ROUTE FROM CASSALA TO SOUAKIM.
BY dead reckoning, Cassala is ninety-three miles S.S.E. of
Gozerajup, or about 340 miles from Berber. We had ridden about
710 miles from Korosko, 630 miles of which had been through
scorching deserts during the hottest season. We were, therefore,
thankful to exchange the intense heat of the tent for a solid
roof, and to rest for a short time in the picturesque country of
Taka.
The direct route to Cassala, the capital of Taka, should be from
Suez to Souakim, on the Red Sea, and from thence in sixteen days,
by camel. Thus, were there a line from Suez to Souakim by
steamers, similar to that already established to Jedda, Cassala
would be only twenty-two days' journey from Cairo. At present,
the arrival of steamers at Souakim is entirely uncertain;
therefore the trade of the country is paralysed by the apathy of
the Egyptian Government. The Abdul Azziz Company run their
steamers regularly from Suez to Jedda; and, although they
advertise Souakim as a port of call, there is no dependence to be
placed upon the announcement; therefore, all merchants are afraid
not only of delay, but of high warehouse charges at Souakim. The
latter port is only four days' steaming from Suez, and, being the
most central depot for all merchandise both to and from Upper
Egypt, it would become a point of great importance were regular
means of transport established.
Cotton of excellent quality may be grown to an unlimited amount
in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and could be delivered at
Souakim at a trifling cost of transport. A large quantity of gum
arabic is collected throughout this country, which sells in
Cassala at 20 piastres (4s. 2d.) the cantar of 100 lbs. There are
three varieties, produced from various mimosas; the finest
quality is gathered in the province of Kordofan, but I
subsequently met with large quantities of this species in the
Base country. Senna grows wild in the deserts, but the low price
hardly pays for the cost of collection. There are several
varieties; that with extremely narrow and sharp-pointed leaves is
preferred. It grows in sandy situations where few plants would
exist. The bush seldom exceeds three feet in height, and is
generally below that standard; but it is exceedingly thick, and
rich in a pale green foliage, which is a strong temptation to the
hungry camel. Curiously, this purgative plant is the animal's
bonne bouche, and is considered most nourishing as fodder.
The exports of the Soudan are limited to gum arabic, ivory,
hides, senna, and bees'-wax; the latter is the produce of
Abyssinia. These articles are generally collected by travelling
native traders, who sell to the larger merchants resident in
Cassala and Khartoum, the two principal towns of the Soudan. The
bazaar in Cassala was poor, as the principal articles were those
of low price, adapted to the wants of the Arabs, who flock to the
capital as a small London, to make their purchases of cloths,
perfumery for the women, copper cooking pots, &c.
The fortifications of the town, although useless against cannon,
are considered by the Arabs as impregnable. The walls are of
solid mud and sun-baked bricks, carefully loopholed for musketry,
while a deep fosse, by which it is surrounded, is a safeguard
against a sudden surprise.
These engineering precautions were rendered necessary by the
ferocity of the Arabs, who fought the Egyptians with great
determination for some years before they were finally subdued.
Although the weapons of all the Arab tribes are the simple sword
and lance, they defended their country against the regular troops
of Egypt until they were completely defeated by a scarcity of
water, against which there could be no resistance. The Egyptians
turned the course of the river Gash, and entirely shut off the
supply from one portion of the country, while they inundated
another. This was effected by an immense dam, formed of the stems
of the dome palms, as a double row of piles, while the interior
was rendered water-tight by a lining of matting filled up with
sand.
Cassala was built about twenty years before I visited the
country, after Taka had been conquered and annexed to Egypt. The
general annexation of the Soudan and the submission of the
numerous Arab tribes to the Viceroy have been the first steps
necessary to the improvement of the country. Although the
Egyptians are hard masters, and do not trouble themselves about
the future well-being of the conquered races, it must be
remembered that, prior to the annexation, all the tribes were at
war among themselves. There was neither government nor law; thus
the whole country was closed to Europeans. At present, there is
no more danger in travelling in Upper Egypt than in crossing Hyde
Park after dark, provided the traveller be just and courteous. At
the time of my visit to Cassala in 1861, the Arab tribes were
separately governed by their own chiefs or sheiks, who were
responsible to the Egyptian authorities for the taxes due from
their people: since that period, the entire tribes of all
denominations have been placed under the authority of that grand
old Arab patriarch Achmet Abou Sinn, to be hereafter mentioned.
The Sheik Moosa, of the Hadendowa tribe, was in prison during our
stay in that country, for some breach of discipline in his
dealings with the Egyptian Government. The iron hand of despotism
has produced a marvellous change among the Arabs, who are
rendered utterly powerless by the system of government adopted by
the Egyptians; unfortunately, this harsh system has the effect of
paralysing all industry.
The principal object of Turks and Egyptians in annexation, is to
increase their power of taxation by gaining an additional number
of subjects. Thus, although many advantages have accrued to the
Arab provinces of Nubia through Egyptian rule, there exists an
amount of mistrust between the governed and the governing. Not
only are the camels, cattle, and sheep subjected to a tax, but
every attempt at cultivation is thwarted by the authorities, who
impose a fine or tax upon the superficia1 area of the cultivated
land. Thus, no one will cultivate more than is absolutely
necessary, as he dreads the difficulties that the broad acres of
waving crops would entail upon his family. The bona fide tax is
a bagatelle to the amounts squeezed from him by the extortionate
soldiery, who are the agents employed by the sheik; these must
have their share of the plunder, in excess of the amount to be
delivered to their employer; he, also, must have his plunder
before he parts with the bags of dollars to the governor of the
province. Thus the unfortunate cultivator is ground down; should
he refuse to pay the necessary "baksheesh" or present to the
tax-collectors, some false charge is trumped up against him, and
he is thrown into prison. As a green field is an attraction to a
flight of locusts in their desolating voyage, so is a luxuriant
farm in the Soudan a point for the tax-collectors of Upper Egypt.
I have frequently ridden several days' journey through a
succession of empty villages, deserted by the inhabitants upon
the report of the soldiers' approach; the women and children,
goats and cattle, camels and asses, have all been removed into
the wilderness for refuge, while their crops of corn have been
left standing for the plunderers, who would be too idle to reap
and thrash the grain.
Notwithstanding the misrule that fetters the steps of
improvement, Nature has bestowed such great capabilities of
production in the fertile soil of this country, that the yield of
a small surface is more than sufficient for the requirements of
the population, and actual poverty is unknown. The average price
of dhurra is fifteen piastres per "rachel," or about 3s. 2d. for
500 lbs. upon the spot where it is grown. The dhurra (Sorghum
andropogon) is the grain most commonly used throughout the
Soudan; there are great varieties of this plant, of which the
most common are the white and the red. The land is not only
favoured by Nature by its fertility, but the intense heat of the
summer is the labourer's great assistant. As before described,
all vegetation entirely disappears in the glaring Sun, or becomes
so dry that it is swept off by fire; thus the soil is perfectly
clean and fit for immediate cultivation upon the arrival of the
rains. The tool generally used is similar to the Dutch hoe. With
this simple implement the surface is scratched to the depth of
about two inches, and the seeds of the dhurra are dibbled in
about three feet apart, in rows from four to five feet in width.
Two seeds are dropped into each hole. A few days after the first
shower they rise above the ground, and when about six inches
high, the whole population turn out of their villages at break of
day to weed the dhurra fields. Sown in July, it is harvested in
February and March. Eight months are thus required for the
cultivation of this cereal in the intense heat of Nubia. For the
first three months the growth is extremely rapid, and the stem
attains a height of six or seven feet. When at perfection on the
rich soil of the Taka country, the plant averages a height of ten
feet, the circumference of the stem being about four inches. The
crown is a feather very similar to that of the sugar cane; the
blossom falls, and the feather becomes a head of dhurra, weighing
about two pounds. Each grain is about the size of hemp-seed.
I took the trouble of counting the corns contained in an
average-sized head, the result being 4,848. The process of
harvesting and thrashing are remarkably simple, as the heads are
simply detached from the straw and beaten out in piles. The dried
straw is a substitute for sticks in forming the walls of the
village huts; these are plastered with clay and cow-dung, which
form the Arab's lath and plaster.
The millers' work is exclusively the province of the women. There
are no circular hand-mills, as among Oriental nations; but the
corn is ground upon a simple flat stone, of either gneiss or
granite, about two feet in length by fourteen inches in width.
The face of this is roughened by beating with a sharp-pointed
piece of harder stone, such as quartz, or hornblende, and the
grain is reduced to flour by great labour and repeated grinding
or rubbing with a stone rolling-pin. The flour is mixed with
water and allowed to ferment; it is then made into thin pancakes
upon an earthenware flat portable hearth. This species of
leavened bread is known to the Arabs as the kisra. It is not very
palatable, but it is extremely well suited to Arab cookery, as it
can be rolled up like a pancake and dipped in the general dish of
meat and gravy very conveniently, in the absence of spoons and
forks. No man will condescend to grind the corn, and even the
Arab women have such an objection to this labour, that one of the
conditions of matrimony enforced upon the husband, if possible,
provides the wife with a slave woman to prepare the flour.
Hitherto we had a large stock of biscuits, but as our dragoman
Mahomet had, in a curious fit of amiability, dispensed them among
the camel-drivers, we were now reduced to the Arab kisras.
Although not as palatable as wheaten bread, the flour of dhurra
is exceedingly nourishing, containing, according to Professor
Johnston's analysis, eleven and a half per cent. of gluten, or
one and a half per cent. more than English wheaten flour. Thus
men and beasts thrive, especially horses, which acquire an
excellent condition.
The neighbourhood of Cassala is well adapted for the presence of
a large town and military station, as the fertile soil produces
the necessary supplies, while the river Gash affords excellent
water. In the rainy season this should be filtered, as it brings
down many impurities from the torrents of Abyssinia, but in the
heat of summer the river is entirely dry, and clear and wholesome
water is procured from wells in the sandy bed. The south and
south-east of Cassala is wild and mountainous, affording
excellent localities for hill stations during the unhealthy rainy
season; but such sanitary arrangements for the preservation of
troops are about as much heeded by the Egyptian Government as by
our own, and regiments are left in unwholesome climates to take
their chance, although the means of safety are at hand.
The Taka country being the extreme frontier of Egypt, constant
raids are made by the Egyptians upon their neighbours--the
hostile Base, through which country the river Gash or Mareb
descends. I was anxious to procure all the information possible
concerning the Base, as it would be necessary to traverse the
greater portion in exploring the Settite river, which is the
principal tributary of the Atbara, and which is in fact the main
and parent stream, although bearing a different name. I heard but
one opinion of the Base--it was a wild and independent country,
inhabited by a ferocious race, whose hand was against every man,
and who in return were the enemies of all by whom they were
surrounded--Egyptians, Abyssinians, Arabs, and Mek Nimmur;
nevertheless, secure in their mountainous stronghold, they defied
all adversaries. The Base is a portion of Abyssinia, but the
origin of the tribe that occupies this ineradicable hornet's nest
is unknown. Whether they are the remnant of the original
Ethiopians, who possessed the country prior to the conquests of
the Abyssinians, or whether they are descended from the
woolly-haired tribes of the south banks of the Blue Nile, is
equally a mystery; all we know is that they are of the same type
as the inhabitants of Fazogle, of the upper portion of the Blue
River; they are exceedingly black, with woolly hair, resembling
in that respect the negro, but without the flat nose or
prognathous jaw. No quarter is given on either side, should the
Base meet the Arabs, with whom war is to the knife. In spite of
the overwhelming superiority of their adversaries, the Base
cannot be positively subdued; armed with the lance as their only
weapon, but depending upon extreme agility and the natural
difficulties of their mountain passes, the attack of the Base is
always by stealth; their spies are ever prowling about unseen
like the leopard, and their onset is invariably a surprise;
success or defeat are alike followed by a rapid retreat to their
mountains.
As there is nothing to be obtained by the plunder of the Base but
women and children as slaves, the country is generally avoided,
unless visited for the express purpose of a slave razzia.
Cultivation being extremely limited, the greater portion of the
country is perfectly wild, and is never visited even by the Base
themselves unless for the purpose of hunting. Several beautiful
rivers descend from the mountain ranges, which ultimately flow
into the Atbara; these, unlike the latter river, are never dry:
thus, with a constant supply of water, in a country of forest and
herbage, the Base abounds in elephants, rhinoceroses,
hippopotami, giraffes, buffaloes, lions, leopards, and great
numbers of the antelope tribe.
Cassala, thus situated on the confines of the Taka country, is an
important military point in the event of war between Egypt and
Abyssinia, as the Base would be invaluable as allies to the
Egyptians; their country commands the very heart of Abyssinia,
and their knowledge of the roads would be an incalculable
advantage to an invading force. On the 14th July I had concluded
my arrangements for the start; there had been some difficulty in
procuring camels, but the all-powerful firman was a never-failing
talisman, and, as the Arabs had declined to let their animals for
hire, the Governor despatched a number of soldiers and seized the
required number, including their owners. I engaged two wild young
Arabs of eighteen and twenty years of age, named Bacheet and Wat
Gamma: the latter being interpreted signifies "Son of the Moon."
This in no way suggests lunacy, but the young Arab had happened
to enter this world on the day of the new moon, which was
considered to be a particularly fortunate and brilliant omen at
his birth. Whether the climax of his good fortune had arrived at
the moment he entered my service I know not, but, if so, there
was a cloud over his happiness in his subjection to Mahomet the
dragoman, who rejoiced in the opportunity of bullying the two
inferiors. Wat Gamma was a quiet, steady, well-conducted lad, who
bore oppression mildly; but the younger, Bacheet, was a fiery,
wild young Arab, who, although an excellent boy in his peculiar
way, was almost incapable of being tamed and domesticated. I at
once perceived that Mahomet would have a determined rebel to
control, which I confess I did not regret. Wages were not high in
this part of the world,--the lads were engaged at one and a half
dollar per month and their keep. Mahomet, who was a great man,
suffered from the same complaint to which great men are (in those
countries) particularly subject: wherever he went, he was
attacked with claimants of relationship; he was overwhelmed with
professions of friendship from people who claimed to be
connexions of some of his family; in fact, if all the
ramifications of his race were correctly represented by the
claimants of relationship, Mahomet's family tree would have
shaded the Nubian desert.
We all have our foibles: the strongest fort has its feeble point,
as the chain snaps at its weakest link;--family pride was
Mahomet's weak link. This was his tender point; and Mahomet, the
great and the imperious, yielded to the gentle scratching of his
ear if a stranger claimed connexion with his ancient lineage. Of
course he had no family, with the exception of his wife and two
children, whom he had left in Cairo. The lady whom he had
honoured by an admission to the domestic circle of the Mahomets
was suffering from a broken arm when we started from Egypt, as
she had cooked the dinner badly, and the "gaddah," or large
wooden bowl, had been thrown at her by the naturally indignant
husband, precisely as he had thrown the axe at one man and the
basin at another, while in our service: these were little
contretemps that could hardly disturb the dignity of so great a
man. Mahomet met several relations at Cassala: one borrowed money
of him; another stole his pipe; the third, who declared that
nothing should separate them now that "by the blessing of God"
they had met, determined to accompany him through all the
difficulties of our expedition, provided that Mahomet would only
permit him to serve for love, without wages. I gave Mahomet some
little advice upon this point, reminding him that, although the
clothes of the party were only worth a few piastres, the spoons
and forks were silver, therefore I should hold him responsible
for the honesty of his friend. This reflection upon the family
gave great offence, and he assured me that Achmet, our quondam
acquaintance, was so near a relation that he was--I assisted him
in the genealogical distinction: "Mother's brother's cousin's
sister's mother's son? Eh, Mahomet?" "Yes, sar, that's it!" "Very
well, Mahomet; mind he don't steal the spoons, and thrash him if
he doesn't do his work!" "Yes, sar," replied Mahomet; "he all
same like one brother, he one good man will do his business
quietly; if not, master lick him." The new relation not
understanding English, was perfectly satisfied with the success
of his introduction, and from that moment he became one of the
party. One more addition, and our arrangements were completed:--
the Governor of Cassala was determined that we should not
start without a representative of the Government, in the shape of
a soldier guide; he accordingly gave us a black man, a corporal
in one of the Nubian regiments, who was so renowned as a
sportsman that he went by the name of "El Baggar" (the cow), on
account of his having killed several of the oryx antelope, known
as "El Baggar et Wahash" (the cow of the desert).
The rains had fairly commenced, as a heavy thunder-shower
generally fell at about 2 P.M. On the 15th, the entire day was
passed in transporting our baggage across the river Gash to the
point from which we had started upon our arrival at Cassala: this
we accomplished with much difficulty, with the assistance of
about a hundred men supplied by the Governor, from whom we had
received much attention and politeness. We camped for the night
upon the margin of the river, and marched on the following
morning at daybreak due west towards the Atbara.
The country was a great improvement upon that we had hitherto
passed; the trees were larger, and vast plains of young grass,
interspersed with green bush, stretched to the horizon. The soil
was an exceedingly rich loam, most tenacious when wetted: far as
the eye could reach to the north and west of Cassala was the dead
level plain, while to the south and east arose a broken chain of
mountains.
We had not proceeded many miles, when the numerous tracks of
antelopes upon the soil, moistened by the shower of yesterday,
proved that we had arrived in a sporting country; shortly after,
we saw a herd of about fifty ariels (Gazelle Dama). To stalk
these wary antelopes I was obliged to separate from my party, who
continued on their direct route. Riding upon my camel, I tried
every conceivable dodge without success. I could not approach
them nearer than about 300 yards. They did not gallop off at
once, but made a rush for a few hundred paces, and then faced
about to gaze at the approaching camel. After having exhausted my
patience to no purpose, I tried another plan: instead of
advancing against the wind as before, I made a great circuit and
gave them the wind. No sooner was I in good cover behind a mimosa
bush than I dismounted from my camel, and, leading it until
within view of the shy herd, I tied it to a tree, keeping behind
the animal so as to be well concealed. I succeeded in retreating
through the bushes unobserved, leaving the camel as a gazing
point to attract their attention. Running at my best speed to the
same point from which I had commenced my circuit, and keeping
under cover of the scattered bushes, I thus obtained the correct
wind, and stalked up from bush to bush behind the herd, who were
curiously watching the tied camel, that was quietly gazing on a
mimosa. In this way I had succeeded in getting within 150 yards
of the beautiful herd, when a sudden fright seized them, and they
rushed off in an opposite direction to the camel, so as to pass
about 120 yards on my left; as they came by in full speed, I
singled out a superb animal, and tried the first barrel of the
little Fletcher rifle. I heard the crack of the ball, and almost
immediately afterwards the herd passed on, leaving one lagging
behind at a slow canter; this was my wounded ariel, who shortly
halted, and laid down in an open glade. Having no dog, I took the
greatest precaution in stalking, as a wounded antelope is almost
certain to escape if once disturbed when it has lain down. There
was a small withered stem of a tree not thicker than a man's
thigh; this grew within thirty yards of the antelope; my only
chance of approach was to take a line direct for this slight
object of cover. The wind was favourable, and I crept along the
ground. I had succeeded in arriving within a few yards of the
tree when up jumped the antelope, and bounded off as though
unhurt; but there was no chance for it at this distance, and I
rolled it over with a shot through the spine.
Having done the needful with my beautiful prize, and extracted
the interior, I returned for my camel that had well assisted in
the stalk. Hardly had I led the animal to the body of the ariel,
when I heard a rushing sound like a strong wind, and down came a
vulture with its wings collapsed, falling from an immense height
direct to its prey, in its eagerness to be the first in the race.
By the time that I had fastened the ariel across the back of the
camel, many vultures were sitting upon the ground at a few yards'
distance, while others were arriving every minute: before I had
shot the ariel, not a vulture had been in sight; the instant that
I retreated from the spot a flock of ravenous beaks were tearing
at the offal.
In the constant doubling necessary during the stalk I had quite
lost my way. The level plain to the horizon, covered with
scattered mimosas, offered no object as a guide. I was
exceedingly thirsty, as the heat was intense, and I had been
taking rapid exercise; unfortunately my water-skin was slung upon
my wife's camel. However unpleasant the situation, my pocket
compass would give me the direction, as we had been steering due
west; therefore, as I had turned to my left when I left my party,
a course N.W. should bring me across their tracks, if they had
continued on their route. The position of the Cassala mountain
agreed with this course; therefore, remounting my dromedary, with
the ariel slung behind the saddle, I hastened to rejoin our
caravan. After about half an hour I heard a shot fired not far in
advance, and I shortly joined the party, who had fired a gun to
give me the direction. A long and deep pull at the water-skin was
the first salutation.
We halted that night near a small pond formed by the recent heavy
rain. Fortunately the sky was clear; there was abundance of fuel,
and pots were shortly boiling an excellent stew of ariel venison
and burnt onions. The latter delicious bulbs are the blessing of
Upper Egypt: I have lived for days upon nothing but raw onions
and sun-dried rusks. Nothing is so good a substitute for meat as
an onion; but if raw, it should be cut into thin slices, and
allowed to soak for half an hour in water, which should be poured
off: the onion thus loses its pungency, and becomes mild and
agreeable; with the accompaniment of a little oil and vinegar it
forms an excellent salad.
The following day's march led us through the same dead level of
grassy plains and mimosas, enlivened with numerous herds of
ariels and large black-striped gazelles (Dorcas), one of which I
succeeded in shooting for my people. After nine hours' journey we
arrived at the, valley of the Atbara, in all sixteen hours'
actual marching from Cassala.
There was an extraordinary change in the appearance of the river
between Gozerajup and this spot. There was no longer the vast
sandy desert with the river flowing through its sterile course on
a level with the surface of the country, but after traversing an
apparently perfect flat of forty-five miles of rich alluvial
soil, we had suddenly arrived upon the edge of a deep valley,
between five and six miles wide, at the bottom of which, about
200 feet below the general level of the country, flowed the river
Atbara. On the opposite side of the valley, the same vast table
lands continued to the western horizon.
We commenced the descent towards the river; the valley was a
succession of gullies and ravines, of landslips and watercourses;
the entire hollow, of miles in width, had evidently been the work
of the river. How many ages had the rains and the stream been at
work to scoop out from the flat table land this deep and broad
valley? Here was the giant labourer that had shovelled the rich
loam upon the delta of Lower Egypt! Upon these vast flats of
fertile soil there can be no drainage except through soakage. The
deep valley is therefore the receptacle not only for the water
that oozes from its sides, but subterranean channels, bursting as
land-springs from all parts of the walls of the valley, wash down
the more soluble portions of earth, and continually waste away
the soil. Landslips occur daily during the rainy season; streams
of rich mud pour down the valley's slopes, and as the river flows
beneath in a swollen torrent, the friable banks topple down into
the stream and dissolve. The Atbara becomes the thickness of
pea-soup, as its muddy waters steadily perform the duty they have
fulfilled from age to age. Thus was the great river at work upon
our arrival on its bank at the bottom of the valley. The Arab
name, "Bahr el Aswat" (black river) was well bestowed; it was the
black mother of Egypt, still carrying to her offspring the
nourishment that had first formed the Delta.
At this point of interest, the journey had commenced; the deserts
were passed, all was fertility and life: wherever the sources of
the Nile might be, the Atbara was the parent of Egypt! This was
my first impression, to be proved hereafter.