+-----------------+-----------+---------_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Ethiopia" to "Evangelical Association" Volume 9, Slice 8

| Countries. | Thousands | Per cent. of |

| | of Acres. | Total Area. |

+-----------------+-----------+--------------+

| Russia | 469,500 | 34 |

| Sweden | 43,000 | 24 |

| Austria-Hungary | 42,634 | 29 |

| France | 20,642 | 19 |

| Spain | 20,465 | 16.3 |

| Germany | 20,047 | 25.6 |

| Norway | 17,290 | 25 |

| Italy | 9,031 | 18 |

| Turkey | 5,958 | 14 |

| United Kingdom | 2,500 | 3.8 |

| Switzerland | 1,905 | 18.8 |

| Greece | 1,886 | 11.8 |

| Portugal | 1,107 | 5 |

| Belgium | 1,073 | 12 |

| Holland | 486 | 6 |

| Denmark | 364 | 4.6 |

+-----------------+-----------+--------------+

Domestic animals.

Horse-breeding is a highly important industry in almost all European

countries, and in several, as Russia, France, Hungary and Spain, the

state gives it exceptional support. Almost every district of the

continent has a breed of its own: Russia reckons those of the

Bashkirs, the Kalmucks, the Don-Cossacks, the Esthonians and the

Finlanders as among its best; France sets store by those of Flanders,

Picardy, Normandy, Limousin and Auvergne; Germany by those of

Hanover, Oldenburg and Mecklenburg, which indeed rank among the most

powerful in the world; and Great Britain by those of Suffolk and

Clydesdale. The English racers are famous throughout the world, and

Iceland and the Shetland Islands are well known for their hardy breed

of diminutive ponies. The ass and the mule are most abundant in the

southern parts of the continent, more especially in Spain, Italy and

Greece. The camel is not popularly considered a European animal; but

it is reared in Russia in the provinces of Orenburg, Astrakhan and

Taurid, in Turkey on the Lower Danube, and in Spain at Madrid and

Cadiz; and it has even been introduced into Tuscany. A much more

important beast of burden in eastern and southern Europe is the ox:

the long lines of slow-moving wains in Rumania, for example, are not

unlike what one would expect in Cape Colony. In western Europe it is

mainly used for the plough or fattened for its flesh. It is estimated

that there are about 100 distinct local varieties or breeds in Europe,

and within the last hundred years an enormous advance has been made in

the development and specialization of the finer types. The cows of

Switzerland and of Guernsey may be taken as the two extremes in point

of size, and the "Durhams" and "Devonshires" of England as examples of

the results of human supervision and control. The Dutch breed ranks

very high in the production of milk. The buffalo is frequent in the

south of Europe, more especially in the countries on the Lower Danube

and in southern Italy. Sheep are of immense economic value to most

European countries, above all to Spain and Portugal, Great Britain,

France, Hungary, the countries of the Balkan Peninsula, the Baltic

provinces of Germany and the south-east of Russia. The local varieties

are even more numerous than in the case of the horned cattle, and the

development of remarkable breeds quite as wonderful. In all the more

mountainous countries the goat is abundant, especially in Spain, Italy

and Germany. The pig is distributed throughout the whole continent,

but in no district does it take so high a place as in Servia. In the

rearing and management of poultry France is the first country in

Europe, and has consequently a large surplus of both fowls and eggs.

In Pomerania, Brandenburg, West Prussia, Mecklenburg and Wuerttemberg

the breeding of geese has become a great source of wealth, and the

town of Strassburg is famous all the world over for its _pates de foie

gras_. Under this heading may also be mentioned the domesticated

insects, the silkworm, the bee and the cantharis. The silkworm is most

extensively reared in northern Italy, but also in the southern parts

of the Rhone valley in France, and to a smaller extent in several

other Mediterranean and southern countries. Bee-keeping is widespread.

The cantharis is largely reared in Spain, but also in other countries

in southern and central Europe.

Minerals.

The most important mineral products of Europe are coal and iron ore.

In order of production the leading coal-producing countries have long

been the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Belgium. Since 1897

Russia has held the fifth place, followed by Austria-Hungary, Spain

and Sweden. The production in other countries is insignificant.

Besides coal, lignite is produced in great amount in Germany and

Austria-Hungary, and to a small amount in France, Italy and a few

other countries. Down to 1895 the United Kingdom stood first among the

iron-ore producing countries of Europe, but since 1896 the order under

this head has been the German Customs' Union, the United Kingdom,

Spain, France, Russia, Sweden, Austria-Hungary and Belgium. By far the

most important iron-ore producing district of Europe is that which

lies on different slopes of the hills in which German Lorraine, the

grand duchy of Luxemburg and France meet, the district producing all

the ore of Luxemburg and the principal supplies of Germany and France.

Another important producing district is what is known as the

Siegerland on the confines of the Prussian provinces of the Rhine and

Westphalia. Next in importance to these are the iron-ore deposits of

the United Kingdom, the chief being those of the Cleveland district

south of the Tees, and the hematite fields of Cumberland and Furness.

With regard to the mineral production of Europe generally, perhaps the

most notable fact to record is the relatively lower place taken by the

United Kingdom in the production both of coal and iron. Here it is

enough to state the main results. In the production of coal the United

Kingdom is indeed still far ahead of all other European countries, but

notwithstanding the fact that the British export of coal has been

increasing much more rapidly than the production, this country has not

been able to keep pace with Germany and Russia in the rate of increase

of production. In 1878 the production of coal in the German empire was

only about 34% of that of the United Kingdom, but in 1906 it had grown

to nearly 50%. This, too, was exclusive of lignite, the production of

which in Germany is increasing still more rapidly. It was equal to

little more than one-fourth of the coal production in 1878, but more

than two-fifths in 1906. The coal production of Russia (mainly

European Russia) is still relatively small, but it is increasing more

rapidly than that of any other European country. While in 1878 it was

little more than 2% of that of the United Kingdom, in 1906 the

corresponding ratio was above 8%. In the production of iron ores the

decline in the position of the United Kingdom is much more marked. The

production reached a maximum in 1882 (18,032,000 tons), and since then

it has sunk in one year (1893) as low as 11,200,000 tons, while, on

the other hand, there was a rapid increase in the production of such

ores in the German Zollverein (including Luxemburg), France, Spain,

Sweden and Russia, down to 1900, with a more progressive movement, in

spite of fluctuations, in all these countries than in the United

Kingdom in more recent years. In the total amount of production the

United Kingdom in 1905 took the second place. While in 1878 the

production of iron ores in the German Zollverein was little more than

a third of that in the United Kingdom, in 1905 it exceeded that of the

United Kingdom by nearly 60%.

An indication of the relative importance of different European

countries in the production of ores and metals of less aggregate value

than coal and iron is given in the following tables[54]:--

+--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

| | | | Ore. | |

+--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

| | kilos. | kilos. | m.t. | m.t. |

| Austria | 126 | 38,940 | 91,494 | 54 |

| German Empire | 121 | 177,183 | .. | 134 |

| Hungary | 3,738 | 13,642 | .. | .. |

| Italy | .. | .. | 80,638 | .. |

| Norway | .. | 6,367 | .. | .. |

| Portugal | 29 | .. | .. | 22 |

| Russia | 8,202[55] | .. | ?[57] | .. |

| Spain | .. | ?[56] | 26,186 | 86 |

| United Kingdom | 58 | 4,614 | .. | 7,268[58]|

+--------------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+

Kilos = kilograms. M.t. = metric tons.

+--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+

| | | | Ore. | |

+--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+

| | m.t. | m.t. | m.t. | m.t. |

| Austria | 20,255 | 19,683 | 13,402 | 32,037 |

| Belgium | .. | 121 | 120 | 3,858 |

| Bosnia-Herzegovina | 765 | .. | 7,651 | 31 |

| France | 2,547 | 11,795[62]| 11,189 | 53,466 |

| German Empire | 768,523 | 140,914 | 52,485 | 704,590 |

| Greece | .. | ?[63] | 10,040 | 26,258 |

| Hungary | 1,338 | 564 | 10,895 | .. |

| Italy | 147,135 | 40,945 | 3,060 | 155,821 |

| Norway | 32,203 | (see zinc) | .. | 3,308[66]|

| Portugal | 352,689[59]| 511 | 22 | 1,267 |

| Russia | ?[60] | .. | ?[65] | 9,612 |

| Spain |2,888,777[61]| 263,519[64]| 62,822 | 170,383 |

| Sweden | 19,655 | 1,938[62]| 2,680 | 52,552[67]|

| United Kingdom | 7,598 | 31,289 | 23,127 | 23,190 |

+--------------------+-------------+------------+------------+------------+

M.t. = metric tons.

Platinum has hitherto been obtained nowhere in Europe except in the

auriferous sands in the Russian government of Perm. Nickel is derived

from Germany, Norway and Sweden; antimony from Germany and Hungary;

bismuth from Saxony and Bohemia. Bauxite, which is used in the

manufacture of aluminium, is obtained from France, Styria and Ireland.

In order of importance the chief salt-producing countries are the

United Kingdom (in which for some years the amount produced has been

for the most part stationary or declining), Germany (which is rapidly

increasing its production), Russia, France, Spain, Italy,

Austria-Hungary, Rumania and Switzerland. Besides common salt Germany

has for many years been producing a rapidly increasing amount of

potash salts, of which it has almost a monopoly. Italy (chiefly

Sicily) is by far the most important producer of sulphur. Among other

mineral products may be mentioned the boric acid and statuary marble

of Tuscany, the statuary marble of Greece, the asphalt of Switzerland,

Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary, the slates of Wales, Scotland and

France, the kaolin of Germany, England and France, and the abundant

glass sands of Belgium, France and Bohemia.

Commerce, industries and railways.

With regard to commerce, industries and railways, as a whole, Europe

may be said to be characterized by the rapid development of

manufacturing at the expense of agricultural industry. With few

exceptions the countries of Europe that export agricultural products

are able to spare a diminishing proportion of the aggregate of such

produce for export. Other countries are becoming more and more

dependent on imported agricultural products. Most European countries,

even if not able to export a large proportion of manufactured

articles, are at least securing a greater and greater command of the

home market for such products.[68] Inland centres of manufacturing

industry are extending the range of their markets. All these changes

have been largely, if not chiefly, promoted by the improvements in the

means of communication, and the methods of transport by sea and land.

Larger ships more economically propelled have brought grain at a

cheaper and cheaper rate from all parts of the world, and improved

methods of refrigeration have made fresh meat, butter and other

perishable commodities even from the southern hemisphere articles of

rapidly growing importance in European markets. Improvements in

transport have likewise tended to cheapen British coal in many parts

of the mainland of Europe. On the other hand, the extension of the

railway network of the continent has brought a wider area within the

domain of the manufacturing regions associated with the coalfields

occurring at intervals in central Europe from the upper Oder to the

basin of the Ruhr, as well as some of the more detached coalfields of

Russia. As affecting the relative advantages of different European

countries for carrying on manufacturing industry, three inventions or

discoveries of recent years may be mentioned as of capital importance:

(1) the invention in 1879 of the Thomas process for the manufacture of

ingot iron and steel from the phosphoric iron ores, an invention which

gave a greatly enhanced value to the ores on the borders of Lorraine,

Luxemburg and Alsace, as well as others both in England and on the

continent; (2) the invention of efficient machines for the application

of power by means of electricity, an invention which gave greatly

increased importance to the water-power of mountainous countries; and

(3) the discovery of the fact that from lignite an even higher grade

of producer gas may be obtained than from coal, a discovery obviously

of special importance for the great lignite-producing districts of

Germany and Bohemia.

Water-power.

Such particulars as can be procured with regard to the utilization of

water-power in the countries of Europe which use that source of power

most largely are given in the following table:--

+-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

+-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

| Germany | 1895 | 3427 | 629 | 18 |

| France / | 1899 | .. | 575 | .. |

| \ | 1904 | 2581[69] | 650[69] | 25 |

| Austria-Hungary | 1902 | .. | 437 | .. |

| Italy | 1899 | 2209 | 337 | 15 |

| Sweden | 1903 | 453 | .. | about 50[70] |

| Norway | 1904 | 254 | 186 | 73 |

| / | 1895 | 153 | 88 | 58 |

| | | 1895 | 153 | 95[71] | 62 |

| Switzerland < | 1901 | 320 | 185 | 58 |

| | | 1901 | 320 | 223[71] | 70 |

| \ | 1905 | 516 | ? | ? |

+-----------------+------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

The figures derived from the three recent industrial censuses of

Switzerland are very instructive, especially if one is justified in

including the electric among the hydraulic installations. The

estimates that have been made of the total available water-power in a

few European countries are mostly based on such problematical data

that they are not worth giving. One very uncertain element in such

calculations is the amount of water-power that is capable of being

artificially created by the construction of valley-dams, such as have

been erected on a small scale in the Harz and other mining and

smelting regions of Germany from an early date, and are now being

built on a much larger scale in the Rhine region and other parts of

Europe, or is incidentally provided in the construction of canals.

Transcontinental routes.

The commercial history of Europe has illustrated from the earliest

times the influence of the outline and physical features in

determining great trade-routes along certain lines. At all periods

land routes have connected the southern seas with the Baltic and the

North Sea, effecting the great saving of distance more or less

indicated by the following table:--

+---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+

+---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+

| | st. m. | m. | m. |

| St Petersburg-Odessa | 5240 | 930 | 1217 |

| Riga-Odessa | 4985 | 765 | 1022 |

| Danzig-Odessa | 4735 | 745 | 1009 |

| Stettin-Triest | 4065 | 550 | 854 |

| Luebeck-Venice | 3920 | 640 | 871 |

| Hamburg-Triest | 3820 | 560 | 945 |

| Hamburg-Venice | 3805 | 555 | 886 |

| Hamburg-Genoa | 2845 | 640 | 880 |

| Antwerp-Venice | 3500 | 515 | 850 |

| Antwerp-Genoa | 2535 | 515 | 778 |

| Antwerp-Marseilles | 2350 | ? | 725 |

| Calais-Genoa | 2400 | 555 | 780 |

| Calais-Marseilles | 2215 | 535 | 721 |

| Havre-Marseilles | 2135 | 475 | 678 |

| Bordeaux-Cette | 1945 | 227 | 295 |

| Calais-Constantinople | 3510 | 1445 | 2134 |

| Calais-Salonica | 3370 | 1215 | 1911 |

| Christiania-Stockholm | 780 | 260 | 357 |

| Lulea-Narvik (Ofotenfjord)| 1970 | 240 | 295 |

+---------------------------+----------+-----------+----------+

From the form of the continent it obviously results that the farther

east the route lies the greater is the saving of distance. The precise

direction of the routes has been very largely fixed, however, by the

physical features; by the course of the rivers where navigable rivers

formed parts of the routes; in other cases by the situation and form

of the mountains, or the direction of the river valleys which is

implied in the form of the mountains. From the Black Sea the most

convenient starting-point is obviously towards the west, and two

connecting routes with the Baltic lie wholly to the east of the

mountains. One route makes use of the Bug or the Dniester, the San and

the Vistula so far as possible, while another starting in the same way

proceeds round the foot-hills of the Carpathians, thus finding easy

crossing places on the head-streams of the rivers, as far as the Oder

and then down that stream. Another route is up the Danube to the

neighbourhood of Vienna, and then north-eastwards through the opening

between the Carpathians and the Sudetic range to the head-waters of

the Oder, crossing a water-parting little more than 1000 ft. in

altitude. The first route was certainly used again and again by the

ancient Greeks, starting from Olbia near the mouth of the Bug, the

objective point being the coast in the south-east of the Baltic

supplying the amber which was so important an article of commerce in

early times. This route was again much used in the middle ages, when

Visby, on Gotland, undoubtedly selected on account of the security

afforded by an island station, was for hundreds of years an important

centre of trade both in northern products (of which furs were the most

valuable) and those of the East (pepper and other spices, silks and

other costly articles). Numerous coins, Roman, Byzantine and Arabic,

found not merely in Gotland itself but also at various points along

the route indicated, testify to the long-continued importance of this

route. In the middle ages the Oder route was also largely used whether

reached by rounding the Carpathians or ascending the Danube, and in

connexion with that route the island of Bornholm long formed a focus

of commerce answering to that in Gotland farther east. The Danube

route was also made use of farther west, and formed a large part of a

great route connecting the East with the north-west of Europe. The

valuable goods of the Orient could be conveyed up-stream as high as

Ratisbon (Regensburg), and thence north-westward across Nuremberg to

Frankfort-on-Main, from which access was had to the Rhine gorge

leading on to Cologne and the ports of Dordrecht and Rotterdam, Bruges

and Ghent; or they could be carried still farther up-stream to Ulm,

thence by a route winding through the north of the Black Forest to

Strassburg and from that point north of the Vosges to the Marne and

Seine.

[Illustration: Map of Europe at the end of the 10th century.]

[Illustration: Map of Europe at the end of the 12th century.]

Farther west use was made at an early date of passes by which the

whole system of the Alps could be crossed, or partly crossed and

partly rounded, in a single rise. The ancient Etruscans, in exchanging

their earthenware and bronzes for the amber found largely in those

times not only in the Baltic but also on the eastern shores of the

North Sea north of the Rhine mouths, made regular use of at least

three such passes. One of these was the Brenner, the summit of which

is under 4500 ft. in height, approached on the south side by the

valley of the Adige and its tributary the Eisak, on the other side by

the Inn valley and that of its small tributary the Sill. By this route

the Alps at about their widest are crossed with exceptional ease; and

hence it was natural that it should have been used by the Etruscans to

reach the amber shores of the Baltic, and in all subsequent periods in

intercourse between central Europe and northern Italy. In their trade

with the mouth of the Rhine the Etruscans appear to have used only the

passes approached by the Dora Baltea, which leads equally to the

Little St Bernard, to the south of Mont Blanc, and so to the Isere

valley and the Rhone, and to the Great St Bernard, to the east of Mont

Blanc, and so directly to the Rhone valley above the Lake of Geneva,

by which route the remainder of the Alps could be rounded on the west

and the Rhine valley reached by crossing the northern Jura. Roman

roads were afterwards made across all these passes, although that

across the Great St Bernard (the highest of all, above 8100 ft.) seems

never to have been made practicable for carriages. The Romans also

made use of three intervening passes by which in a single rise from

the Po basin the heads of valleys leading right down to the head of

Lake Constance could be reached. These were the Bernardino, Spluegen

and Septimer, to mention them in the order from west to east. By the

Romans the Simplon was also made use of as affording the most direct

connexion between Milan and the upper Rhone valley. All these passes

were likewise in use in the middle ages when Venice and Genoa were the

great intermediaries in the trade in pepper and spices and other

Oriental products. The Brenner afforded the most direct connexion

between Venice and southern Germany, on a route leading also to

northern Germany by way of Ratisbon and afterwards the rivers of the

Elbe basin, and finally (from the end of the 14th century) by a canal

to Luebeck, which was the great distributing centre of these and other

products for the Baltic. To take the most direct route to the Rhine

valley and north-western Europe some other pass (the Seefeld or the

Fern) in the Bavarian Alps had to be crossed and the Rhine valley

reached by Augsburg, and thence either by way of Ulm or Frankfort.

From Genoa the routes in the early middle ages were by way of Milan to

the Lake of Constance, and thence by way of Ulm if the Rhine valley

was the goal, and by way of Augsburg if it was the Baltic. The St

Gotthard route, the most direct connexion between Milan and the north

of the Alps, was added about the end of the 13th century. The Mont

Cenis pass from an early date afforded the most direct connexion

between Genoa and the middle Rhone valley by way of Turin. When modern

carriage roads came to be built it was still the same routes that were

chosen. The road across the Brenner, completed in 1772, was the first

of these. The building of the great Swiss carriage roads across the

passes in the early part of the 19th century was inaugurated by

Napoleon's road across the Simplon completed in 1805. A later

paragraph will show that modern railways follow much the same, if not

exactly the same, routes. On the early use of the Saone-Rhone valleys,

and the route between the foot-hills of the Cevennes and the Pyrenees,

it is not necessary to insist, but it may be mentioned that English

tin was sometimes conveyed to the Mediterranean (Marseilles) by this

latter route in Roman times.

Inland waterways.

Since the introduction of railways inland waterways have in most

countries taken a very inferior position as means of transport. The

articles on the different countries supply the necessary information

with respect to those which have a purely national interest, but here

mention must be made of those which have significance as belonging to

trans-European routes or have an international value. The importance

of shortening the water-route between the opposite sides of the great

European isthmus separating the Baltic and the Black Sea is brought

into prominence by the constant revival of projects for a ship-canal

connecting those coasts. A definite step taken with a view to carrying

out such a project was the sanction given by the tsar in April 1905

for the appointment of a special commission to inquire into the

practicability of a scheme for the excavation of a canal about 28 ft.

deep between Riga and Kherson, utilizing the waters of the Duna or

western Dvina, the Berezina and Dnieper. Since the completion in 1845

of the Ludwigs or Danube-Main Canal, running from the Main near

Bamberg to Kelheim on the Danube, it has been possible to go by water

from the mouth of the Rhine to the mouth of the Danube; but this canal

has in reality no trans-European significance. It cannot take barges

of a greater capacity than 125 tons, is not adapted for steamers, and

carries only a very small amount of traffic. But projects for

connecting the Danube with northern Europe by water are still

entertained. Of these the most advanced are those for establishing

connexions through Austria. On the 11th of June 1901 the Austrian diet

passed an act prescribing the construction of a canal connecting the

Oder with the Danube through the Morava, and another connecting the

Danube at Linz with the Moldau-Elbe, and the improvement of the

navigation on the connected waterways. The Oder-Danube canal thus

authorized would have to cross a watershed of little more than 1000

ft. in altitude as against 1365 ft. in the case of the Ludwigs Canal;

but the Elbe-Danube Canal would have to cross one of about 2250 ft.

Under the provisions of the act the work is to be completed by 1924.

In Germany projects have been actively agitated for improving the

Danube-Main connexion either wholly or partly along the route of the

present canal, and for establishing a new connexion by means of a

canal of at least 61/2 ft. in depth by way of the Neckar, the Rems and

the Brenz, joining the Danube at Lauingen about midway between Ulm and

Donauwoerth. The Moldau-Elbe is itself an important international

waterway, inasmuch as it allows of steamer traffic from Prague in

Bohemia to Hamburg, and by means of a connecting canal to Luebeck. But

the most important of all international waterways in Europe is the

Rhine, on which even sea-going steamers regularly ascend to Cologne,

and an amount of traffic crosses the Dutch frontier three or four

times as great as that which makes use of the Manchester ship-canal.

The river is also navigable to Basel in Switzerland, though above

Strassburg the river is little used, being replaced since 1834 by the

Rhine and Rhone canal, which connects the two rivers through the Ill

and the Saone. The Rhine is also connected with the Seine by the Marne

and Rhine canal passing north of the Vosges, and its tributary the

Moselle is also navigable from France into Germany. The Meuse again is

navigable from France through Belgium into Holland, and is connected

by more than one route with the Seine, and in the densely peopled

mining and manufacturing country in the north of France and the

adjoining parts of Belgium numerous waterways ramify in different

directions. Even in an article on Europe the entirely French canals

connecting the Seine and Rhone (Burgundy canal, summit-level 1230 ft.,

completed 1832), the Loire and Rhone (Canal du Centre, summit-level

990 ft., completed in 1793), and the Canal du Midi, connecting the

Garonne at Toulouse with Cette on the Mediterranean, may be mentioned

inasmuch as they establish communication between different seas. The

last is of special interest because it is the oldest (completed in

1681), because it makes use of the lowest crossing, surmounting the

passage of Naurouse, or Gap of Carcassonne, at an altitude of 625 ft.,

and because it effects the greatest shortening of distance from sea to

sea. On this account the project of establishing a ship-canal of

modern dimensions along this route has been as often revived as that

of the Black Sea and Baltic canal. In the east of Europe the Vistula

and Memel are both international waterways, but they are of little

importance compared with those in the west. The Kaiser Wilhelm or

North Sea and Baltic canal, opened in 1895, has, however, no little

international value, inasmuch as it shortens the sea-route to the

Baltic for all North Sea ports to the south of Newcastle, and affords

the means of avoiding a rather dangerous passage round the north of

Jutland. A minor degree of international interest belongs to the

ship-canal through the Isthmus of Corinth, opened on the 6th of August

1893.

Railways.

The following table gives a summary statement of the progress of

railway construction in European countries down to the end of the 19th

century:--

_Railways in European Countries._

+-------------------+-----------+-----------------------------------------------------+

| | Date of | Miles open. |

| |opening of +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| |first line.| 1875. | 1880. | 1885. | 1890. | 1895. | 1900. |

+-------------------+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| Austria | 1837 | 6,402 | 7.083 | 8,270 | 9,506 | 10,180 | 11,912 |

| Belgium | 1835 | 2,171 | 2,399 | 2,740 | 2,810 | 2,839 | 2,851 |

| Bosnia-Herzegovina| 1879 | .. | .. | .. | 342 | 471 | .. |

| Bulgaria | 1866 | .. | .. | .. | .. | 535 | 921 |

| Denmark | 1847 | 689 | 975 | 1,195 | 1,217 | 1,371 | 1,809 |

| France | 1828 | 13,529 | 16,275 | 20,177 | 20,666 | 22,505 | 26,739 |

| German Empire | 1835 | 17,376 | 20,693 | 22,640 | 25,411 | 27,392 | 30,974 |

| Great Britain | 1825 | 14,510 | 15,563 | 16,594 | 17,281 | 18,001 | 18,680 |

| Greece | 1869 | 7 | 7 | 278 | 452 | ? | 641 |

| Hungary | 1846 | 3,992 | 4,421 | 5,605 | 6,984 | 8,651 | 10,624 |

| Ireland | 1834 | 2,148 | 2,370 | 2,575 | 2,792 | 3,173 | 3,183 |

| Italy | 1836 | 4,771 | 5,340 | 6,408 | 7,983 | 9,579 | 9,864 |

| Luxemburg | 1873 | 110 | .. | .. | .. | 270 | .. |

| Netherlands | 1839 | 1,006 | 1,143 | 1,496 | 1,653 | 1,869 | 2,007 |

| Norway | 1854 | 345 | 652 | 970 | 970 | 1,071 | 1,231 |

| Portugal | 1856 | 643 | 710 | 949 | 1,316 | 1,336 | 1,346 |

| Rumania | 1869 | 766 | 859 | 1,100 | 1,590 | 1,617 | 1,920 |

| Russia * | 1838 | 12,166 | 14,026 | 15,934 | 18,059 | 21,948 | 27,345 |

| Servia | 1884 | .. | .. | 155 | 335 | 335 | 355 |

| Spain | 1848 | 3,801 | 4,550 | 5,547 | 6,211 | 7,483 | 8,206 |

| Sweden | 1856 | 2,171 | 3,654 | 4,279 | 4,980 | 6,058 | 7,018 |

| Switzerland | 1844 | 1,257 | 1,596 | 1,795 | 2,014 | 2,233 | 2,401 |

| Turkey | 1872 | .. | 727 | 657 | 657 | 935 | .. |

--------------------+-----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

* Excluding Finland.

The chief railways of most European countries are on the same gauge as

that originally adopted in Great Britain, namely, 4 ft. 81/2 in. Irish

railways are, however, on the gauge of 5 ft. 3 in. The standard gauge

in Russia is 5 ft., that of Spain and Portugal about 5 ft. 6 in. The

still isolated railway system of Greece is upon a narrow gauge. The

very general use of a common gauge obviously greatly facilitates

international trade. It allows, for example, of wagons from Germany

entering every country on its frontier except Russia. It allows of

German coal being carried without break of bulk to Paris, Milan and

the mainland of Denmark. By means of train-ferries German trains can

also be conveyed to Copenhagen by way of Warnemuende and Gjedser and

then across the channel separating Falster and Zealand; and there is a

similar means of communication between Copenhagen and Malmoe (Sweden)

and between Lindau in Bavaria on the Lake of Constance and Romanshorn

on the same lake in the Swiss canton of Thurgau. The establishment of

this method of transport between England and France has been urged in

opposition to the Channel Tunnel scheme.

Of the railway systems of the mainland of Europe as a whole the main

features are these. There is a broad belt running from the North Sea

eastwards between the lines marked by Amsterdam and Hanover on the

north, and Calais, Liege, Duesseldorf and Halle on the south, in which

important lines of railway run from west to east. About 12 deg. E. those

lines begin to converge on Berlin. This belt is crossed in the Rhine

valley by a much narrower but very important belt running north and

south, now connected with the Italian railway system through the St

Gotthard tunnel. To the south of the west end of the west-to-east belt

lies the principal railway focus in western Europe, Paris, from which

important lines radiate in all directions; two of these radiating

lines now establish communication with the Italian railway system,

through the Mont Cenis and Simplon tunnels respectively, and other two

connecting with the Spanish system round the ends of the Pyrenees.

Berlin in central Europe is perhaps an even more important railway

focus. Among the chief lines radiating from it are one through Leipzig

and Munich and connecting with the Italian railway system by the

Brenner route, and another through Dresden and Prague to Vienna, and

then by the Semmering pass by one route to Triest and by another to

Venice. East of Berlin the railways of Europe begin to form wider

meshes. Two main lines diverge towards the north-east, one by Kuestrin

and Koenigsberg and the other by Frankfort on the Oder and Thorn, both

uniting at Eydtkuehnen to the east of Koenigsberg before crossing the

Prussian frontier and passing on to St Petersburg. From Thorn a line

branches off by Warsaw to Moscow, the chief railway focus in eastern

Europe. South-east from Berlin there runs another important line

through Breslau, Cracow and Lemberg to Odessa, skirting to a large

extent the foot-hills of the Carpathians like the ancient trade route

from Olbia to the Baltic. Two routes on which there are services

organized by the International Sleeping Car Company connect London

with Constantinople, and it is noteworthy that both of these indicate

the importance of the physical feature which has determined the

position of the great north-south belt of railways above mentioned,

and also of towns famous as commercial centres in the middle ages. One

of these is the route of the Orient Express, which goes by Calais,

Paris and Strassburg, then east of Strassburg runs north in the Rhine

valley for about 40 m. to Karlsruhe, then winds through the hilly

country between the Black Forest proper and the Odenwald to Stuttgart,

proceeding thence by Ulm, Augsburg and Munich to Linz and then by the

valley of the Danube through Vienna and Budapest to Belgrade, and

thence by the valleys of the Morava, Nishava and Maritza to

Constantinople. The other is that of the Ostend-Vienna express, going

by Ostend to Brussels, and through Aix-la-Chapelle to Cologne, then up

the Rhine gorge southwards to Bingen and eastwards to Mainz and on to

Frankfort (on the Main), thence south-eastwards by the route so

celebrated in the middle ages through Nuremberg to Regensburg

(Ratisbon), and thence down the valley of the Danube coinciding with

the Orient Express route from a point a few miles above Linz. From the

Orient Express route a branch crosses from the valley of the Morava to

that of the Vardar, establishing a connexion with Salonica.

In the development of this railway system the mountains have proved

the most formidable of natural obstacles, and at the head of the

mountains in this respect as in others stand the Alps. The first

railway to cross one of the main chains of the Alps was the Semmering

line on the route from Vienna to the Adriatic, constructed in

1848-1854. Its summit is in a tunnel less than 1 m. long, 2940 ft.

above sea-level or nearly 300 ft. below the level of the pass. South

of the Semmering, however, various other passes have to be crossed,

and it was not till 1857 that the railway to Triest (by Laibach) was

completed, and not till the late seventies that the more direct route

to Venice across the Tarvis pass in Carinthia was established. Of the

route from Triest by Goerz across the Karawanken and Tauern Alps to

Salzburg and south-eastern Germany the first section was opened only

in 1906. After the Semmering the next railway to cross the Alps was

that following the Brenner route which crosses the summit of the pass

at the height of 4490 ft., and, as already stated, is the only pass

that has to be crossed on the way from Munich to the plains of Italy.

Next followed in 1871 the western route through the so-called Mont

Cenis tunnel, really under the Col de Frejus, to the west of the Mont

Cenis pass, and effecting a crossing between the valleys of the Arc

(Rhone basin) and the Dora Riparia (Po basin) at an altitude of 4380

ft., or nearly 2500 ft. lower than the pass previously used, but only

by piercing the mountains in a tunnel more than 71/2 m. long. Next in

order was the St Gotthard route, opened in 1882, the most direct route

between northern Italy and western Germany, connecting the Lake of

Lucerne with the valley of the Ticino. Here the altitude is reduced to

3785 ft., about 3150 ft. below the summit-level of the pass, but the

tunnel length is increased to rather more than 91/4 m. The Simplon route

opened in June 1906, between the upper Rhone valley and the Toce

valley, shortening the route between Milan and northern France,

effects the crossing at an altitude of only 2300 ft., nearly 4300 ft.

lower than the pass, but by increasing the tunnel length to 121/4 m.

Steps were subsequently taken to continue the Simplon route northwards

by a tunnel through the Loetschberg in the Bernese Alps, and a project

is entertained for continuing the Vintschgau (upper Adige) railway

across or under the Reschenscheideck to the Inn valley. An important

east-west crossing of the Alps was effected when the Arlberg tunnel

(6.37 m. long, summit-level 4300 ft.) connecting the Inn valley with

that of the Rhine above the Lake of Constance was opened in 1884.

Several lines wind through and cross the Jura. That which in 1857

pierced the Hauenstein, in the north of Switzerland, attained

international importance on the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel,

inasmuch as it lies on the route thence through Lucerne to the Rhine

valley at Basel; and that which crosses the Col de Jougne between

Vallorbe and Pontarlier acquired similar importance on the completion

of the Simplon tunnel. Further projects are entertained for shortening

the connexion between this tunnel and the north of France by making a

more direct line from Vallorbe to the French side of the Jura, or by

making a railway across or under the Col de la Faucille (4340 ft.),

north-west of Geneva.

Of the two railways that pass round the extremity of the Pyrenees, the

western was the first to be constructed, the eastern was not opened

till 1878. Hitherto the intervening mountains have proved more of a

railway barrier than the mightier system of the Alps, but in 1904 a

convention was concluded between the French and Spanish governments

providing for the establishment of railway connexion between the two

countries at three points of the great chain.

There are several railways across the Carpathians, mostly by passes

under 3000 ft. in height. The fact that the Toemoes Pass, on the direct

route from Hungary through Transylvania to Bucharest, attains an

altitude of 3370 ft. was undoubtedly one reason why the railway

following this route, completed in December 1879, passing through

several tunnels, was one of the last to be constructed. But the

obstruction of mountains has not been the only cause of delay in the

building of railways. Sparseness of population and general economic

backwardness have also proved hindrances, especially in Russia and the

Balkan Peninsula. The railways to Constantinople and Salonica were

completed only in 1888, and yet the highest altitude on the

Constantinople line is only 2400 ft., that on the Salonica line 1750

ft. Among other important railways of recent date and of more than

merely national significance may be mentioned that bringing Bucharest

into connexion with the Black Sea port of Costantza by means of a

bridge across the Danube at Chernavoda (opened in September 1895); a

line across the Carpathians connecting Debreczen with Lemberg, the

continuation of the line eastwards from Lemberg to Kiev; a network

bringing the coalfield of the Donets basin into connexion with ports

on the Sea of Azov; a line in the south-east of Russia connecting

Novocherkask with Vladikavkaz, and branches running from the same

point connecting that line with Novorossiysk on the Black Sea on the

one hand, and with Tsaritsyn at the last angle of the Volga on the

other hand; a line in northern Russia bringing Archangel into

connexion with the European system at Vologda (opened in 1898); a

detached line in the north-east across the Urals from Perm by

Ekaterinburg (completed in 1878) to Tyumen (completed in 1884).

Chelyabinsk on the Siberian railway has a branch running northwards to

Ekaterinburg, and this line now affords uninterrupted communication

with the northern Dvina, inasmuch as the railway which originally

started at Perm has been carried westwards through Vyatka and then

northwards to Kotlas at the point of origin of that river, to which

point it was opened in 1900; and a line in the east connecting the

European system at Samara with the great mining centre at Zlatoust,

already in 1890 continued across the Urals to Miyas, and since then

carried farther east as the great Siberian railway.

The result of the construction of the numerous transcontinental

railways has been to bring rail and sea-routes and ports on opposite

sides of the continents into competition with one another to a greater

degree than is possible in any other continent. The more valuable, and

above all perishable commodities may be sent right across the

continent even through the mountains. Even from Great Britain, which

is bound to carry on its external commerce in part by sea, goods are

sometimes sent far south in Italy by railways running from one or

other of the North Sea ports. It will hence be readily understood that

for inland trade on the mainland the competition between ports on

opposite sides of the continent and between different railways will be

very keen, greatly to the advantage of the inland centres to which

that competition extends. This competition is inevitably all the more

keen now that the trade of Europe with the East is once more carried

on through the Mediterranean as it was in ancient times and the middle

ages. The great shortening of the sea-route in this trade at such

ports as Marseilles, Triest, Venice and Genoa, indicated by the

figures below, goes far to counterbalance the extra cost even of

railway transport across the mountains.

_Distance in Nautical Miles from Port Said._

London 3215 | Marseilles 1506

Bremen 3502 | Genoa 1426

Hamburg 3520 | Venice 1330

Stettin 3749 | Brindisi 930

St Petersburg 4300 | Odessa 1130

Ethnology.

An enormous amount of investigation with regard to European ethnology

has been carried on in recent years. These labours have chiefly

consisted in the study of the physical type of different countries or

districts, but it is not necessary to consider in detail the results

arrived at. It should, however, be pointed out that the idea of an Aryan

race may be regarded as definitely abandoned. One cannot even speak with

assurance of the diffusion of an Aryan civilization. It is at least not

certain that the civilization that was spread by the migration of

peoples speaking Aryan tongues originated amongst and remained for a

time peculiar to such peoples. The utmost that can be said is that the

Aryan languages must in their earliest forms have spread from some

geographical centre. That centre, however, is no longer sought for in

Asia, but in some part of Europe, so that we can no longer speak of any

detachment of Aryan-speaking peoples entering Europe.

The most important works, summarizing the labours of a host of

specialists on the races of Europe, are those of Ripley and Deniker.[72]

Founding upon a great multitude of data that have been collected with

regard to the form of the head, face and nose, height, and colour of the

hair and eyes, most of the leading anthropologists seem to have come to

the conclusion that there are three great racial types variously and

intricately intermingled in Europe. As described and named by Ripley,

these are: (1) the Teutonic, characterized by long head and face and

narrow aquiline nose, high stature, very light hair and blue eyes; (2)

the Alpine, characterized by round head, broad face, variable rather

broad heavy nose, medium height and "stocky" frame, light chestnut hair

and hazel grey eyes; and (3) the Mediterranean, characterized by long

head and face, rather broad nose, medium stature and slender build, dark

brown or black hair and dark eyes. The Teutonic race is entirely

confined to north-western Europe, and embraces some groups speaking

Celtic languages. It is believed by Ripley to have been differentiated

in this continent, and to have originally been one with the other

long-headed race, sometimes known as the Iberian, and to the Italians as

the Ligurian race, which "prevails everywhere south of the Pyrenees,

along the southern coast of France, and in southern Italy, including

Sicily and Sardinia," and which extends beyond the confines of Europe

into Africa. The Alpine race is geographically intermediate between

these two, having its centre in the Alps, while in western Europe it is

spread most widely over the more elevated regions, and in eastern Europe

"becomes less pure in proportion as we go east from the Carpathians

across the great plains of European Russia." This last race, which is

most persistently characterized by the shape of the head, is regarded by

Ripley as an intrusive Asiatic element which once advanced as a wedge

amongst the earlier long-headed population as far as Brittany, where it

still survives in relative purity, and even into Great Britain, though

not Ireland, but afterwards retired and contracted its area before an

advance of the long-headed races. Deniker, basing his classification on

essentially the same data as Ripley and others, while agreeing with them

almost entirely with regard to the distribution of the three main traits

(cephalic index, colour of hair and eyes, and stature) on which

anthropologists rely, yet proceeds further in the subdivision of the

races of Europe. He recognizes six principal and four secondary races.

The six principal races are the Nordic (answering approximately to the

Teutonic of Ripley), the Littoral or Atlanto-Mediterranean, the

Ibero-Insular, the Oriental, the Adriatic or Dinaric and the Occidental

or Cevenole.

Language.

Although language is no test of race, it is the best evidence for

present or past community of social or political life; and nothing is

better fitted to give a true impression of the position and relative

importance of the peoples of Europe than a survey of their linguistic

differences and affinities.[73] The following table contains the names

of the various languages which are still spoken on the continent, as

well as of those which, though now extinct, can be clearly traced in

other forms. Two asterisks are employed to mark those which are

emphatically dead languages, while one indicates those which have a kind

of artificial life in ecclesiastical or literary usage.

I. INDO-EUROPEAN.

1. INDIC branch, represented by Gipsy dialects.

2. IRANIC branch, " " (a) Ossetian.

(b) Armenian.

3. HELLENIC branch, " " *(a) Greek.

(b) Romaic.

4. ITALIC branch, " " *(a) Latin.

**(b) Oscan.

**(c) Umbrian, &c.

/ (d) French.

| (e) Walloon.

| (f) Provencal.

| (g) Italian.

_Neo-Latin_ < (h) Ladin (Rumonsh, Rumansh,

| Rheto-Romance).

| (i) Spanish.

| (j) Portuguese.

\ (k) Rumanian.

5. CELTIC branch, represented by (a) Irish.

(b) Erse or Gaelic.

(d) Welsh.

**(e) Cornish.

(f) Low Breton.

6. TEUTONIC branch, represented by **(a) Gothic.

/ **(b) Norse or Old Norse.

| (c) Icelandic and Faeroese.

_Scandinavian_ < (d) Norwegian.

| (e) Swedish.

\ (f) Danish.

/ **(g) Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, or First

| English.

| (h) English.

| **(i) Old Saxon.

_Low German_ < (j) Platt-Deutsch or Low

| German.

| (k) Flemish } Netherlandish.

| (l) Dutch }

\ (m) Frisic.

/ **(n) Old High German.

| (o) Middle High German.

_High German_ < (p) New High or Literary

\ German

7. SLAVONIC branch, represented by *(a) Church Slavonic.

/ (b) Russian.

| (c) Ruthenian, Rusniak, or Little-

| Russian.

| (d) White Russian or Bielo-

_South-Eastern_ < Russian.

| (e) Bulgarian.

| (f) Servo-Croatian.

\ (g) Slovenian.

/ (h) Czech (Bohemian).

| (i) Slovakish.

_Western_ < (j) Polish.

| (k) Sorbian (Wendic, Lusatian).

\ *(l) Polabian.

8. LETTIC branch, represented by **(a) Old Prussian

(b) Lettish.

9. UNATTACHED **?(a) Old Dacian.

(b) Albanian.

II. SEMITIC.

1. CANAANITIC branch, represented by *(a)Hebrew.

**(b)Phoenician or Punic.

2. ARABIC branch, represented by **(a) Arabic.

**(b) Mozarabic.

III. FINNO-TATARIC (Turanian, Ural-Altaic, &c.).

1. FINNO-UGRIC languages (a) Samoyede.

(b) Finnish or Suomi.

Votish.

(d) Lappish.

(e) Cheremissian.

(f) Mordvinian.

(g) Ziryenian and Permian.

(h) Votiak.

(i) Magyar.

2. TATAR-TURKISH languages (a) Turkish.

(b) Kazan Tatar, Crimean Tatar,

Bashkir, Kirghiz.

3. MONGOLIAN languages Kalmuk.

4. UNATTACHED Basque.

From this conspectus it appears that there are still about 60 distinct

languages spoken in Europe, without including Latin, Greek, Old Slavonic

and Hebrew, which are still used in literature or ecclesiastical

liturgies. Besides all those which are spoken over extensive

territories, and some even which are confined within very narrow limits,

are broken up into several distinct dialects.

Political boundaries.

The boundaries of European countries have of course been determined by

history, and in some cases only historical events can be held to account

for their general situation, the influence of geographical conditions

being seen only on a minute examination of details. In most cases,

however, it is otherwise. The present political boundaries were all

settled when the general distribution of population in the continent was

in a large measure determined by the geographical conditions, and

accordingly the lines along which they run for the most part show the

influence of such conditions very clearly, and thus present in many

cases a marked contrast to the political boundaries in America and

Australia, where the boundaries have often been marked out in advance of

the population. In Europe the general rule is that the boundaries tend

to run through some thinly peopled strip or tract of country, such as is

formed by mountain ranges, elevated tablelands too bleak for

cultivation, relatively high ground of no great altitude where soil and

climate are less favourable to cultivation than the lower land on either

side, or low ground occupied by heaths or marshes or some other sterile

soil; but it is the exception for important navigable rivers to form

boundaries between countries or even between important administrative

divisions of countries, and for such exceptions a special explanation

can generally be found. Navigable rivers unite rather than separate, for

the obvious reason that they generally flow through populous valleys,

and the vessels that pass up and down can touch as easily on one side as

the other. Minor rivers, on the other hand, flowing through sparsely

peopled valleys frequently form portions of political boundaries simply

because they are convenient lines of demarcation. A brief examination of

the present political map of Europe will serve to illustrate these

rules.

The eastern frontier of the Netherlands begins by running southwards

through a marsh nearly parallel to the Ems but nowhere touching it,

then winds south or south-westwards through a rather sparsely peopled

district to the Rhine. This river it crosses, it then approaches but

does not touch the Meuse, but runs for a considerable distance roughly

parallel to that river along higher ground, where the population is

much more scanty than in the valley. On the side of Belgium the Dutch

boundary is for the most part thoroughly typical, winding between the

dreariest parts of the Dutch or Belgium provinces of North Brabant,

Limburg and Antwerp. The Scheldt nowhere forms a boundary between

countries, not even at its wide estuary. The eastern frontier of

Belgium is quite typical both on the side of Germany and Luxemburg. It

is otherwise, however, on the south, there that country confines with

France, and indeed the whole of the north-east frontier of France may

be called a historical frontier, showing the influence of geographical

conditions only in details. One of these details, however, deserves

attention, the tongue in which it advances northwards into Belgium so

as to give to France the natural fortress of Givet, a tongue, be it

noted, the outline of which is as typical a boundary as is to be seen

in Europe in respect of scantiness of population, apart from the

fortress.

The mountainous frontiers of France on the east and south require

hardly any comment. Only in the Burgundy Gate between the Vosges and

the Jura has an artificial boundary had to be drawn, and even that in

a minor degree illustrates the general rule. The division of the

Iberian peninsula between Spain and Portugal goes back in effect to

the Christian reaction against the Moors. The valley of the Mino and

its tributaries establishes a natural connexion between Galicia and

the rest of Spain; but an independent crusade against the Moors

starting from the lower part of the valley of the Douro resulted in

the formation of the kingdom of Portugal, which found its natural

eastern limit on the scantily peopled margin of the Iberian tableland,

where the rivers cease to be navigable and flow through narrow gorges,

that of the Tagus, where the river marks the frontier, being almost

without inhabitants, especially on the Spanish side.

The greater part of the Italian boundary is very clearly marked

geographically, though we have to look back to the weakness of divided

Italy to account for the instances in which northern mountaineers have

pushed their way into southern Alpine valleys. Even in these parts,

however, there are interesting illustrations of geographical influence

in the way in which the Italian boundary crosses the northern ends of

the Lago Maggiore and the Lake of Garda, and cuts off portions of Lake

Lugano both in the east and west. In all these cases the frontier

crosses from one steep unpeopled slope to another, assigning the

population at different ends or on different sides of the lakes to the

country to which belongs the adjacent population not lying on their

shores.

Of the Swiss frontiers all that it is necessary to remark is that the

river Rhine in more than one place marks the boundary, in one,

however, where it traverses alluvial flats liable to inundation (on

the side of Austria), in the other place where it rushes through a

gorge below the falls of Schaffhausen. The southern frontier of

Germany is almost throughout typical, the northern is the sea, except

where a really artificial boundary runs through Jutland.

In the east of Germany and the north-east of Austria the winding

frontier through low plains is the result of the partition of Poland,

but in spite of the absence of marked physical features it is for the

most part in its details almost as typical as the mountainous frontier

on the south of Germany. All the great rivers are crossed. Most of the

line runs through a tract of strikingly scanty population, and the

dense population in one part of it, where upper Silesia confines with

Russian Poland, has been developed since the boundary was fixed.

In the Balkan Peninsula the most striking facts are that the Balkans

do not, and the Danube to a large extent does form a boundary.

Geographical features, however, bring the valley of the Maritsa

(eastern Rumelia) into intimate relation with upper Bulgaria, the

connexion of which with Bulgaria north of the Balkans had long been

established by the valley of the Isker, narrow as that valley is. On

the side of Rumania, again, it is the marshes on the left bank of the

Danube even more than the river itself that make of that river a

frontier. An examination of the eastern boundary of all that is

included in Russia in Europe will furnish further illustrations of the

general rule.

Finally, on the north-west of Russia it was only natural that the

Tornea and the Tana should be taken as lines of demarcation in that

thinly peopled region, and it was equally natural that where the

boundary between Norway and Sweden descends from the fjeld in the

south it should leave to Norway both sides of the valley of the

Glommen.

+-------------------+-------------+------------------------------------+--------+

| +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+Pop. per|

| | sq. m. | 1880. | 1890. | 1900. | |

+-------------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+--------+

| Austria-Hungary | 241,466 | 37,884 | 41,358 | 45,405[11]| 188 |

| Bosnia-Herze- | 19,735 | 1,336[1] | .. | 1,568[12]| 81 |

| Liechtenstein | 61 | | 9[7] | .. | 147 |

| Belgium | 11,373 | 5,520 | 6,069 | 6,694[16]| 589 |

| Denmark[b] | 15,431 | 1,980 | 2,185 | 2,465[14]| 160 |

| France | 207,206 | | 38,343[7] | 38,596[14]| 186 |

| Monaco | 8 | .. | .. | 15[13]| |

| German Empire | 208,760 | 45,234 | 49,428 | 56,345[16]| 270 |

| Luxemburg | 1,003 | | | 237[16]| 247 |

| Greece | 24,974 | | 2,187[8] | 2,434[15]| 97 |

| Italy | 110,676 | 28,460[2] | | 32,450[14]| 293 |

| San Marino | 23 | .. | | 11[17]| 435 |

| Montenegro | 3,500 | .. | | 228[15]| 65 |

| Netherlands | 12,741 | 4,013[3] | 4,511[8] | 5,103[17]| 400 |

| Portugal | 34,347[c]| 4,160[4] | 4,660 | 5,423[16]| 153 |

| Rumania | 50,588 | | | 5,913[17]| 117 |

| Russia | 1,951,249 | 89,685[1] | .. |103,671[18]| 53 |

| Finland | 144,255 | 2,176[1] | .. | 2,555[11]| 18 |

| Servia | 18,762 | 1,908[5] | | 2,494[16]| 133 |

| Spain[a] | 191,994 | 16,432[6] | 17,262[9] | 18,618[16]| 97 |

| Andorra | 175 | .. | 5 | .. | 29 |

| Sweden | 173,968 | 4,566 | 4,785 | 5,136[16]| 30 |

| Norway | 126,053 | | 2,001[7] | 2,231[16]| 18 |

| Switzerland | 15,976 | 2,846 | 2,933[10]| 3,314[16]| 207 |

| Turkey (Europe)[e]| 66,840 | | | 5,892? | 90 |

| Bulgaria[f] | 37,323 | 2,008[2] | 3,154[10]| 3,733[14]| 100 |

| Crete | 3,328 | .. | 302[9] | 304[16]| 91 |

| Thasos | 152 | .. | .. | 12? | 79 |

| United Kingdom | 121,742 | 35,026[2] | 37,881[7] | 41,455[14]| 341 |

+-------------------+-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+--------+

[a] Annexed by imperial decree to Austria-Hungary in 1908.

[b] Including Faeroe Islands.

[c] Area exclusive of Tagus and Sado inlets (together 161 sq. m.).

[d] Excluding Canary Islands.

[e] With Novi-bazar.

[f] Bulgaria proclaimed its independence of Turkey in 1908.

[1] 1885. [10] 1888.

[2] 1881. [11] Census 1900.

[3] 1879. [12] Census 1895.

[4] 1878. [13] Estimate 1897.

[5] 1884. [14] Census 1901.

[6] 1887. [15] Census 1896.

[7] 1891. [16] Census 1900.

[8] 1889. [17] Census 1899.

[9] Census 1890. [18] Census 1897.

[Illustration: Map of Europe middle of 16th century.]

[Illustration: Map of Europe in 1715.]

Population.

The preceding table shows the area of the countries of Europe, with

their estimated or enumerated populations in thousands (000 omitted) at

different dates.

A noteworthy feature of the distribution of population in Europe,

especially in western, southern and central Europe, in modern times, is

the high degree of aggregation in towns, which is exhibited in the

following table[74] for the different countries or regions of the

continent:--

+-----------------------------+----------------------+-----------+

| | Percentage in Towns. | |

| +----------+-----------+ All Towns |

| | 100,000. | 20,000 to | 20,000. |

| | | 100,000. | |

+-----------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

| England and Wales | 34.8 | 23.5 | 58.3 |

| Scotland | 29.7 | 9.9 | 39.7 |

| Ireland | 14.2 | 5.3 | 19.5 |

| Norway | 10.8 | 6.8 | 17.6 |

| Sweden | 8.5 | 2.6 | 11.2 |

| Denmark | 19.4 | 6.6 | 26.0 |

| German Empire | 17.0 | 11.2 | 28.2 |

| Netherlands | 22.3 | 15.0 | 37.3 |

| Belgium | 18.6 | 12.0 | 30.6 |

| France | 13.7 | 10.3 | 24.0 |

| Spain and Portugal | 10.5 | 5.7 | 16.2 |

| Bosnia, Servia and Bulgaria | | 4.2 | 4.2 |

| Rumania | 4.6 | 7.2 | 11.8 |

| Hungary | 3.7 | 9.1 | 12.8 |

| Galicia and Bukovina | 2.0 | 4.8 | 6.8 |

| two latter) | 12.4 | 5.9 | 18.3 |

| Poland | 10.6 | 4.2 | 14.8 |

| Baltic Provinces, Russia | 11.4 | 8.3 | 19.7 |

| Moscow region[75] | 9.6 | 5.4 | 15.0 |

| Great Russia[76] | 0.7 | 4.9 | 5.6 |

| lower Volga[77] | 3.3 | 4.0 | 7.3 |

| South Russia[78] | 7.0 | 8.5 | 15.5 |

| Finland | 3.8 | 4.3 | 8.1 |

+-----------------------------+----------+-----------+-----------+

The following table contains a list of the towns with more than 100,000

inhabitants, not in every case according to the most recent census, but,

in order to make the populations fairly comparable with one another,

according to the nearest census or available estimate to 1900.

Population in thousands (000 omitted):--

*London (Greater, 1901) 6581 | Portsmouth (1901) 189

London (Registration, | Charlottenburg (1900) 189

1901) 4536 | Koenigsberg (1900) 188

*Paris (w. subs.) 2877 | Triest (1900) 179

" (City, 1901) 2661 | Plymouth-Devonport (1901) 177

*Berlin (w. subs.) 2073 | Stuttgart (1900) 176

" (1900) 1884 | Kharkov (1897) 174

Vienna (1900) 1662 | Bolton (1901) 168

*St Petersburg (w. subs., | Oporto (1900) 168

1897) 1267 | Cardiff (1901) 164

*Constantinople (w. subs.) 1200 | Bremen (1900) 163

Moscow (w. subs., 1897) 1036 | Ghent (1901) 162

Glasgow (w. subs., 1901) 910 | Dundee (1901) 161

Hamburg-Altona (1900) 867 | Vilna (1897) 160

Liverpool (w. subs., 1901) 767 | Brighton-Hove (1901) 160

Manchester-Salford (1901) 765 | Lemberg (1900) 160

Budapest (1900) 732 | Liege (1901) 160

Warsaw (1897) 638 | Halle a S. (1900) 157

+Birmingham (w. subs., 1901) 599 | Aberdeen (1901) 153

*Naples (comm., 1901) 565 | Bologna (comm., 1901) 152

Brussels (1901) 563 |*Venice (comm., 1901) 152

*Madrid (1900) 540 | Catania (comm., 1901) 150

Amsterdam (1902) 540 | Messina (comm., 1901) 150

*Barcelona (1900) 533 | Salonica 150

Munich (1900) 500 | Strassburg (1900) 150

Marseilles (1901) 495 | Zuerich (comm., 1900) 150

*Milan (comm., 1901) 493 | Seville (1900) 148

Copenhagen (w. subs., 1901) 477 | St Etienne (1901) 147

*Rome (comm., 1901) 463 | Sunderland (1901) 147

Lyons (1901) 460 | Dortmund (1900) 142

Leipzig (1900) 455 | Danzig (1900) 141

Leeds (w. subs., 1901) 444 | Mannheim (1900) 140

Breslau (1900) 423 | Stettin (1895) 140

Odessa (1897) 405 | Croydon (1901) 139

Dresden (1900) 395 | Graz (1900) 138

Edinburgh-Leith (1901) 393 | Oldham (1901) 137

Sheffield (1901) 381 | Saratov (1897) 137

Dublin (w. subs., 1901) 373 | Aachen (1900) 135

Cologne (1900) 372 | Gothenburg (1902) 134

*Lisbon (1900) 356 | Toulouse (1896) 134

Belfast (1901) 349 | Nantes (1901) 133

Rotterdam (1902) 348 | Kazan (1897) 132

Turin (comm., 1901) 335 | Malaga (1900) 130

Bristol (1901) 329 | Havre (1901) 130

Newcastle-Gateshead (1901) 325 | Blackburn (1901) 128

Prague (w. subs., 1900) 317 | Brunswick (1900) 128

Lodz (1897) 315 | Ekaterinoslav (1897) 121

*Palermo (comm., 1901) 310 | Rostov-on-Don (1897) 120

Stockholm (1902) 306 | Essen (1900) 119

Elbferfeld-Barmen (1901) 299 | Posen (1900) 117

Bordeaux (w. subs., 1896) 289 | Preston (1901) 113

Frankfort-on-Main 288 | Astrakhan (1897) 113

Riga (w. subs., 1897) 283 | Norwich (1901) 112

Bucharest (1899) 282 | Murcia (1900) 112

Bradford (1901) 280 | Birkenhead (1901) 111

Antwerp (1901) 273 | Athens (1896) 111

++West Ham (1901) 267 | Tula (1897) 111

Nuremberg (1900) 261 | Bruenn (1900) 110

Kiev (1897) 247 | Kishinev (1897) 109

Hull (1901) 241 | Basel (comm., 1900) 109

Nottingham (1901) 240 | Utrecht (1902) 109

Hanover (1900) 237 | Kiel (1900) 108

Genoa (comm., 1901) 235 | Reims (1901) 108

Magdeburg (1900) 230 | Krefeld (1900) 107

Christiania (1900) 226 | Derby (1901) 106

The Hague (1902) 222 | Kassel (1900) 106

Roubaix-Tourcoing (1901) 220 | Halifax (1901) 105

Duesseldorf (1900) 214 | Nice (1901) 105

*Valencia (1900) 214 | Southampton (1901) 105

Florence (comm., 1901) 205 | Nancy (1901) 103

Leicester (1901) 212 | Szeged (1900) 103

Lille (1901) 211 | Toulon (1901) 102

Chemnitz (1900) 207 | Cartagena (1900) 100

Comm. = commune. w. subs. = with suburbs.

[*] In 1800 only those to which an asterisk is prefixed rose above

100,000. Thirty-four out of the 144 towns enumerated in the list

above belong to the British Isles.

[+] The contiguous parliamentary boroughs of Birmingham and Aston

Manor.

[++] Part of Greater London.

AUTHORITIES.--Elisee Reclus, vols. i. to v. of _Nouvelle Geographie

universelle_ (Paris, 1876-1880), translated by E.G. Ravenstein and

A.H. Keane (vol. i. Southern Europe, vol. ii. France and Switzerland,

vol. iii. Austria-Hungary, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, vol.

iv. The British Isles, vol. v. Scandinavia, Russia in Europe, and the

European islands, translation undated); G.G. Chisholm, "Europe" (2

vols.) in Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_ (London,

1899, 1902); Kirchhoff and others, _Die Landerkunde des Erdteils

Europa_, vols. ii. and iii. of _Unser Wissen von der Erde_ (comprising

all the countries of Europe except Russia) (Vienna, &c., 1887-1893);

A. Philippson and L. Neumann, _Europa, eine allgemeine Landerkunde_

(Leipzig, 1895, 2nd edition by A. Philippson, 1906); Joseph Partsch,

_Central Europe_ (London, 1903) (embraces Belgium, the Netherlands,

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Servia, Bulgaria and Montenegro

treated from a general point of view); Joseph Partsch, _Mitteleuropa_

(Gotha, 1904) (the same work in German, extended and furnished with

additional coloured maps); M. Fallex and A. Moirey, _L'Europe moins la

France_ (Paris, 1906) (no index); A. Hettner, _Europa_ (Leipzig, 1907)

(an important feature of this work is the division of Europe into

natural regions); Vidal de la Blache, _Tableau de la geographie de la

France_ (Paris, 1903) (contains a most instructive map embracing

western and central Europe to about 42 deg. N. and 24 deg.-26 deg. E., showing the

former extent of forest, the distribution of soils earliest fit for

cultivation, of littoral alluvium and of the mines of salt and tin

which were so important in early European commerce); H.B. George, _The

Relations of Geography and History_ (Oxford, 1901) (deals very largely

with Europe); W.Z. Ripley, _The Races of Europe_ (London, 1900); J.

Deniker, _The Races of Man_ (London, 1900); R.G. Latham, _The

Nationalities of Europe_ (London, 2 vols., 1863); J.G. Bartholomew,

"The Mapping of Europe," in _Scot. Geog. Magazine_ (1890), p. 293;

Joseph Prestwich, _Geological Map of Europe_ (Oxford, 1880); A. Supan,

_Die Bevoelkerung der Erde_ (viii. Gotha, 1891, and x. Gotha, 1899);

Strelbitsky, _La Superficie de l'Europe_ (St Petersburg, 1882); Oppel,

"Die progressive Zunahme der Bevoelkerung Europas," _Petermanns

Mitteil._ (Gotha, 1886); Dr W. Koch, _Handbuch fuer den

Eisenbahn-Gueterverkehr_ (Berlin), published annually (gives railway

distances on all the lines of Europe except those of the British

Isles, Greece, Portugal and Spain); _Verkehrsatlas von Europa_

(Leipzig), frequently re-issued; _Grosser Atlas der Eisenbahnen von

Mitteleuropa_ (Leipzig); _Verlag fuer Boersen_ and _Finanzliteratur_,

frequently re-issued (gives kilometric distances between a great

number of places and a great variety of other information in the

text); K. Wiedenfeld, _Die nordwesteuropaeischen Welthaefen_ (Berlin,

1903) (an important work discussing the geographical basis of the

commercial importance of the seaports of London, Liverpool, Hamburg,

Bremen, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp and Havre). Papers relating to

the climate of Europe: J. Hann, "Die Vertheilung des Luftdruckes ueber

Mittel- und Sued-Europa" (based on monthly and annual means for the

period 1851-1880), in Penck's _Geograph. Abhandlungen_ (vol. ii. No.

2, Vienna, 1887); A. Supan, "Die mittlere Dauer der

Haupt-Waerme-perioden in Europa," _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1887), pl. 10,

and pp. 165-172; Joseph Reger, "Regenkarte von Europa," in _Petermanns

Mitteil._ (1903), pl. 1; A. Supan, "Die jahreszeitliche Verteilung der

Niederschlaege in Europa," &c., _ibid._ (1890), pl. 21, and pp.

296-297; P. Elfert, "Die Bewoelkung in Mitteleuropa mit Einschluss der

Karpatenlaender," _ibid._ (1890), pl. 11 and pp. 137-145; Koenig, "Die

Dauer des Sonnenscheins in Europa," in _Nova Acta Leopoldina Karol.

der deutschen Akad. der Naturforscher_, vol. lxvii. No. 3 (Halle,

1896); E. Ihne, "Phaenologische Karte des Fruehlingseinzugs in

Mitteleuropa," in _Petermanns Mitteil._ (1905), pl. 9, and pp. 97-108;

A. Angot, "Regime des pluies de la peninsule iberique," in _Annales du

bur. cent. meteor. de France_ (1893, B. pp. 157-194), and "Regime des

pluies de l'Europe occidentale," _ibid._ (1895, B. pp. 155-192); E.D.

Brueckner, "Die Klimaschwankungen seit 1700," in Penck's _Geographische

Abhandlungen_, iv. Pl. 2 (Vienna, 1890); Supan, "Die Verschiebung der

Bevoelkerung in Mitteleuropa mit Einschluss der Karpatenlaender,"

_Petermanns Mitteil._ (1892); Block, _L'Europe politique et sociale_

(2nd ed., 1892); E. Reclus, "Hegemonie de l'Europe," in _La Societe

nouvelle_ (Brussels, 1894). Publications relating to the measurement

of a degree of longitude on the parallel of 52 deg. N. from Valentia

(Ireland) to the eastern frontier of Russia: (1) Stebnitsky, account

of the Russian section of this work in the _Memoirs_ (Zapiski) _of the

Milit. Topog. Section of the Russian General Staff_, vols. xlix. and

l. (St. Petersburg, 1893) (in Russian, see notice in _Petermanns

Mitteil._ (1894), _Litteraturbericht_, No. 289); (2) and (3) _Die

europaeische Laengengradmessung in 52 deg. Br. von Greenwich bis Warschau_;

(2) Part i., Helmert, _Hauptdreiecke und Grundlinienanschluesse von

England bis Polen_ (Berlin, 1893); (3) Part ii., Bersch and Krueger,

_Geodaetische Linien, Parallelbogen, und Lothabweichungen zwischen

Feaghmain und Warschau_ (Berlin, 1896); J.G. Kohl, _Die geographische

Lage der Hauptstaedte Europas_ (Leipzig, 1874); Paul Meuriot, _Des

agglomerations urbaines dans l'Europe contemporaine_ (Paris, 1898);

Scharff, _The History of the European Fauna_ (London, 1899).

(G. G. C.)

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