive, as they were almost always of
wood. One at Bray, Berkshire, is dated 1448. Here the clergy meet the
corpse and some portion of the service is read. The gateway was really
part of the church; it also served to shelter the pall-bearers while the
bier was brought from the church. In some lich-gates there stood large
flat stones called lich-stones upon which the corpse, usually
uncoffined, was laid. The most common form of lich-gate is a simple shed
composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered with tiles or thatch.
At Berrynarbor, Devon, there is a lich-gate in the form of a cross,
while at Troutbeck, Westmorland, there are three lich-gates to one
churchyard. Some elaborate gates have chambers over them. The word
_lich_ entered into composition constantly in old English, thus,
lich-bell, the hand-bell rung before a corpse; lich-way, the path along
which a corpse was carried to burial (this in some districts was
supposed to establish a right-of-way); lich-owl, the screech-owl,
because its cry was a portent of death; and lyke-wake, a night watch
over a corpse.
LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German physicist and satirical
writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, on the 1st of July
1742. In 1763 he entered Göttingen university, where in 1769 he became
extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary
professor. This post he held till his death on the 24th of February
1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in
electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures,
which are fully described in two memoirs _Super nova methodo motum ac
naturam fluidi electrici investigandi_ (Göttingen, 1777-1778). These
figures, originally studied on account of the light they were supposed
to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or fluids, have reference
to the distribution of electricity over the surface of non-conductors.
They are produced as follows: A sharp-pointed needle is placed
perpendicular to a non-conducting plate, such as of resin, ebonite or
glass, with its point very near to or in contact with the plate, and a
Leyden jar is discharged into the needle. The electrification of the
plate is now tested by sifting over it a mixture of flowers of sulphur
and red lead. The negatively electrified sulphur is seen to attach
itself to the positively electrified parts of the plate, and the
positively electrified red lead to the negatively electrified parts. In
addition to the distribution of colour thereby produced, there is a
marked difference in the _form_ of the figure, according to the nature
of the electricity originally communicated to the plate. If it be
positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a
dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions; if
negative the patch is much smaller and has a sharp circular boundary
entirely devoid of branches. If the plate receives a mixed charge, as,
for example, from an induction coil, a "mixed" figure results,
consisting of a large red central nucleus, corresponding to the negative
charge, surrounded by yellow rays, corresponding to the positive charge.
The difference between the positive and negative figures seems to depend
on the presence of the air; for the difference tends to disappear when
the experiment is conducted in vacuo. Riess explains it by the negative
electrification of the plate caused by the friction of the water vapour,
&c., driven along the surface by the explosion which accompanies the
disruptive discharge at the point. This electrification would favour the
spread of a positive, but hinder that of a negative discharge. There is,
in all probability, a connexion between this phenomenon and the
peculiarities of positive and negative brush and other discharge in air.
As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among the German
writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many
controversies with well-known contemporaries, such as Lavater, whose
science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and Voss, whose views on Greek
pronunciation called forth a powerful satire, _Über die Pronunciation
der Schöpse des alten Griechenlandes_ (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774
he resided for some time in England and his _Briefe aus England_
(1776-1778), with admirable descriptions of Garrick's acting, are the
most attractive of his writings. He contributed to the _Göttinger
Taschenkalender_ from 1778 onwards, and to the _Göttingisches Magazin
der Literatur und Wissenschaft_, which he edited for three years
(1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published in 1794-1799 an
_Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche_.
Lichtenberg's _Vermischte Schriften_ were published by F. Kries in 9
vols. (1800-1805); new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867).
Selections by E. Grisebach, _Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen_
(1871); by F. Robertag (in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_
(vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg's _Briefe_
have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schüddekopf and A. Leitzmann
(1900-1902); his _Aphorismen_ by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-1906).
See also R. M. Meyer, _Swift und Lichtenberg_ (1886); F. Lauchert,
_Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tätigkeit_ (1893); and A. Leitzmann,
_Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass_ (1899).
LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of
the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging
to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The
principality was constructed of parts of the electorate of Trier, of
Nassau-Saarbrücken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria
and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the
lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its
elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to
whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed
upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to
Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of £12,000 sterling.
The area is about 210 sq. m.
LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in the age of the
Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a brief epitome of
Roman history based upon Livy, which he utilized as a means of
displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts of omens, portents, prodigies
and other remarkable things apparently took up a considerable portion of
the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.C.
are preserved in a British Museum MS.
EDITIONS.--C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch
(1904); see also J. N. Madvig, _Kleine philologische Schriften_
(1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch's edition
(p. iv.).
LICINIUS [FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS], Roman emperor, A.D.
307-324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After
the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of
Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on the
11th of November 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces
of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire
empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being
the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of
Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a
decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established
himself master of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was
supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a
treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine.
When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice
severely defeated--first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8th, 314),
and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation,
which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in
possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous
provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine, tempted by the
"advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war
against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July
323), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The
defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius Crispus,
Constantine's eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a
last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18th of
September), finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at
Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of
treasonable correspondence with the barbarians.
See Zosimus ii. 7-28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, _Caes._ 40, 41;
Eutropius x. 3; Orosius vii. 28.
LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the chief representative
of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune in 377 B.c., consul in 361.
His name is associated with the Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws
(proposed 377, passed 367), which practically ended the struggle between
patricians and plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger
share of the public land than his own law allowed.