At the beginning of the nineteenth century Spain was awakened from her
torpor by the assault of the French armies under Napoleon (in 1808), and
there ensued the tremendous struggle known in Spanish history as the War
of Independence (_Guerra de la Independencia_). When the Spanish people,
though deserted by many of those to whom they looked for leadership, had
worn out the French by their stubborn resistance, a new disaster fell to
their lot. Their American colonies, extending from California to the
straits of Magellan, fell away from the mother country one by one, until
only a few islands were left. And through it all the peninsula was rent
by civil discord. Spain sank to the lowest level of inefficiency and
corruption, and was forced to drink the bitter dregs of humiliation and
despair. But from her travail there came a new birth. With the expulsion
of Isabel II in 1868, Spain entered upon a new life. She has since then
suffered from civil and foreign wars and from internal dissensions, but
she has grown in wealth and strength and intellectual cultivation, until
there is once more in the heart of her people the hope of ultimate and
complete redemption.
In Europe generally the nineteenth century brought to literature a
resumption of religious sentiment and of the artistic sense, with their
appeal to the emotions, and lyricism became the dominant note in
letters. The romanticists turned to history and legend for their
material, rather than to contemporary life. The cult of the medieval
brought with it much that was sentimental or grotesquely fantastic, but
it awakened in the people a renewed interest in their past history. All
Spaniards worship the past, for Spain was once great; and when
romanticism came from France and England into Spain, it was warmly
welcomed. The historical novel flourished beyond measure. The artificial
epic in _ottava rima_, imitated from the Italian, gave way to a flood of
pseudo-historical romances which followed the lead of Sir Walter Scott
and the elder Dumas. They were mostly weak imitations, carelessly done
and without depth or brilliancy. The best presentation of Spanish
legends was made by José Zorrilla (1817-1893) in verse: his work has
enduring value. But the historical romance turned the mind of the reader
away from adventures in classic lands or in the orient, and brought his
own land to his attention. It thus caused renewed interest in the
one-time native excellence of Spanish literature, and it also paved the
way for the national novel of manners. The historical romance has now
taken a secondary place in fiction; but it was cultivated till quite
recently by so virile and popular a writer as Pérez Galdós.
Before passing on to the modern school of realists, mention must be made
of a writer whose influence has been far-reaching. This is BÉCQUER,[A] a
poet, writer of short stories, and journalist. His tales are mostly
legendary, and are imbued with morbid mysticism. He is primarily a poet,
for even his prose has the poetic fancy, and, to a large extent, the
music of verse. Bécquer's lyric verse is perhaps the most finished that
was written in Spain during the nineteenth century, although it has less
force than that of Núñez de Arce. The dreamy, fairy-like mysticism of
Bécquer's writings has been widely imitated throughout the entire
Spanish-speaking world.
Although modern realism triumphed in Spain only with the coming of
Fernán Caballero's _La gaviota_ in 1848, the ground was prepared in
advance by several writers, the more important of whom are Larra,
Estébanez de Calderón and Mesonero Romanos.
LARRA,[B] many of whose writings appeared over the pen-name _Fígaro_,
was a master of Castilian prose; but even his best work is marred by a
morbid distrust of human nature. In his satirical articles he attacks
the follies and weaknesses of contemporary Spanish life with biting
sarcasm and bitter invective: he criticizes not to reform but to crush.
There was in him little milk of human kindness, but he was not afraid of
man or devil. He tried his hand at the romantic drama and novel with
little success. Larra's most enduring works are his critical reviews and
his essays on manners.
Writing with the pen-name _El Solitario_, Serafín Estébanez de Calderón
(1799-1867), gave in his _Escenas andaluzas_ fairly true pictures of the
manners and customs of the lower classes of Andalusia in his day. This
volume was published in 1847, but many of the articles had appeared much
earlier in periodicals.
In 1842 _El curioso Parlante_, Ramón de Mesonero Romanos (1803-1882),
published his _Escenas matritenses_. The author was a kindly scoffer,
and in this work he gave merry pictures of Madrid customs, written
simply and accurately in language that was chosen but diffuse.
In 1848 FERNÁN CABALLERO[C] published _La Gaviota_, a story dealing
largely with the manners and customs of Andalusia. This work, which has
probably been the most widely read of all Spanish novels since _Don
Quijote_, marked the transition from romanticism to present-day realism
in Spanish literature, as Flaubert's _Madame Bovary_ did in French
letters ten years later. Fernán Caballero was probably influenced by the
_Escenas andaluzas_, the _Escenas matritenses_ and Larra's essays on
manners; and it is quite possible that from her German friends came to
her some of the modern spirit of scientific investigation that led her
to declare the novel to be "not the product of invention, but of
observation." She practiced this theory, however, only in part, for her
work partakes of both the romantic and the realistic. Her stories
usually have a romantic framework of passion and intrigue that is always
unreal and often dull; but within this framework, almost in the nature
of digressions, there are pictures of home life among the lowly
Andalusian peasants that are charming in their simple, refined realism.
No better work than that of some of these realistic scenes has ever been
done in Spanish fiction, and yet it is nearly always found in bad
company. Crimes, sentimental episodes, ultra-Catholic preachments and
true pictures of the life of the humble are jumbled together in a queer
medley. The work is evidently that of a clever but untrained mind, that
was largely controlled by its emotions. Her later works are marred by
extreme religiosity and a growing habit of scolding.
It has been well said that the realistic novel in Spain is essentially
provincial or regional.[D] The people of the several provinces of Spain
differ greatly. The proud, stern Castilian; the gentle, pleasure-loving
Andalusian; the Catalán, alert and practical; the light-hearted,
turbulent Valencian; and the plodding, dreamy Galician,--all these
differ as do the lands in which they dwell. A realistic literature,
therefore, that describes accurately the doings and the environment of
Spanish villagers must be regional: it can not be broadly national.
After Fernán Caballero had begun to tell of life in southern Spain,
PEREDA[E] came forth with tales of the northern mountainland, the
_Montaña_, that lies on the shore of the Cantabrian Sea. Pereda was,
perhaps, the most provincial, the least cosmopolitan, of modern Spanish
writers. An old-fashioned _hidalgo_, or country gentleman, he rarely
left his ancestral home at Polanco, and if he did go away, he was always
sorry for it. In politics he was a conservative and a Carlist, and his
writings evince a hostile attitude towards modernism. Pereda was the
most reactionary, Pérez Galdós one of the most progressive, of modern
Spanish writers; but the two men were the best of friends, which goes to
show that neither was narrow. Pereda's language is academically correct,
with some of the flavor of Cervantes; but his thought is often
ponderous, or even obscure. He is at his best when he pictures the
uncouth homely life of his highland peasants or simple fisher-folk. This
he does with the truthfulness of the most scrupulous realist, but
without stooping to pornographic detail. The _Escenas montañesas_ are
direct descendants of the _Escenas andaluzas_ and the _Escenas
matritenses_. The better known works of Pereda are _Don Gonzalo González
de la Gonzalera_, _Pedro Sánchez_, and _Sotileza_.
In the Spain of the past fifty years, the most cosmopolitan man of
letters, and the writer of the most polished prose, has been JUAN
VALERA,[F] poet, novelist, literary critic, and, first of all,
diplomat. At one time he also sought to become a realist, but his nature
revolted. He was always an idealist, and at times a mystic. Valera's
_Pepita Jiménez_ is perhaps the master-piece of Spanish prose fiction of
the nineteenth century, and it shows some attempt at realism. His short
stories are fantastic and allegorical, or are translations from other
languages.
Pedro Antonio de ALARCÓN[G] was by nature and training a journalist. He
served his apprenticeship as a writer on the staff of several radical
journals. A volunteer in the African war of 1859, he won a cross for
gallantry in battle, and his account of the war brought him sudden fame
as a writer. In his earlier novels Alarcón was fond of sensation, as
young writers are wont to be. He was extravagant in description and
intemperate in criticism, keen of observation but shallow; and he showed
a lack of sense of proportion; but he had a versatility and dash that
brought him some meed of popularity. In later life Alarcón passed over
from radicalism to conservatism in politics, and his writings became
more sober in tone. His best stories are probably _El sombrero de tres
picos_, _El capitán Veneno_, and some of his _Novelas cortas_.
Of the lesser writers of stories of manners and customs, Antonio de
Trueba and Narciso Campillo should receive especial mention. At one time
TRUEBA[H] shared with Fernán Caballero the esteem and admiration of
Spanish readers; but he is now nearly forgotten, except among his
fellow-countrymen, the Basques of northern Spain. A journalist, poet,
and writer of short stories, Trueba is best known as an interpreter of
Basque life. Though a conservative and a monarchist, he loved the common
people, and he delighted in describing their customs and in collecting
their traditions. In his tales of manners and customs he idealized the
simple life of the country folk almost beyond recognition, and he worked
over and embellished their traditions to suit his taste. His works are
pervaded by a genial, kindly humor; but his language is not seldom dull
and insipid.
NARCISO CAMPILLO[I] is known as a poet and a writer of short stories.
His prose writings have a light and graceful humor that is peculiarly
Andalusian.
The most important Spanish novelists now (in 1910) living are Pérez
Galdós, Pardo Bazán, Palacio Valdés, and Blasco Ibáñez. Of these the
first is now usually classed as a writer of psychological novels and
plays, and the others as naturalistic novelists.
PÉREZ GALDÓS[J] began as a writer of historical romances modeled largely
after those of Erckmann-Chatrian. His _Episodios nacionales_ treat of
the War of Independence (called by the English the "Peninsular War")
against the French under Napoleon and of the immediately following
years. These works are not historically accurate; but they present in an
entertaining way the elemental facts of an important period in Spanish
history. Their appeal to Spanish pride and patriotism won for them an
extraordinary popularity in Spain, although they are little known
outside of the peninsula. From the historical struggles of the past
Pérez Galdós next turned his attention to the inner struggle that is now
going on in Spain between conservatism and modern progress, and his
prolific pen produced a series of interesting psychological novels. He
is a firm believer in the ultimate good of modern progress, but he
presents pitilessly and with the impartiality of a judge some of the
tragedies that result from the readjustment of conditions. A liberal in
politics and religion, Pérez Galdós attacks not the Church and State but
the abuses that have grown up under their sheltering wing. It is
needless to say that his polemical writings, though presented in the
sugar-coated form of highly entertaining novels, are not taken with
pleasure by the monarchists and ultra-Catholics; but they are received
with joy by the large and rapidly increasing numbers of liberals. Pérez
Galdós' literary activities are now devoted chiefly to the drama which,
it would appear, he considers a better vehicle than the novel for the
expression of his views. The later work of Pérez Galdós is realistic,
but it is in no sense regional. Rather does he seek to be broadly
national in his realism by presenting problems that confront the Spanish
people as a whole. As a writer, he is often careless and sometimes
incorrect. To him the thought he expresses, and not the language in
which it is expressed, is all-important. As he approaches old age, there
seems to grow upon him the desire, not to be a literary artist, but to
become a leader in reform.
The Galician PARDO BAZÁN[K] is considered the most highly cultivated and
the most forceful contemporary writer among the women of modern Spain.
In theory she has been a disciple of French naturalism, and some of her
novels, particularly _Los Pazos de Ulloa_ and _La madre Naturaleza_,
have somewhat of the repulsive realism of Zola's work. At times she
expresses a cold cynicism or a mocking flippancy which detracts from the
usual charm of her writings. She pleases most in her picturesque
descriptions of the life and manners of her fellow-Galicians. Pardo
Bazán early founded a critical review, _El Nuevo Teatro Crítico_, and in
this and in other periodicals she has published many valuable articles
of literary criticism. She is now giving her time and thought chiefly to
critical work. Her most popular novel is probably _Pascual López_.
PALACIO VALDÉS[L] began as a member of the school of naturalists, but
his later works have become more and more idealistic. He has been a
writer of regional novels, like Fernán Caballero and Pereda, but he
differs from the others in that he portrays life now in one province and
now in another, passing from the Asturias to Valencia and from Madrid to
Andalusia. This very broadness of outlook has made his work more
cosmopolitan than that of any other modern Spanish novelist,--excepting
only Juan Valera,--and has brought him a large meed of popularity in
foreign lands. No other contemporary Spanish writer has been so
generally translated and so widely read by foreigners as has Palacio
Valdés.
In his realistic works he is a careful observer and a faithful describer
of life, and he is especially successful in his portrayal of the
uneventful lives of the middle and lower classes. Although in his
earlier novels he is a pronounced realist, he displays a care-free
optimism and a sympathetic humor that distinguish his work from the
cynicism of Pardo Bazán and the bitter invectiveness of Blasco Ibáñez,
nor has he the seriousness of purpose that characterizes Pérez Galdós.
His style is usually direct and simple, but at times it becomes careless
or even dull. His genius is uneven, but when at his best Palacio Valdés
is one of the most charming of modern novelists. His better known works
are probably _La hermana San Sulpicio_ and _La alegría del capitán
Ribot_.
The most forceful of the younger writers of Spain is the Valencian
BLASCO IBÁÑEZ.[M] His earlier writings were mostly short stories of
manners and customs. In these vivid pictures of life among the
Valencians and their neighbors, the influence of Maupassant and Zola is
easily discernible. Blasco Ibáñez next brought forth a series of
polemical writings, in the form of novels, in which he attacked Church
and State ruthlessly. His literary work is now quieter in tone, but it
still gives evidence that he wishes to arouse the Spanish masses and to
lead them on to the complete acquirement of political and social
equality. His best known work is _La barraca_.
* * * * *
Spain has done excellent work in prose fiction during the last fifty or
sixty years past, but this work is little known outside of the
Spanish-speaking countries. Even those people who are, for the most
part, well read in the literatures of Europe are generally ignorant of
recent Spanish fiction. Or if they have read a few of the best Spanish
novels in French or English versions, they may not have found them very
interesting. This is explained, I take it, by the fact that Spanish
literature is essentially national, and if you do not know the Spanish
people you can not fully understand their literature. This is largely
true of all literatures, but it is especially true of the Spanish. The
French literature, for instance, is more universal and less national
than the Spanish, perhaps by the very force of geographical position.
Spain is nearly surrounded by water, and on land it is separated from
the rest of Europe,--excepting only Portugal,--by an almost
insurmountable barrier of lofty mountains. France, on the other hand, is
so situated as to feel the cross-currents of European life. Do not these
facts explain, at least in part, the relatively insular characteristics
of much contemporary Spanish literature? The Spanish literature,
however, by its very provincialism is fascinating to those who are
interested in Spanish civilization.
Although it is doubtless quite true that there has been in modern Spain
no writer of short stories who rivals Guy de Maupassant, nor has there
been any writer of longer stories who may compare favorably with Honoré
de Balzac, yet, as a whole, the Spain of the nineteenth century has
probably been pictured as faithfully as France by native authors. And
Spain has to-day a group of vigorous young writers, who give promise of
carrying the work forward to an even greater future.
* * * * *
Spanish America has done little work of merit in prose fiction, but it
has produced much lyric poetry. If we may believe the statements of Juan
Valera in his _Cartas americanas_, the Spanish Americans have written
more good verse than have the English Americans. In the domain of
letters the Spanish-speaking peoples of America have been slower than
their Peninsular cousins to throw off the yoke of French imitation. Most
young men of wealth in Spanish America are educated in Paris, and their
Castilian shows unmistakably the effect of their long residence in
France. This influence may be studied in the works of Manuel Ugarte
(even in his _Introducción_ to _La joven literatura hispano-americana_,
Paris, 1906) and of Rubén Darío (cf. _La muerte de la emperatriz de
China_).
But among the younger writers there are some who show little French
influence, or none at all. These may be divided into two classes: (1)
those who write only in pure classical Castilian, and who, if they use
Americanisms at all, use them consciously and with due apologies; and
(2) those who write freely and naturally in the current language of the
educated classes of their own particular Spanish-American country. To
represent the first of these two types, _Un alma_, by Ricardo FERNÁNDEZ
GUARDIA,[N] has been selected for this volume of _Spanish Short
Stories_. _Juan Neira_, by Joaquín DÍAZ GARCÉS,[O] has been chosen to
represent the other type. They are both thoroughly good stories, and
they speak well for the future of prose fiction in Spanish America.