FOOTNOTES:_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Letter" to "Lightfoot, John" Volume 16, Slice 5

[1] The name given by Köppen (_Die lamaische Kirche_, Berlin, 1859,

p. 74) is "La Brang," by which it is sometimes known.

[2] Among articles sold in the Lhasa bazaars are fossil bones, called

by the people "lightning bones," and believed to have healing

virtues.

L'HÔPITAL (or L'HOSPITAL), MICHEL DE (c. 1505-1573), French statesman,

was born near Aigueperse in Auvergne (now Puy-de-Dôme). His father, who

was physician to the constable Charles of Bourbon, sent him to study at

Toulouse, whence at the age of eighteen he was driven, a consequence of

the evil fortunes of the family patron, to Padua, where he studied law

and letters for about six years. On the completion of his studies he

joined his father at Bologna, and afterwards, the constable having died,

went to Rome in the suite of Charles V. For some time he held a position

in the papal court at Rome, but about 1534 he returned to France, and

becoming an advocate, his marriage, in 1537, procured for him the post

of counsellor to the parlement of Paris. This office he held until 1547,

when he was sent by Henry II. on a mission to Bologna, where the council

of Trent was at that time sitting; after sixteen months of wearisome

inactivity there, he was by his own desire recalled at the close of

1548. L'Hôpital now for some time held the position of chancellor to the

king's sister, Margaret, duchess of Berry. In 1553, on the

recommendation of the Cardinal of Lorraine, he was named master of the

requests, and afterwards president of the chambre des comptes. In 1559

he accompanied the princess Margaret, now duchess of Savoy, to Nice,

where, in the following year, tidings reached him that he had been

chosen to succeed François Olivier (1487-1560) in the chancellorship of

France.

One of his first acts after entering on the duties of his office was to

cause the parlement of Paris to register the edict of Romorantin, of

which he is sometimes, but erroneously, said to have been the author.

Designed to protect heretics from the secret and summary methods of the

Inquisition, it certainly had his sympathy and approval. In accordance

with the consistent policy of inclusion and toleration by which the

whole of his official life was characterized, he induced the council to

call the assembly of notables, which met at Fontainebleau in August 1560

and agreed that the States General should be summoned, all proceedings

against heretics being meanwhile suppressed, pending the reformation of

the church by a general or national council. The States General met in

December; the edict of Orleans (January 1561) followed, and finally,

after the colloquy of Poissy, the edict of January 1562, the most

liberal, except that of Nantes, ever obtained by the Protestants of

France. Its terms, however, were not carried out, and during the war

which was the inevitable result of the massacre of Vassy in March,

L'Hôpital, whose dismissal had been for some time urged by the papal

legate Hippolytus of Este, found it necessary to retire to his estate at

Vignay, near Étampes, whence he did not return until after the

pacification of Amboise (March 19, 1563). It was by his advice that

Charles IX. was declared of age at Rouen in August 1563, a measure which

really increased the power Of Catherine de' Medici; and it was under his

influence also that the royal council in 1564 refused to authorize the

publication of the acts of the council of Trent, on account of their

inconsistency with the Gallican liberties. In 1564-1566 he accompanied

the young king on an extended tour through France; and in 1566 he was

instrumental in the promulgation of an important edict for the reform of

abuses in the administration of justice. The renewal of the religious

war in September 1567, however, was at once a symptom and a cause of

diminished influence to L'Hôpital, and in February 1568 he obtained his

letters of discharge, which were registered by the parlement on the 11th

of May, his titles, honours and emoluments being reserved to him during

the remainder of his life. Henceforward he lived a life of unbroken

seclusion at Vignay, his only subsequent public appearance being by

means of a _mémoire_ which he addressed to the king in 1570 under the

title _Le But de la guerre et de la paix, ou discours du chancelier

l'Hospital pour exhorter Charles IX. à donner la paix à ses sujets_.

Though not exempt from considerable danger, he passed in safety through

the troubles of St Bartholomew's eve. His death took place either at

Vignay or at Bellébat on the 13th of March 1573.

After his death Pibrac, assisted by De Thou and Scévole de

Sainte-Marthe, collected a volume of the _Poemata_ of L'Hôpital, and

in 1585 his grandson published _Epistolarum seu Sermonum libri sex_.

The complete _Oeuvres de l'Hôpital_ were published for the first time

by P. J. S. Dufey (5 vols., Paris, 1824-1825). They include his

"Harangues" and "Remonstrances," the _Epistles_, the _Mémoire_ to

Charles IX., a _Traité de la réformation de la justice_, and his will.

See also A. F. Villemain, _Vie du Chancelier de l'Hôpital_ (Paris,

1874); R. G. E. T; St-René Taillandier, _Le Chancelier de l'Hospital_

(Paris, 1861); Dupré-Lasalle, _Michel de l'Hospital avant son

élévation au poste de chancelier de France_ (Paris, 1875-1899);

Amphoux, _Michel de l'Hospital et la liberté de conscience au XVI^e

siècle_ (Paris, 1900); C. T. Atkinson, _Michel de l'Hospital_ (London,

1900), containing an appendix on bibliography and sources; A. E. Shaw,

_Michel de l'Hospital and his Policy_ (London, 1905); and Eugène and

Emile Haag, _La France protestante_ (2nd ed., 1877 seq.).

LIAO-YANG, a city of China, formerly the chief town of the province of

Liao-tung or Shêng-king (southern Manchuria), 35 m. S of Mukden. It is

situated in a rich cotton district in the fertile valley of the Liao, on

the road between Niuchwang and Mukden, and carries on a considerable

trade. The walls include an area about 2½ m. long by 2 m. broad, and

there are fairly extensive suburbs; but a good deal even of the enclosed

area is under cultivation. The population is estimated at 100,000.

Liao-yang was one of the first objectives of the Japanese during the

Russo-Japanese War, and its capture by them resulted in some of the

fiercest fighting during the campaign, from the 24th of August to the

4th of September 1904.

LIAS, in geology, the lowermost group of Jurassic strata. Originally the

name seems to have been written "Lyas"; it is most probably a provincial

form of "layers," strata, employed by quarrymen in the west of England;

it has been suggested, however, that the Fr. _liais_, Breton _leach_ = a

stone, Gaelic _leac_ = flat stone, may have given rise to the English

"Lias." Liassic strata occupy an important position in England, where

they crop out at Lyme Regis on the Dorsetshire coast and extend thence

by Bath, along the western flank of the Cotswold Hills, forming Edge

Hill and appearing at Banbury, Rugby, Melton, Grantham, Lincoln, to

Redcar on the coast of Yorkshire. They occur also in Glamorganshire,

Shropshire, near Carlisle, in Skye, Raasay (Pabba, Scalpa and Broadfoot

beds), and elsewhere in the north of Scotland, and in the north-east of

Ireland. East of the belt of outcrop indicated, the Lias is known to

occur beneath the younger rocks for some distance farther east, but it

is absent from beneath London, Reading, Ware, Harwich, Dover, and in the

southern portion of the area in which these towns lie; the Liassic rocks

are probably thinned out against a concealed ridge of more ancient

rocks. The table on following page will serve to illustrate the general

characters of the English Lias and the subdivisions adopted by the

Geological Survey. By the side are shown the principal zonal ammonites,

and, for comparison, the subdivisions preferred by Messrs Tate and Blake

and by A. de Lapparent.

The important fact is clearly demonstrated in the table, that where the

Lias is seen in contact with the Trias below or the Inferior Oolite

above, there is, as a rule, a gradual passage from the Liassic

formation, both downwards and upwards; hence Professor de Lapparent

includes in his _Liassique System_ the zone of _Ammonites opalinus_ at

the top, and the Rhaetic beds at the bottom (see OOLITE; RHAETIC). Owing

to the transgression of the Liassic sea the strata rest in places upon

older Palaeozoic rocks. The thickness of the Lias varies considerably;

in Dorsetshire it is 900 ft., near Bath it has thinned to 280 ft., and

beneath Oxford it is further reduced. In north Gloucestershire it is

1360 ft., Northampton 760 ft., Rutland 800 ft., Lincolnshire 950 ft.,

and in Yorkshire about 500 ft.

The Lias of England was laid down in conditions very similar to those

which obtained at the same time in north France and north Germany, that is

to say, on the floor of a shallow sea; but in the Alpine region limestones

are developed upon a much greater scale. Many of the limestones are red

and crystalline marbles such as the "ammonitico-rosso-inferiore" of the

Apennines; a grey, laminated limestone is known as the "Fleckenmergel."

The whitish "Hierlatzkalke," the Adnet beds and the "Grestener beds" in

the eastern Alps and Balkan Mountains are important phases of Alpine Lias.

The Grestener beds contain a considerable amount of coal. The Lias of

Spain and the Pyrenees contains much dolomitic limestone. This formation

is widely spread in western Europe; besides the localities already cited

it occurs in Swabia, the Rhenish provinces, Alsace-Lorraine, Luxemburg,

Ardennes, Normandy, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan States, Greece and Scania.

It has not been found north of Kharkov in Russia, but it is present in the

south and in the Caucasus, in Anatolia, Persia and the Himalayas. It

appears on the eastern side of Japan, in Borneo, Timor, New Caledonia and

New Zealand (Bastion beds); in Algeria, Tunisia and elsewhere in North

Africa, and on the west coast of Madagascar. In South America it is found

in the Bolivian Andes, in Chile and Argentina; it appears also on the

Pacific coast of North America.

+-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+

+-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+

| p i | | | | | of the Inferior Oolite.) |

| r . | | | " _annulatus_ \ | |

+-----+------------------------------+-------------------+------------------- | ---+-------------------------------+

| M | | | | | |

| d i | (Rock Bed and Ironstones) | | | | |

| l s | | | | | |

| e . | | | > M. | |

+-----+------------------------------+------------------ +------------------- | | Charmouthien. | and

| L L | | | and | | |

| o i | | | " _armatus_ / | |

| w a | | | +-------------------------------+

+-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+

+-----+------------------------------+-------------------+--------------------------+-------------------------------+

* The brackets indicate the divisions made by R. Tate and J. F. Blake.

** _Traité de géologie_ (5th ed., Paris, 1906).

The economic products of the Lias are of considerable importance. In

the Lower Lias of Lincolnshire and the Middle Lias of Oxfordshire,

Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire and Yorkshire the beds

of ironstone are of great value. Most of these ores are limestones

that have been converted into iron carbonate with some admixture of

silicates; they weather near the surface into hydrated peroxide. At

Frodingham in Lincolnshire the oolitic iron ore reaches 30 ft. in

thickness, of which 12 ft. are workable. In Gloucestershire the top

beds of the Lower Lias and lower beds of the Middle division are the

most ferruginous; the best ores near Woodstock and Banbury and between

Market Harborough and Leicester are at the summit of the Middle Lias

in the Marlstone or Rock bed. The ironstone of Fawler is sometimes

known as Blenheim ore. The ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire

have a great reputation; the main seam is 11 ft. thick at Eston, where

it rests directly upon the Pecten Seam, the two together aggregating

15 ft. 6 in. Similar iron ores of this age are worked at

Meurthe-et-Moselle, Villerupt, Marbache, Longuy, Champagneulles, &c.

Some of the Liassic limestones are used as building stones, the more

important ones being the Lower Lias Sutton stone of Glamorganshire and

Middle Lias Hornton stone, the best of the Lias building stones, from

Edge Hill. The limestones are often used for paving. The limestones of

the Lower Lias are much used for the production of hydraulic cement

and "Blue Lias" lime at Rugby, Barrow-on-Soar, Barnstone, Lyme Regis,

Abertham and many other places. Roman cement has been made from the

nodules in the Upper Lias of Yorkshire; alum is obtained from the same

horizon. A considerable trade was formerly done in jet, the best

quality being obtained from the "Serpentinus" beds, but "bastard" or

soft jet is found in many of the other strata in the Yorkshire Lias.

Both Lower and Upper Lias clays have been used in making bricks and

tiles.

Fossils are abundant in the Lias; Lyme Regis, Shepton Mallet, Rugby,

Robin Hood's Bay, Ilminster, Whitby and Golden Cap near Charmouth are

well-known localities. The saurian reptiles, _Ichthyosaurus_ and

_Plesiosaurus_, are found in excellent preservation along with the

Pterodactyl. Among the fishes are _Hybodus_, _Dapedius_,

_Pholidophorus_, _Acrodus_. The crinoids, _Pentacrinus_ and

_Extracrinus_ are locally abundant. Insect remains are very abundant

in certain beds. Many ammonites occur in this formation in addition to

the forms used as zonal indexes mentioned in the table. _Lima

gigantea_, _Posidonomya Bronni_, _Inoceramus dubius_, _Gryphaea

cymbium_ and _G. arcuata_ are common pelecypods. _Amberleya

capitanea_, _Pleurotomaria anglica_ are Lias gasteropods. _Leptaena_,

_Spiriferina_, _Terebratella_ and _Rhynchonella tetrahedra_ and _R.

variabilis_ are among the brachiopods.

Certain dark limestones with regular bedding which occur in the

Carboniferous System are sometimes called "Black Lias" by quarrymen.

See "The Lias of England and Wales" (Yorkshire excepted), by H. B.

Woodward, _Geol. Survey Memoir_ (London, 1893); and, for Yorkshire,

"The Jurassic Rocks of Britain," vol. i., "Yorkshire," by C.

Fox-Strangways, _Geol. Survey Memoir_. See also JURASSIC.

(J. A. H.)

LIBANIUS (A.D. 314-393), Greek sophist and rhetorician, was born at

Antioch, the capital of Syria. He studied at Athens, and spent most of

his earlier manhood in Constantinople and Nicomedia. His private classes

at Constantinople were much more popular than those of the public

professors, who had him expelled in 346 (or earlier) on the charge of

studying magic. He removed his school to Nicomedia, where he remained

five years. After another attempt to settle in Constantinople, he

finally retired to Antioch (354). Though a pagan, he enjoyed the favour

of the Christian emperors. When Julian, his special patron, restored

paganism as the state religion, Libanius showed no intolerance. Among

his pupils he numbered John Chrysostom, Basil (bishop of Caesarea) and

Ammianus Marcellinus. His works, consisting chiefly of orations

(including his autobiography), declamations on set topics, letters, life

of Demosthenes, and arguments to all his orations are voluminous. He

devoted much time to the classical Greek writers, and had a thorough

contempt for Rome and all things Roman. His speeches and letters throw

considerable light on the political and literary history of the age. The

letters number 1607 in the Greek original; with these were formerly

included some 400 in Latin, purporting to be a translation, but now

proved to be a forgery by the Italian humanist F. Zambeccari (15th

century).

Editions: Orations and declamations, J. J. Reiske (1791-1797);

letters, J. C. Wolf (1738); two additional declamations, R. Förster

(_Hermes_, ix. 22, xii. 217), who in 1903 began the publication of a

complete edition; _Apologia Socratis_, Y. H. Rogge (1891). See also E.

Monnier, _Histoire de Libanius_ (1866); L. Petit, _Essai sur la vie et

la correspondance du sophiste Libanius_ (1866); G. R. Sievers, _Das

Leben des Libanius_ (1868); R. Förster, _F. Zambeccari und die Briefe

des Libanius_ (1878). Some letters from the emperor Julian to Libanius

will be found in R. Hercher, _Epistolographi Graeci_ (1873). Sixteen

letters to Julian have been translated by J. Duncombe (_The Works of

the Emperor Julian_, i. 303-332, 3rd ed., London, 1798). The oration

on the emperor Julian is translated by C. W. King (in Bohn's

"Classical Library," London, 1888), and that in Defence of the Temples

of the Heathen by Dr Lardner (in a volume of translations by Thomas

Taylor, from Celsus and others, 1830). See further J. E. Sandys,

_Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, i. (1906), and A. Harrent, _Les

Écoles d'Antioche_ (1898).

LIBATION (Lat. _libatio_, from _libare_, to take a portion of something,

to taste, hence to pour out as an offering to a deity, &c.; cf. Gr.

[Greek: leibein]), a drink offering, the pouring out of a small quantity

of wine, milk or other liquid as a ceremonial act. Such an act was

performed in honour of the dead (Gr. [Greek: choai], Lat.

_profusiones_), in making of treaties (Gr. [Greek: spondê, spendein] =

_libare_, whence [Greek: spondai], treaty), and particularly in honour

of the gods (Gr. [Greek: loibê], Lat. _libatio_, _libamentum_,

_libamen_). Such libations to the gods were made as part of the daily

ritual of domestic worship, or at banquets or feasts to the Lares, or to

special deities, as by the Greeks to Hermes, the god of sleep, when

going to rest.

LIBAU (Lettish, _Leepaya_), a seaport of Russia, in the government of

Courland, 145 m. by rail S.W. of Riga, at the northern extremity of a

narrow sandy peninsula which separates Lake Libau (12 m. long and 2 m.

wide) from the Baltic Sea. Its population has more than doubled since

1881 (30,000), being 64,505 in 1897. The town is well built of stone,

with good gardens, and has a naval cathedral (1903). The harbour was 2

m. S. of the town until a canal was dug through the peninsula in 1697;

it is now deepened to 23 ft., and is mostly free from ice throughout the

year. Since being brought, in 1872, into railway connexion with Moscow,

Orel and Kharkov, Libau has become an important port. New Libau

possesses large factories for colours, explosives, machinery belts,

sails and ropes, tobacco, furniture, matches, as well as iron works,

agricultural machinery works, tin-plate works, soap works, saw-mills,

breweries, oil-mills, cork and linoleum factories and flour-mills. The

exports reach the annual value of £3,250,000 to £5,500,000, oats being

the chief export, with flour, wheat, rye, butter, eggs, spirits, flax,

linseed, oilcake, pork, timber, horses and petroleum. The imports

average £1,500,000 to £2,000,000 annually. Shipbuilding, including

steamers for open-sea navigation, is on the increase. North of the

commercial harbour and enclosing it the Russian government made

(1893-1906) a very extensive fortified naval port, protected by moles

and breakwaters. Libau is visited for sea-bathing in summer.

The port of Libau, _Lyra portus_, is mentioned as early as 1263; it then

belonged to the Livonian Order or Brothers of the Sword. In 1418 it was

burnt by the Lithuanians, and in 1560 it was mortgaged by the

grandmaster of the Teutonic Order, to which it had passed, to the

Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was captured by Charles XII. of Sweden,

and was annexed to Russia in 1795.

See Wegner, _Geschichte der Stadt Libau_ (Libau, 1898).

LIBEL and SLANDER, the terms employed in English law to denote injurious

attacks upon a man's reputation or character by words written or spoken,

or by equivalent signs. In most early systems of law verbal injuries are

treated as a criminal or quasi-criminal offence, the essence of the

injury lying not in pecuniary loss, which may be compensated by damages,

but in the personal insult which must be atoned for--a vindictive

penalty coming in the place of personal revenge. By the law of the XII.

Tables, the composition of scurrilous songs and gross noisy public

affronts were punished by death. Minor offences of the same class seem

to have found their place under the general conception of _injuria_,

which included ultimately every form of direct personal aggression which

involved contumely or insult. In the later Roman jurisprudence, which

has, on this point, exercised considerable influence over modern systems

of law, verbal injuries are dealt with in the edict under two heads. The

first comprehended defamatory and injurious statements made in a public

manner (_convicium contra bonos mores_). In this case the essence of the

offence lay in the unwarrantable public proclamation. In such a case the

truth of the statements was no justification for the unnecessarily

public and insulting manner in which they had been made. The second head

included defamatory statements made in private, and in this case the

offence lay in the imputation itself, not in the manner of its

publication. The truth was therefore a sufficient defence, for no man

had a right to demand legal protection for a false reputation. Even

belief in the truth was enough, because it took away the intention which

was essential to the notion of _injuria_. The law thus aimed at giving

sufficient scope for the discussion of a man's character, while it

protected him from needless insult and pain. The remedy for verbal

injuries was long confined to a civil action for a money penalty, which

was estimated according to the gravity of the case, and which, although

vindictive in its character, doubtless included practically the element

of compensation. But a new remedy was introduced with the extension of

the criminal law, under which many kinds of defamation were punished

with great severity. At the same time increased importance attached to

the publication of defamatory books and writings, the _libri_ or

_libelli famosi_, from which we derive our modern use of the word libel;

and under the later emperors the latter term came to be specially

applied to anonymous accusations or pasquils, the dissemination of which

was regarded as peculiarly dangerous, and visited with very severe

punishment, whether the matter contained in them were true or false.

The earlier history of the English law of defamation is somewhat

obscure. Civil actions for damages seem to have been tolerably frequent

so far back as the reign of Edward I. There was no distinction drawn

between words written and spoken. When no pecuniary penalty was involved

such cases fell within the old jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical

courts, which was only finally abolished in the 19th century. It seems,

to say the least, uncertain whether any generally applicable criminal

process was in use. The crime of _scandalum magnatum_, spreading false

reports about the magnates of the realm, was established by statutes,

but the first fully reported case in which libel is affirmed generally

to be punishable at common law is one tried in the star chamber in the

reign of James I. In that case no English authorities are cited except a

previous case of the same nature before the same tribunal; the law and

terminology appear to be taken directly from Roman sources, with the

insertion that libels tended to a breach of the peace; and it seems

probable that that not very scrupulous tribunal had simply found it

convenient to adopt the very stringent Roman provisions regarding the

_libelli famosi_ without paying any regard to the Roman limitations.

From that time we find both the criminal and civil remedies in full

operation, and the law with regard to each at the present time may now

be considered.

_Civil Law._--The first important distinction encountered is that

between slander and libel, between the oral and written promulgation of

defamatory statements. In the former case the remedy is limited. The law

will not take notice of every kind of abusive or defamatory language. It

must be shown either that the plaintiff has suffered actual damage as a

direct consequence of the slander, or that the imputation is of such a

nature that we are entitled to infer damage as a necessary consequence.

The special damage on which an action is founded for slanderous words

must be of the nature of pecuniary loss. Loss of reputation or of

position in society, or even illness, however clearly it may be traced

to the slander, is insufficient. When we cannot prove special damage,

the action for slander is only allowed upon certain strictly defined

grounds. These are the imputation of a crime or misdemeanour which is

punishable corporeally, e.g. by imprisonment; the imputation of a

contagious or infectious disease; statements which tend to the

disherison of an apparent heir (other cases of slander of title when the

party is in possession requiring the allegation of special damage); the

accusing a woman of unchastity (Slander of Women Act 1891); and, lastly,

slanders directed against a man's professional or business character,

which tend directly to prejudice him in his trade, profession, or means

of livelihood. In the latter case the words must either be directly

aimed at a man in his business or official character, or they must be

such as necessarily to imply unfitness for his particular office or

occupation. Thus words which merely reflect generally upon the moral

character of a tradesman or professional man are not actionable, but

they are actionable if directed against his dealings in the course of

his trade or profession. But, in the case of a merchant or trader, an

allegation which affects his credit generally is enough, and it has been

held that statements are actionable which affect the ability or moral

characters of persons who hold offices, or exercise occupation which

require a high degree of ability, or infer peculiar confidence. In every

case the plaintiff must have been at the time of the slander in the

actual exercise of the occupation or enjoyment of the office with

reference to which the slander is supposed to have affected him.

The action for libel is not restricted in the same way as that for

slander. Originally there appears to have been no essential distinction

between them, but the establishment of libel as a criminal offence had

probably considerable influence, and it soon became settled that written

defamatory statements, or pictures and other signs which bore a

defamatory meaning, implied greater malice and deliberation, and were

generally fraught with greater injury than those made by word of mouth.

The result has been that the action for libel is not limited to special

grounds, or by the necessity of proving special damage. It may be

founded on any statement which disparages a man's private or

professional character, or which tends to hold him up to hatred,

contempt or ridicule. In one of the leading cases, for example, the

plaintiff obtained damages because it was said of him that he was a

hypocrite, and had used the cloak of religion for unworthy purposes. In

another case a charge of ingratitude was held sufficient. In civil cases

the libel must be published by being brought by the defendant under the

notice of a third party; it has been held that it is sufficient if this

has been done by gross carelessness, without deliberate intention to

publish. Every person is liable to an action who is concerned in the

publication of a libel, whether he be the author, printer or publisher;

and the extent and manner of the publication, although not affecting the

ground of the action, is a material element in estimating the damages.

It is not necessary that the defamatory character of the words or

writing complained of should be apparent on their face. They may be

couched in the form of an insinuation, or may derive their sting from a

reference to circumstances understood by the persons to whom they are

addressed. In such a case the plaintiff must make the injurious sense

clear by an averment called an innuendo, and it is for the jury to say

whether the words bore the meaning thus ascribed to them.

In all civil actions for slander and libel the falsity of the injurious

statements is an essential element, so that the defendant is always

entitled to justify his statements by their truth; but when the

statements are in themselves defamatory, their falsity is presumed, and

the burden of proving their truth is laid upon the defendant. There are

however a large class of false defamatory statements, commonly called

privileged, which are not actionable on account of the particular

circumstances in which they are made. The general theory of law with

regard to these cases is this. It is assumed that in every case of

defamation intention is a necessary element; but in the ordinary case,

when a statement is false and defamatory, the law presumes that it has

been made or published with an evil intent, and will not allow this

presumption to be rebutted by evidence or submitted as matter of fact to

a jury. But there are certain circumstances in which the natural

presumption is quite the other way. There are certain natural and proper

occasions on which statements may be made which are in themselves

defamatory, and which may be false, but which naturally suggest that the

statements may have been made from a perfectly proper motive and with

entire belief in their truth. In the cases of this kind which are

recognized by law, the presumption is reversed. It lies with the

plaintiff to show that the defendant was actuated by what is called

_express malice_, by an intention to do harm, and in this case the

question is not one of legal inference for the court, but a matter of

fact to be decided by the jury. Although, however, the theory of the law

seems to rest entirely upon natural presumption of intention, it is

pretty clear that in determining the limits of privilege the courts have

been almost wholly guided by considerations of public or general

expediency.

In some cases the privilege is absolute, so that we cannot have an

action for defamation even although we prove express malice. Thus no

action of this kind can be maintained for statements made in judicial

proceedings if they are in any sense relevant to the matter in hand. In

the same way no statements or publications are actionable which are made

in the ordinary course of parliamentary proceedings. Papers published

under the authority of parliament are protected by a special act, 3 & 4

Vict. c. 9, 1840, which was passed after a decree of the law courts

adverse to the privilege claimed. The reports of judicial and

parliamentary proceedings stand in a somewhat different position, which

has only been attained after a long and interesting conflict. The

general rule now is that all reports of parliamentary or judicial

proceedings are privileged in so far as they are honest and impartial.

Even _ex parte_ proceedings, in so far as they take place in public, now

fall within the same rule. But if the report is garbled, or if part of

it only is published, the party who is injured in consequence is

entitled to maintain an action, and to have the question of malice

submitted to a jury.

Both absolute and qualified privilege are given to newspaper reports

under certain conditions by the Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888. The

reports must, however, be published in a newspaper as defined in the

Newspaper Libel and Registration Act 1881. Under this act a newspaper

must be published "at intervals not exceeding twenty-six days."

By s. 3 of the act of 1888 fair and accurate reports of judicial

proceedings are absolutely privileged provided that the report is

published contemporaneously with the proceedings and no blasphemous or

indecent matter is contained therein. By s. 4 a limited privilege is

given to fair and accurate reports (1) of the proceedings of a _bona

fide_ public meeting lawfully held for a lawful purpose and for the

furtherance and discussion of any matter of public concern, even when

the admission thereto is restricted; (2) of any meeting, open either

to the public or to a reporter, of a vestry, town council, school

board, board of guardians, board of local authority, formed or

constituted under the provisions of any act of parliament, or of any

committee appointed by any of these bodies; or of any meeting of any

commissioners authorized to act by letters patent, act of parliament,

warrant under royal sign manual, or other lawful warrant or authority,

select committees of either House of parliament, justices of the peace

in quarter sessions assembled for administrative or deliberative

purposes; (3) of the publication of any notice or report issued for

the information of the public by any government office or department,

officer of state, commissioner of police or chief constable, and

published at their request. But the privilege given in s. 4 does not

authorize the publication of any blasphemous or indecent matter; nor

is the protection available as a defence if it be proved that the

reports or notices were published maliciously, in the legal sense of

the word, or the defendant has been requested to insert in the

newspaper in which the report was issued a reasonable letter or

statement by way of contradiction or explanation, and has refused or

neglected to do so. Moreover, nothing in s. 4 is to interfere with any

privilege then existing, or to protect the publication of any matter

not of public concern, or in cases where publication is not for the

public benefit. Consequently no criminal prosecution should be

commenced where the interests of the public are not affected. By the

Law of Libel Amendment Act 1888, s. 8, no criminal prosecution for

libel is to be commenced against any newspaper proprietor, publisher

or editor unless the order of a judge at chambers has been first

obtained. This protection does not cover the actual writer of the

alleged libel.

In private life a large number of statements are privileged so long as

they remain matters of strictly private communication. It is difficult

to define the limits of private privilege without extensive reference to

concrete cases; but generally it may be said that it includes all

communications made in performance of a duty not merely legal but moral

or social, answers to _bona fide_ inquiries, communications made by

persons in confidential relations regarding matters in which one or both

are interested, and even statements made within proper limits by persons

in the _bona fide_ prosecution of their own interest. Common examples of

this kind of privilege are to be found in answer to inquiries as to the

character of servants or the solvency of a trader, warnings to a friend,

communications between persons who are jointly interested in some

matters of business. But in every case care must be taken not to exceed

the limits of publication required by the occasion, or otherwise the

privilege is lost. Thus defamatory statements may be privileged when

made to a meeting of shareholders, but not when published to others who

have no immediate concern in the business.

In a few instances in which an action cannot be maintained even by the

averment of malice, the plaintiff may maintain an action by averring not

only malice but also want of reasonable and probable cause. The most

common instances of this kind are malicious charges made in the ordinary

course of justice and malicious prosecutions. In such cases it would be

contrary to public policy to punish or prevent every charge which was

made from a purely malicious motive, but there is no reason for

protecting accusations which are not only malicious, but destitute of

all reasonable probability.

_Criminal Law._--Publications which are blasphemous, immoral or

seditious are frequently termed libels, and are punishable both at

common law and by various statutes. The matter, however, which

constitutes the offence in these publications lies beyond our present

scope. Libels upon individuals may be prosecuted by criminal information

or indictment, but there can be no criminal prosecution for slander. So

far as concerns the definition of libel, and its limitation by the

necessity of proving in certain cases express malice, there is no

substantial difference between the rules which apply to criminal

prosecutions and to civil actions, with the one important exception

(now considerably modified) that the falsity of a libel is not in

criminal law an essential element of the offence. If the matter alleged

were in itself defamatory, the court would not permit inquiry into its

truth. The sweeping application of this rule seems chiefly due to the

indiscriminate use, in earlier cases, of a rule in Roman law which was

only applicable to certain modes of publication, but has been supported

by various reasons of general policy, and especially by the view that

one main reason for punishing a libel was its tendency to provoke a

breach of the peace.

An important dispute about the powers of the jury in cases of libel

arose during the 19th century in connexion with some well-known trials

for seditious libels. The point is familiar to readers of Macaulay in

connexion with the trial of the seven bishops, but the cases in which it

was brought most prominently forward, and which led to its final

settlement, were those against Woodfall (the printer of _Junius_),

Wilkes and others, and especially the case against Shipley, the dean of

St Asaph (21 St. Tr. 925), in which the question was fought by Lord

Erskine with extraordinary energy and ability. The controversy turned

upon the question whether the jury were to be strictly confined to

matters of fact which required to be proved by evidence, or whether in

every case they were entitled to form their own opinion upon the

libellous character of the publication and the intention of the author.

The jury, if they pleased, had it in their power to return a general

verdict of guilty or not guilty, but both in theory and practice they

were subject in law to the directions of the court, and had to be

informed by it as to what they were to take into consideration in

determining upon their verdict. There is no difficulty about the general

application of this principle in criminal trials. If the crime is one

which is inferred by law from certain facts, the jury are only concerned

with these facts, and must accept the construction put upon them by law.

Applying these principles to the case of libel, juries were directed

that it was for the court to determine whether the publication fell

within the definition of libel, and whether the case was one in which

malice was to be inferred by construction of law. If the case were one

in which malice was inferred by law, the only facts left to the jury

were the fact of publication and the meaning averred by innuendoes; they

could not go into the question of intention, unless the case were one of

privilege, in which express malice had to be proved. In general

principle, therefore, the decisions of the court were in accordance with

the ordinary principles of criminal law. But there were undoubtedly some

peculiarities in the case of libel. The sense of words, the inferences

to be drawn from them, and the effect which they produce are not so

easily defined as gross matters of fact. They seem to belong to those

cases in which the impression made upon a jury is more to be trusted

than the decision of a judge. Further, owing to the mode of procedure,

the defendant was often punished before the question of law was

determined. But, nevertheless, the question would scarcely have been

raised had the libels related merely to private matters. The real ground

of dispute was the liberty to be accorded to political discussion. Had

the judges taken as wide a view of privilege in discussing matters of

public interest as they do now, the question could scarcely have arisen;

for Erskine's whole contention really amounted to this, that the jury

were entitled to take into consideration the good or bad intent of the

authors, which is precisely the question which would now be put before

them in any matter which concerned the public. But at that time the

notion of a special privilege attaching to political discussion had

scarcely arisen, or was confined within very narrow limits, and the

cause of free political discussion seemed to be more safely entrusted to

juries than to courts. The question was finally settled by the Libel Act

1792, by which the jury were entitled to give a general verdict on the

whole matter put in issue.

_Scots Law._--In Scots law there were originally three remedies for

defamation. It might be prosecuted by or with the concurrence of the

lord advocate before the court of justiciary; or, secondly, a criminal

remedy might be obtained in the commissary (ecclesiastical) courts,

which originally dealt with the defender by public retractation or

penance, but subsequently made use of fines payable to their own

procurator or to the party injured, these latter being regarded as

solatium to his feelings; or, lastly, an action of damages was

competent before the court of session, which was strictly civil in its

character and aimed at the reparation of patrimonial loss. The first

remedy has fallen into disuse; the second and third (the commissary

courts being now abolished) are represented by the present action for

damages or solatium. Originally the action before the court of session

was strictly for damages--founded, not upon the _animus injuriandi_,

but upon culpa, and could be defended by proving the truth of the

statements. But in time the court of session began to assume the

original jurisdiction of the commissary courts, and entertained

actions for solatium in which the _animus injuriandi_ was a necessary

element, and to which, as in Roman law, the truth was not necessarily

a defence. Ultimately the two actions got very much confused. We find

continual disputes as to the necessity for the _animus injuriandi_ and

the applicability of the plea of _veritas convicii_, which arose from

the fact that the courts were not always conscious that they were

dealing with two actions, to one of which these notions were

applicable, and to the other not. On the introduction of the jury

court, presided over by an English lawyer, it was quite natural that

he, finding no very clear distinction maintained between damage and

solatium, applied the English plea of truth as a justification to

every case, and retained the _animus injuriandi_ both in ordinary

cases and cases of privilege in the same shape as the English

conception of malice. The leading and almost only differences between

the English and Scots law now are that the latter makes no essential

distinction between oral and written defamation, that it practically

gives an action for every case of defamation, oral or written, upon

which in England a civil action might be maintained for libel, and

that it possesses no criminal remedy. In consequence of the latter

defect and the indiscriminate application of the plea of veritas to

every case both of damages and solatium, there appears to be no remedy

in Scotland even for the widest and most needless publication of

offensive statements if only they are true.

_American Law._--American law scarcely if at all differs from that of

England. In so far indeed as the common law is concerned, they may be

said to be substantially identical. The principal statutes which have

altered the English criminal law are represented by equivalent

legislation in most American states.

See generally W. B. Odgers, _Libel and Slander_; Fraser, _Law of Libel

and Slander_.

LIBELLATICI, the name given to a class of persons who, during the

persecution of Decius, A.D. 250, evaded the consequences of their

Christian belief by procuring documents (_libelli_) which certified that

they had satisfied the authorities of their submission to the edict

requiring them to offer incense or sacrifice to the imperial gods. As

thirty-eight years had elapsed since the last period of persecution, the

churches had become in many ways lax, and the number of those who failed

to hold out under the persecution was very great. The procedure of the

courts which had cognizance of the matter was, however, by no means

strict, and the judges and subordinate officials were often not

ill-disposed towards Christians, so that evasion was fairly easy. Many

of those who could not hold out were able to secure certificates which

gave them immunity from punishment without actually renouncing the

faith, just as "parliamentary certificates" of conformity used to be

given in England without any pretext of fact. It is to the persons who

received such certificates that the name _libellatici_ belonged (those

who actually fulfilled the edict being called _thurificati_ or

_sacrificati_). To calculate their number would be impossible, but we

know from the writings of Cyprian, Dionysius of Alexandria and other

contemporaries, that they were a numerous class, and that they were to

be found in Italy, in Egypt and in Africa, and among both clergy and

laity. Archbishop Benson is probably right in thinking that "there was

no systematic and regular procedure in the matter," and that the

_libelli_ may have been of very different kinds. They must, however, as

a general rule, have consisted of a certificate _from the authorities_

to the effect that the accused person had satisfied them. [The name

_libellus_ has also been applied to another kind of document--to the

letters given by confessors, or by those who were about to suffer

martyrdom, to persons who had fallen, to be used to secure forgiveness

for them from the authorities of the Church. With such _libelli_ we are

not here concerned.] The subject has acquired a fresh interest from the

fact that two of these actual _libelli_ have been recovered, in 1893 and

1894 respectively, both from Egypt; one is now in the Brugsch Pasha

collection in the Berlin Museum; the other is in the collection of

papyri belonging to the Archduke Rainer. The former is on a papyrus leaf

about 8 by 3 in., the latter on mere fragments of papyrus which have

been pieced together. The former was first deciphered and described by

Dr Fritz Krebs, the latter by Dr K. Wessely: both are given and

commented upon by Dr Benson. There is a remarkable similarity between

them: in each the form is that N. "was ever constant in sacrificing to

the gods"; and that he now, in the presence of the commissioners of the

sacrifices ([Greek: hoi hêrêmenoi tôn thysôn]), has both sacrificed and

drunk [_or_ has poured libations], and has tasted of the victims, in

witness whereof he begs them to sign this certificate. Then follows the

signature, with attestations. The former of the two is dated, and the

date must fall in the year 250. It is impossible to prove that either of

the documents actually refers to Christians: they may have been given to

pagans who had been accused and had cleared themselves, or to former

Christians who had apostatized. But no doubt _libelli_ in this same form

were delivered, in Egypt at least, to Christians who secured immunity

without actual apostasy; and the form in Italy and Africa probably did

not differ widely from this. The practice gave rise to complicated

problems of ecclesiastical discipline, which are reflected in the

correspondence of Cyprian and especially in the Novatian controversy.

See E. W. Benson, _Cyprian_ (London, 1897); _Theol. Literaturzeitung_,

20th of January and 17th of March 1894. (W. E. Co.)

LIBER and LIBERA, in Roman mythology, deities, male and female,

identified with the Greek Dionysus and Persephone. In honour of Liber

(also called Liber Pater and Bacchus) two festivals were celebrated. In

the country feast of the vintage, held at the time of the gathering of

the grapes, and the city festival of March 17th called _Liberalia_

(Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 711) we find purely Italian ceremonial unaffected

by Greek religion. The country festival was a great merry-making, where

the first-fruits of the new must were offered to the gods. It was

characterized by the grossest symbolism, in honour of the fertility of

nature. In the city festival, growing civilization had impressed a new

character on the primitive religion, and connected it with the framework

of society. At this time the youths laid aside the boy's _toga

praetexta_ and assumed the man's _toga libera_ or _virilis_ (_Fasti_,

iii. 771). Cakes of meal, honey and oil were offered to the two deities

at this festival. Liber was originally an old Italian god of the

productivity of nature, especially of the vine. His name indicated the

free, unrestrained character of his worship. When, at an early period,

the Hellenic religion of Demeter spread to Rome, Liber and Libera were

identified with Dionysus and Persephone, and associated with another

Italian goddess Ceres, who was identified with Demeter. By order of the

Sibylline books, a temple was built to these three deities near the

Circus Flaminius; the whole cultus was borrowed from the Greeks, down

even to the terminology, and priestesses were brought from the Greek

cities.

LIBERAL PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to and accepted by the

successors of the old Whig party (see WHIG AND TORY), representing the

political party opposed to Toryism or Conservatism, and claiming to be the

originators and champions of political reform and progressive legislation.

The term came into general use definitely as the name of one of the two

great parties in the state when Mr Gladstone became its leader, but before

this it had already become current coin, as a political appellation,

through a natural association with the use of such phrases as "liberal

ideas," in the sense of "favourable to change," or "in support of

political freedom and democracy." In this respect it was the outcome of

the French Revolution, and in the early years of the 19th century the term

was used in a French form; thus Southey in 1816 wrote about the "British

_Liberales_." But the Reform Act and the work of Bentham and Mill resulted

in the crystallization of the term. In Leigh Hunt's autobiography (1850)

we read of "newer and more thorough-going Whigs ... known by the name of

Radicals ... since called Liberals"; and J. S. Mill in 1865 wrote (from

his own Liberal point of view), "A Liberal is he who looks forward for his

principles of government; a Tory looks backward." The gradual adoption of

the term for one of the great parties, superseding "Whig," was helped by

the transition period of "Liberal Conservatism," describing the position

of the later Peelites; and Mr Gladstone's own career is the best instance

of its changing signification; moreover the adjective "liberal" came

meanwhile into common use in other spheres than that of parliamentary

politics, e.g. in religion, as meaning "intellectually advanced" and free

from the trammels of tradition. Broadly speaking, the Liberal party stands

for progressive legislation in accordance with freedom of social

development and advanced ethical ideas. It claims to represent government

by the people, by means of trust in the people, in a sense which denies

genuine popular sympathy to its opponents. Being largely composed of

dissenters, it has identified itself with opposition to the vested

interests of the Church of England; and, being apt to be thwarted by the

House of Lords, with attempts to override the veto of that house. Its old

watchword, "Peace, retrenchment and reform," indicated its tendency to

avoidance of a "spirited" foreign policy, and to parsimony in expenditure.

But throughout its career the Liberal party has always been pushed forward

by its extreme Radical wing, and economy in the spending of public money

is no longer cherished by those who chiefly represent the non-taxpaying

classes. The party organization lends itself to the influence of new

forces. In 1861 a central organization was started in the "Liberal

Registration Association," composed "of gentlemen of known Liberal

opinions"; and a number of "Liberal Associations" soon rose throughout the

country. Of these, that at Birmingham became, under Mr J. Chamberlain and

his active supporter Mr Schnadhorst, particularly active in the

'seventies; and it was due to Mr Schnadhorst that in 1877 a conference was

held at Birmingham which resulted in the formation of the "National

Federation of Liberal Associations," or "National Liberal Federation,"

representing a system of organization which was dubbed by Lord

Beaconsfield "the Caucus." The Birmingham Caucus and the Central Liberal

Association thus coexisted, the first as an independent democratic

institution, the second as the official body representing the whips of the

party, the first more advanced and "Radical," the second inclined to

Whiggishness. Friction naturally resulted, but the 1880 elections

confirmed the success of the Caucus and consolidated its power. And in

spite of the Home Rule crisis in 1886, resulting in the splitting off of

the Liberal Unionists--"dissentient Liberals," as Mr Gladstone called

them--from the Liberal party, the organization of the National Liberal

Federation remained, in the dark days of the party, its main support. Its

headquarters were, however, removed to London, and under Mr Schnadhorst it

was practically amalgamated with the old Central Association.

It is impossible here to write in detail the later history of the

Liberal party, but the salient facts will be found in such articles as

those on Mr Gladstone, Mr J. Chamberlain, Lord Rosebery, Sir Henry

Campbell-Bannerman, Mr H. H. Asquith and Mr David Lloyd George.

See, apart from general histories of the period, M. Ostrogorski's

_Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties_ (Eng. trans.

1902).

LIBER DIURNUS ROMANORUM PONTIFICUM, or "Journal of the Roman Pontiffs,"

the name given to a collection of formulae used in the papal chancellery

in preparing official documents, such as the installation of a pope, the

bestowal of the pallium and the grant of papal privileges. It was

compiled between 685 and 751, and was constantly employed until the 11th

century, when, owing to the changed circumstances of the Church, it fell

into disuse, and was soon forgotten and lost. During the 17th century a

manuscript of the _Liber_ was discovered in Rome by the humanist, Lucas

Holstenius, who prepared an edition for publication; for politic

reasons, however, the papal authorities would not allow this to appear,

as the book asserted the superiority of a general council over the pope.

It was, however, published in France by the Jesuit, Jean Garnier, in

1680, and other editions quickly followed.

The best modern editions are one by Eugène de Rozière (Paris, 1869)

and another by T. E. von Sichel (Vienna, 1889), both of which contain

critical introductions. The two existing manuscripts of the _Liber_

are in the Vatican library, Rome, and in the library of St Ambrose at

Milan.

LIBERIA, a negro republic in West Africa, extending along the coast of

northern Guinea about 300 m., between the British colony of Sierra Leone

on the N.W. and the French colony of the Ivory Coast on the S.E. The

westernmost point of Liberia (at the mouth of the river Mano) lies in

about 6° 55´ N. and 11° 32´ W. The southernmost point of Liberia, and at

the same time almost its most eastern extension, is at the mouth of the

Cavalla, beyond Cape Palmas, only 4° 22´ N. of the equator, and in about

7° 33´ W. The width of Liberia inland varies very considerably; it is

greatest, about 200 m., from N.E. to S.W. The Liberia-Sierra Leone

boundary was determined by a frontier commission in 1903. Commencing at

the mouth of the river Mano, it follows the Mano up stream till that

river cuts 10° 40´ W. It then followed this line of longitude to its

intersection with N. latitude 9° 6´, but by the Franco-Liberian

understanding of 1907 the frontier on this side was withdrawn to 8° 25´

N., where the river Makona crosses 10° 40' W. The Liberian frontier with

the adjacent French possessions was defined by the Franco-Liberian

treaty of 1892, but as the definition therein given was found to be very

difficult of reconciliation with geographical features (for in 1892 the

whole of the Liberian interior was unmapped) further negotiations were

set on foot. In 1905 Liberia proposed to France that the boundary line

should follow the river Moa from the British frontier of Sierra Leone up

stream to near the source of the Moa (or Makona), and that from this

point the boundary should run eastwards along the line of water-parting

between the system of the Niger on the north and that of the coast

rivers (Moa, Lofa, St Paul's) on the south, until the 8th degree of N.

latitude was reached, thence following this 8th degree eastwards to

where it cuts the head stream of the Cavalla river. From this point the

boundary between France and Liberia would be the course of the Cavalla

river from near its source to the sea. Within the limits above described

Liberia would possess a total area of about 43,000 to 45,000 sq. m. But

after deliberation and as the result of certain "frontier incidents"

France modified her counter-proposals in 1907, and the actual definition

of the northern and eastern frontiers of Liberia is as follows:--

Starting from the point on the frontier of the British colony of

Sierra Leone where the river Moa or Makona crosses that frontier, the

Franco-Liberian frontier shall follow the left bank of the river

Makona up stream to a point 5 kilometres to the south of the town of

Bofosso. From this point the frontier shall leave the line of the

Makona and be carried in a south-easterly direction to the source of

the most north-westerly affluent of the Nuon river or Western Cavalla.

This line shall be so drawn as to leave on the French side of the

boundary the following towns: Kutumai, Kisi Kurumai, Sundibú, Zuapa,

Nzibila, Koiama, Bangwedu and Lola. From the north-westernmost source

of the Nuon the boundary shall follow the right bank of the said Nuon

river down stream to its presumed confluence with the Cavalla, and

thenceforward the right bank of the river Cavalla down to the sea. If

the ultimate destination of the Nuon is not the Cavalla river, then

the boundary shall follow the right bank of the Nuon down stream as

far as the town of Tuleplan. A line shall then be drawn from the

southern outskirts of the town of Tuleplan due E. to the Cavalla

river, and thence shall follow the right bank of the Cavalla river to

the sea.

(The delimitation commission proved that the Nuon does not flow into

the Cavalla, but about 6° 30´ N. it flows very near the

north-westernmost bend of that river. Tuleplan is in about lat. 6° 50´

N. The river Makona takes a much more northerly course than had been

estimated. The river Nuon also is situated 20 or 30 m. farther to the

east than had been supposed. Consequently the territory of Liberia as

thus demarcated is rather larger than it would appear on the

uncorrected English maps of 1907--about 41,000 sq. m.)

It is at the southern extremity of Liberia, Cape Palmas, that the West

African coast from Morocco to the southernmost extremity of Guinea turns

somewhat abruptly eastwards and northwards and faces the Gulf of Guinea.

As the whole coastline of Liberia thus fronts the sea route from Europe

to South Africa it is always likely to possess a certain degree of

strategical importance. The coast, however, is unprovided with a single

good harbour. The anchorage at Monrovia is safe, and with some

expenditure of money a smooth harbour could be made in front of Grand

Basa.

_Coast Features._--The coast is a good deal indented, almost all the

headlands projecting from north-east to south-west. A good deal of

the seaboard is dangerous by reason of the sharp rocks which lie near

the surface. As most of the rivers have rapids or falls actually at

the sea coast or close to it, they are, with the exception of the

Cavalla, useless for penetrating far inland, and the whole of this

part of Africa from Cape Palmas north-west to the Senegal suggests a

sunken land. In all probability the western projection of Africa was

connected by a land bridge with the opposite land of Brazil as late as

the Eocene period of the Tertiary epoch. The Liberian coast has few

lagoons compared with the adjoining littoral of Sierra Leone or that

of the Ivory Coast. The coast, in fact, rises in some places rather

abruptly from the sea. Cape Mount (on the northern side of which is a

large lagoon--Fisherman Lake) at its highest point is 1050 ft. above

sea level. Cape Mesurado is about 350 ft., Cape Palmas about 200 ft.

above the sea. There is a salt lake or lagoon between the Cape Palmas

river and the vicinity of the Cavalla. Although very little of the

coast belt is actually swampy, a kind of natural canalization connects

many of the rivers at their mouths with each other, though some of

these connecting creeks are as yet unmarked on maps.

_Mountains._--Although there are patches of marsh--generally the

swampy bottoms of valleys--the whole surface of Liberia inclines to be

hilly or even mountainous at a short distance inland from the coast.

In the north-east, French explorers have computed the altitudes of

some mountains at figures which would make them the highest land

surfaces of the western projection of Africa--from 6000 to 9000 ft.

But these altitudes are largely matters of conjecture. The same

mountains have been sighted by English explorers coming up from the

south and are pronounced to be "very high." It is possible that they

may reach to 6000 ft. in some places. Between the western bend of the

Cavalla river and the coast there is a somewhat broken mountain range

with altitudes of from 2000 to 5000 ft. (approximate). The Po range to

the west of the St Paul's river may reach in places to 3000 ft.

_Rivers._--The work of the Franco-Liberian delimitation commission in

1908-1909 cleared up many points connected with the hydrography of the

country. Notably it traced the upper Cavalla, proving that that river

was not connected either with the Nuon on the west or the Ko or Zo on

the east. The upper river and the left bank of the lower river of the

Cavalla are in French territory. It rises in about 7° 50´ N., 8° 30´

W. in the Nimba mountains, where also rise the Nuon, St John's and

Dukwia rivers. After flowing S.E. the Cavalla, between 7° and 6° N.,

under the name of Dugu, makes a very considerable elbow to the west,

thereafter resuming its south-easterly course. It is navigable from

the sea for some 80 m. from its mouth and after a long series of

rapids is again navigable. Unfortunately the Cavalla does not afford a

means of easy penetration into the rich hinterland of Liberia on

account of the bad bar at its mouth. The Nuon (or Nipwe), which up to

1908 was described sometimes as the western Cavalla and sometimes as

the upper course of the St John's river, has been shown to be the

upper course of the Cestos. About 6° 30´ N. it approaches within 16 m.

of the Cavalla. It rises in the Nimba mountains some 10 m. S. of the

source of the Cavalla, and like all the Liberian rivers (except the

Cavalla) it has a general S.W. flow. The St Paul, though inferior to

the Cavalla in length, is a large river with a considerable volume of

water. The main branch rises in the Beila country nearly as far north

as 9° N. under the name of Diani. Between 8° and 7° N. it is joined by

the Wé from the west and the Walé from the east. The important river

Lofa flows nearly parallel with the St Paul's river and enters the sea

about 40 m. to the west, under the name of Little Cape Mount river.

The Mano or Bewa river rises in the dense Gora forest, but is of no

great importance until it becomes the frontier between Liberia and

Sierra Leone. The Dukwia and Farmington are tortuous rivers entering

the sea under the name of the river Junk (Portuguese, _Junco_). The

Farmington is a short stream, but the Dukwia is believed to be the

lower course of the Mani, which rises as the Tigney (Tige), north of

the source of the Cavalla, just south of 8° N. The St John's river of

the Basa country appears to be of considerable importance and volume.

The Sino river rises in the Niete mountains and brings down a great

volume of water to the sea, though it is not a river of considerable

length. The Duobe rises at the back of the Satro Mountains and flows

nearly parallel with the Cavalla, which it joins. The Moa or Makona

river is a fine stream of considerable volume, but its course is

perpetually interrupted by rocks and rapids. Its lower course is

through the territory of Sierra Leone, and it enters the sea as the

Sulima.

_Climate and Rainfall._--Liberia is almost everywhere well watered.

The climate and rainfall over the whole of the coast region for about

120 m. inland are equatorial, the rainfall in the western half of the

country being about 150 in. per annum and in the eastern half about

100 in. North of a distance of about 120 m. inland the climate is not

quite so rainy, and the weather is much cooler during the dry season.

This region beyond the hundred-miles coast belt is far more agreeable

and healthy to Europeans.

_Forests._--Outside a coast belt of about 20 m. and south of 8° N. the

country is one vast forest, except where the natives have cleared the

land for cultivation. In many districts the land has been cleared and

cultivated and then abandoned, and has relapsed into scrub and jungle

which is gradually returning to the condition of forest. The densest

forest of all would seem to be that known as Gora, which is almost

entirely uninhabited and occupies an area of about 6000 sq. m. between

the Po hills and the British frontier. There is another very dense

forest stretching with little interruption from the eastern side of

the St Paul's river nearly to the Cavalla. The Nidi forest is

noteworthy for its magnificent growth of _Funtumia_ rubber trees. It

extends between the Duobe and the Cavalla rivers. The extreme north of

Liberia is still for the most part a very well-watered country,

covered with a rich vegetation, but there are said to be a few breaks

that are rather stony and that have a very well-marked dry season in

which the vegetation is a good deal burnt up. In the main Liberia is

the forest country par excellence of West Africa, and although this

region of dense forests overlaps the political frontiers of both

Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast, it is a feature of physical

geography so nearly coincident with the actual frontiers of Liberia as

to give this country special characteristics clearly marked in its

existing fauna.

_Fauna._--The fauna of Liberia is sufficiently peculiar, at any rate

as regards vertebrates, to make it very nearly identical with a

"district" or sub-province of the West African province, though in

this case the Liberian "district" would not include the northern-most

portions of the country and would overlap on the east and west into

Sierra Leone and the French Ivory Coast. It is probable that the

Liberian chimpanzee may offer one or more distinct varieties; there is

an interesting local development of the Diana monkey, sometimes called

the bay-thighed monkey (_Cercopithecus diana ignita_) on account of

its brilliant orange-red thighs. One or more species of bats are

peculiar to the country--_Vespertilio stampflii_, and perhaps

_Roussettus büttikoferi_; two species of shrew (_Crocidura_), one

dormouse (_Graphiurus nagtglasii_); the pygmy hippopotamus (_H.

liberiensis_)--differing from the common hippopotamus by its much

smaller size and by the reduction of the incisor teeth to a single

pair in either jaw, or occasionally to the odd number of three; and

two remarkable _Cephalophus_ antelopes peculiar to this region so far

as is known--these are the white-shouldered duiker, _Cephalophus

jentinki_, and the zebra antelope, _C. doriae_, a creature the size of

a small goat, of a bright bay brown, with broad black zebra-like

stripes. Amongst other interesting mammals are four species of the

long-haired _Colobus_ monkeys (black, black and white, greenish-grey

and reddish-brown); the Potto lemur, fruit bats of large size with

monstrous heads (_Hypsignathus monstrosus_); the brush-tailed African

porcupine; several very brightly coloured squirrels; the scaly-tailed

flying _Anomalurus_; the common porcupine; the leopard, serval, golden

cat (_Felis celidogaster_) in two varieties, the copper-coloured and

the grey, possibly the same animal at different ages; the striped and

spotted hyenas (beyond the forest region); two large otters; the tree

hyrax, elephant and manati; the red bush pig (_Potamochoerus porcus_);

the West African chevrotain (_Dorcatherium_); the Senegalese buffalo;

Bongo antelope (_Boocercus_); large yellow-backed duiker (_Cephalophus

sylvicultrix_), black duiker, West African hartebeest (beyond the

forest), pygmy antelope (_Neotragus_); and three species of _Manis_ or

pangolin (_M. gigantea_, _M. longicaudata_ and _M. tricuspis_).

The birds of Liberia are not quite so peculiar as the mammals. There

is the interesting white-necked guineafowl, _Agelastes_ (which is

found on the Gold Coast and elsewhere west of the lower Niger); there

is one peculiar species of eagle owl (_Bubo lettii_) and a very

handsome sparrow-hawk (_Accipiter büttikoferi_); a few sun-birds,

warblers and shrikes are peculiar to the region. The other birds are

mainly those of Senegambia and of the West African forest region

generally. A common and handsome bird is the blue plantain-eater

(_Corythaeola_). The fishing vulture (_Gypohierax_) is found in all

the coast districts, but true vultures are almost entirely absent

except from the north, where the small brown _Percnopterus_ makes its

appearance. A flamingo (_Phoeniconaias_) visits Fisherman Lake, and

there are a good many species of herons. Cuckoos are abundant, some of

them of lovely plumage, also rollers, kingfishers and horn-bills. The

last family is well represented, especially by the three forest

forms--the elate hornbill and black hornbill (_Ceratogymna_), and the

long-tailed, white-crested hornbill (_Ortholophus leucolophus_). There

is one trogon--green and crimson, a brightly coloured ground thrush

(_Pitta_), numerous woodpeckers and barbets; glossy starlings, the

black and white African crow and a great variety of brilliantly

coloured weaver birds, waxbills, shrikes and sun-birds.

As regards reptiles, there are at least seven poisonous snakes--two

cobras, two puff-adders and three vipers. The brilliantly coloured red

and blue lizard (_Agama colonorum_) is found in the coast region of

eastern Liberia. There are three species of crocodile, at least two

chameleons (probably more when the forest is further explored), the

large West African python (_P. sebae_) and a rare Boine snake

(Calabaria). On the sea coast there is the leathery turtle

(_Dermochelis_) and also the green turtle (_Chelone_). In the rivers

and swamps there are soft-shelled turtle (_Trionyx_ and

_Sternothaerus_). The land tortoises chiefly belong to the genus

_Cynyxis_. The fresh-water fish seem in their affinities to be nearly

allied to those of the Niger and the Nile. There is a species of

_Polypterus_, and it is probable that the _Protopterus_ or lung fish

is also found there, though its existence has not as yet been

established by a specimen. As regards invertebrates, very few species

or genera are peculiar to Liberia so far as is yet known, though there

are probably one or two butterflies of local range. The gigantic

scorpions (_Pandinus imperator_)--more than 6 in. long--are a common

feature in the forest. One noteworthy feature in Liberia, however, is

the relative absence of mosquitoes, and the white ants and some other

insect pests are not so troublesome here as in other parts of West

Africa. The absence or extreme paucity of mosquitoes no doubt accounts

for the infrequency of malarial fever in the interior.

_Flora._--Nowhere, perhaps, does the flora of West Africa attain a

more wonderful development than in the republic of Liberia and in the

adjoining regions of Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast. This is partly

due to the equatorial position and the heavy rainfall. The region of

dense forest, however, does not cover the whole of Liberia; the Makona

river and the northern tributaries of the Lofa and St Paul's flow

through a mountainous country covered with grass and thinly scattered

trees, while the ravines and watercourses are still richly forested. A

good deal of this absence of forest is directly due to the action of

man. Year by year the influence of the Mahommedan tribes on the north

leads to the cutting down of the forest, the extension of both

planting and pasture and the introduction of cattle and even horses.

In the regions bordering the coast also a good deal of the forest has

disappeared, its place being taken (where the land is not actually

cultivated) by very dense scrub. The most striking trees in the forest

region are, in the basin of the Cavalla, the giant _Funtumia

elastica_, which grows to an altitude of 200 ft.; various kinds of

_Parinarium_, _Oldfieldia_ and _Khaya_; the bombax or cotton tree,

giant dracaenas, many kinds of fig; _Borassus_ palms, oil palms, the

climbing _Calamus_ palms, and on the coast the coconut. The most

important palm of the country perhaps is the _Raphia vinifera_, which

produces the piassava fibre of commerce. There are about twenty-two

different trees, shrubs and vines producing rubber of more or less

good quality. These belong chiefly to the Apocynaceous order. In this

order is the genus _Strophanthus_, which is represented in Liberia by

several species, amongst others _S. gratus_. This _Strophanthus_ is

not remarkable for its rubber--which is mere bird lime--but for the

powerful poison of its seeds, often used for poisoning arrows, but of

late much in use as a drug for treating diseases of the heart. Coffee

of several species is indigenous and grows wild. The best known is the

celebrated _Coffea liberica_. The kola tree is also indigenous. Large

edible nuts are derived from _Coula edulis_ of the order Olacineae.

The country is exceedingly rich in Aroids, many of which are

epiphytic, festooning the trunks of tall trees with a magnificent

drapery of abundant foliage. A genus much represented is _Culcasia_,

and swampy localities are thickly set with the giant _Cyrtosperma_

arum, with flower spathes that are blotched with deep purple. Ground

orchids and tree orchids are well represented; _Polystachya liberica_,

an epiphytic orchid with sprays of exquisite small flowers of purple

and gold, might well be introduced into horticulture for its beauty.

The same might be said of the magnificent _Lissochilus roseus_, a

terrestrial orchid, growing to 7 ft. in height, with rose-coloured

flowers nearly 1 in. long; there are other orchids of fantastic design

in their green and white flowers, some of which have spurs (nectaries)

nearly 7 in. long.

Many trees offer magnificent displays of flowers at certain seasons of

the year; perhaps the loveliest effect is derived from the bushes and

trailing creepers of the _Combretum_ genus, which, during the "winter"

months from December to March, cover the scrub and the forest with

mantles of rose colour. _Smaethmannia_ trees are thickly set at this

season with large blossoms of waxen white. Very beautiful also are the

red velvet or white velvet sepals of the _Mussaenda_ genus. Bamboos of

the genus _Oxytenanthera_ are indigenous. Tree ferns are found on the

mountains above 4000 ft. The bracken grows in low sandy tracts near

the coast. The country in general is a fern paradise, and the

iridescent creeping _Selaginella_ (akin to _Lycopodium_) festoons the

undergrowth by the wayside. The cultivated trees and plants of

importance are, besides rubber, the manioc or cassada, the orange

tree, lime, cacao, coffee, pineapple (which now runs wild over the

whole of Liberia), sour sop, ginger, papaw, alligator apple, avocado

pear, okro, cotton (_Gossypium peruvianum_--the kidney cotton),

indigo, sweet potato, capsicum (chillie), bread-fruit, arrowroot

(_Maranta_), banana, yam, "coco"-yam (_Colocasia antiquorum_, var.

_esculenta_), maize, sorghum, sugar cane, rice and eleusine

(_Eleusine_), besides gourds, pumpkins, cabbages and onions.

_Minerals._--The hinterland of Liberia has been but slightly explored

for mineral wealth. In a general way it is supposed that the lands

lying between the lower St Paul's river and the Sierra Leone frontier

are not much mineralized, except that in the vicinity of river mouths

there are indications of bitumen. The sand of nearly all the rivers

contains a varying proportion of gold. Garnets and mica are everywhere

found. There have been repeated stories of diamonds obtained from the

Finley Mountains (which are volcanic) in the central province, but all

specimens sent home, except one, have hitherto proved to be quartz

crystals. There are indications of sapphires and other forms of

corundum. Corundum indeed is abundantly met with in the eastern half

of Liberia. The sand of the rivers contains monazite. Graphite has

been discovered in the Po Hills. Lead has been reported from the Nidi

or Niete Mountains. Gold is present in some abundance in the river

sand of central Liberia, and native reports speak of the far interior

as being rich in gold. Iron--haematite--is present almost everywhere.

There are other indications of bitumen, besides those mentioned, in

the coast region of eastern Liberia.

_History and Population._--Tradition asserts that the Liberian coast was

first visited by Europeans when it was reached by the Dieppois

merchant-adventurers in the 14th century. The French in the 17th century

claimed that but for the loss of the archives of Dieppe they would be

able to prove that vessels from this Norman port had established

settlements at Grand Basa, Cape Mount, and other points on the coast of

Liberia. No proof has yet been forthcoming, however, that the Portuguese

were not the first white men to reach this coast. The first Portuguese

pioneer was Pedro de Sintra, who discovered and noted in 1461 the

remarkable promontory of Cape Mount, Cape Mesurado (where the capital,

Monrovia, is now situated) and the mouth of the Junk river. In 1462 de

Sintra returned with another Portuguese captain, Sueiro da Costa, and

penetrated as far as Cape Palmas and the Cavalla river. Subsequently the

Portuguese mapped the whole coast of Liberia, and nearly all the

prominent features--capes, rivers, islets--off that coast still bear

Portuguese names. From the 16th century onwards, English, Dutch, German,

French and other European traders contested the commerce of this coast

with the Portuguese, and finally drove them away. In the 18th century

France once or twice thought of establishing colonies here. At the end

of the 18th century, when the tide was rising in favour of the abolition

of slavery and the repatriation of slaves, the Grain Coast [so called

from the old trade in the "Grains of Paradise" or _Amomum_ pepper] was

suggested once or twice as a suitable home for repatriated negroes.

Sierra Leone, however, was chosen first on account of its possessing an

admirable harbour. But in 1821 Cape Mesurado was selected by the

American Colonization Society as an appropriate site for the first

detachment of American freed negroes, whom difficulties in regard to

extending the suffrage in the United States were driving away from a

still slave-holding America. From that date, 1821, onwards to the

present day, negroes and mulattos--freed slaves or the descendants of

such--have been crossing the Atlantic in small numbers to settle on the

Liberian coast. The great migrations took place during the first half of

the 19th century. Only two or three thousand American emigrants--at

most--have come to Liberia since 1860.

The colony was really founded by Jehudi Ashmun, a white American,

between 1822 and 1828. The name "Liberia" was invented by the Rev. R. R.

Gurley in 1824. In 1847 the American colonists declared their country to

be an independent republic, and its status in this capacity was

recognized in 1848-1849 by most of the great powers with the exception

of the United States. Until 1857 Liberia consisted of two

republics--Liberia and Maryland. These American settlements were dotted

at intervals along the coast from the mouth of the Sewa river on the

west to the San Pedro river on the east (some 60 m. beyond Cape Palmas).

Some tracts of territory, such as the greater part of the Kru coast,

still, however, remain without foreign--American--settlers, and in a

state of quasi-independence. The uncertainty of Liberian occupation led

to frontier troubles with Great Britain and disputes with France.

Finally, by the English and French treaties of 1885 and 1892 Liberian

territory on the coast was made continuous, but was limited to the strip

of about 300 m. between the Mano river on the west and the Cavalla river

on the east. The Sierra Leone-Liberia frontier was demarcated in 1903;

then followed the negotiations with France for the exact delimitation of

the Ivory Coast-Liberia frontier, with the result that Liberia lost part

of the hinterland she had claimed. Reports of territorial encroachments

aroused much sympathy with Liberia in America and led in February 1909

to the appointment by President Roosevelt of a commission which visited

Liberia in the summer of that year to investigate the condition of the

country. As a result of the commissioners' report negotiations were set

on foot for the adjustment of the Liberian debt and the placing of

United States officials in charge of the Liberian customs. In July 1910

it was announced that the American government, acting in general

agreement with Great Britain, France and Germany, would take charge of

the finances, military organization, agriculture and boundary questions

of the republic. A loan for £400,000 was also arranged. Meantime the

attempts of the Liberian government to control the Kru coast led to

various troubles, such as the fining or firing upon foreign steamships

for alleged contraventions of regulations. During 1910 the natives in

the Cape Palmas district were at open warfare with the Liberian

authorities.

One of the most notable of the Liberian presidents was J. J. Roberts,

who was nearly white, with only a small proportion of negro blood in his

veins. But perhaps the ablest statesman that this American-Negro

republic has as yet produced is a pure-blooded negro--President Arthur

Barclay, a native of Barbados in the West Indies, who came to Liberia

with his parents in the middle of the 19th century, and received all his

education there. President Barclay was of unmixed negro descent, but

came of a Dahomey stock of superior type.[1] Until the accession to

power of President Barclay in 1904 (he was re-elected in 1907), the

Americo-Liberian government on the coast had very uncertain relations

with the indigenous population, which is well armed and tenacious of

local independence. But of late Liberian influence has been extending,

more especially in the counties of Maryland and Montserrado.

The president is now elected for a term of four years. There is a

legislature of eight senators and thirteen representatives. The type of

the constitution is very like that of the United States. Increasing

attention is being given to education, to deal with which there are

several colleges and a number of schools. The judicial functions are

discharged by four grades of officials--the local magistrates, the

courts of common pleas, the quarterly courts (five in number) and the

supreme court.

The customs service includes British customs officers lent to the

Liberian service. A gunboat for preventive service purchased from the

British government and commanded by an Englishman, with native petty

officers and crew, is employed by the Liberian government. The language

of government and trade is English, which is understood far and wide

throughout Liberia. As the origin of the Sierra Leonis and the

Americo-Liberian settlers was very much the same, an increasing intimacy

is growing up between the English-speaking populations of these

adjoining countries. Order is maintained in Liberia to some extent by a

militia.

The population of Americo-Liberian origin in the coast regions is

estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000. To these must be added about 40,000

civilized and Christianized negroes who make common cause with the

Liberians in most matters, and have gradually been filling the position

of Liberian citizens.

For administrative purposes the country is divided into four counties,

Montserrado, Basa, Sino and Maryland, but Cape Mount in the far west and

the district round it has almost the status of a fifth county. The

approximate revenue for 1906 was £65,000, and the expenditure about

£60,000, but some of the revenue was still collected in paper of

uncertain value. There are three custom-houses, or ports of entry on the

Sierra Leone land frontier between the Moa river on the north and the

Mano on the south, and nine ports of entry along the coast. At all of

these Europeans are allowed to settle and trade, and with very slight

restrictions they may now trade almost anywhere in Liberia. The rubber

trade is controlled by the Liberian Rubber Corporation, which holds a

special concession from the Liberian government for a number of years,

and is charged with the preservation of the forests. Another English

company has constructed motor roads in the Liberian hinterland to

connect centres of trade with the St Paul's river. The trade is done

almost entirely with Great Britain, Germany and Holland, but friendly

relations are maintained with Spain, as the Spanish plantations in

Fernando Po are to a great extent worked by Liberian labour.

The indigenous population must be considered one of the assets of

Liberia. The native population--apart from the American element--is

estimated at as much as 2,000,000; for although large areas appear to

be uninhabited forest, other parts are most densely populated, owing to

the wonderful fertility of the soil. The native tribes belong more or

less to the following divisions, commencing on the west, and proceeding

eastwards: (1) Vai, Gbandi, Kpwesi, Mende, Buzi and Mandingo (the Vai,

Mende and Mandingo are Mahommedans); all these tribes speak languages

derived from a common stock. (2) In the densest forest region between

the Mano and the St Paul's river is the powerful Gora tribe of unknown

linguistic affinities. (3) In the coast region between the St Paul's

river and the Cavalla (and beyond) are the different tribes of Kru stock

and language family--De, Basa, Gibi, Kru, Grebo, Putu, Sikoñ, &c. &c.

The actual Kru tribe inhabits the coast between the river Cestos on the

west and Grand Sesters on the east. It is known all over the Atlantic

coasts of Africa, as it furnishes such a large proportion of the seamen

employed on men-of-war and merchant ships in these tropical waters. Many

of the indigenous races of Liberia in the forest belt beyond 40 m. from

the coast still practise cannibalism. In some of these forest tribes the

women still go quite naked, but clothes of a Mahommedan type are fast

spreading over the whole country. Some of the indigenous races are of

very fine physique. In the Nidi country the women are generally taller

than the men. No traces of a Pygmy race have as yet been discovered, nor

any negroes of low physiognomy. Some of the Krumen are coarse and ugly,

and this is the case with the Mende people; but as a rule the indigenes

of Liberia are handsome, well-proportioned negroes, and some of the

Mandingos have an almost European cast of feature.

AUTHORITIES.--Col. Wauwerman, _Liberia; Histoire de la fondation d'un

état nègre_ (Brussels, 1885); J. Büttikofer, _Reisebilder aus Liberia_

(Leiden, 1890); Sir Harry Johnston, _Liberia_ (2 vols., London, 1906),

with full bibliography; Maurice Delafosse, _Vocabulaires comparatifs

de plus de 60 langues et dialectes parlés à la Côte d'Ivoire et dans

la région limitrophe_ (1904), a work which, though it professes to

deal mainly with philology, throws a wonderful light on the

relationships and history of the native tribes of Liberia.

(H. H. J.)

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Letter" to "Lightfoot, John" Volume 16, Slice 5 · 第 11 / 45 题