1. Three books on _Porisms_ ([Greek: Peri ton porismaton]) are mentioned
both by Pappus and Proclus, and the former gives an abstract of them,
with the lemmas assumed. (See PORISM.)
2. Two books are mentioned, named [Greek: Topon pros epiphaneia], which
is rendered _Locorum ad superficiem_ by Commandino and subsequent
geometers. These books were subservient to the analysis of loci, but the
four lemmas which refer to them and which occur at the end of the
seventh book of the _Mathematical Collection_, throw very little light
on their contents. R. Simson's opinion was that they treated of curves
of double curvature, and he intended at one time to write a treatise on
the subject. (See Trail's _Life of Dr Simson_).
3. Pappus says that Euclid wrote four books on the _Conic Sections_
([Greek: biblia tessara Konikon]), which Apollonius amplified, and to
which he added four more. It is known that, in the time of Euclid, the
parabola was considered as the section of a right-angled cone, the
ellipse that of an acute-angled cone, the hyperbola that of an
obtuse-angled cone, and that Apollonius was the first who showed that
the three sections could be obtained from any cone. There is good ground
therefore for supposing that the first four books of Apollonius's
_Conics_, which are still extant, resemble Euclid's _Conics_ even less
than Euclid's _Elements_ do those of Eudoxus and Theaetetus.
4. A book on _Fallacies_ ([Greek: Peri pseudarion]) is mentioned by
Proclus, who says that Euclid wrote it for the purpose of exercising
beginners in the detection of errors in reasoning.
This notice of Euclid would be incomplete without some account of the
earliest and the most important editions of his works. Passing over
the commentators of the Alexandrian school, the first European
translator of any part of Euclid is Boetius (500), author of the _De
consolatione philosophiae_. His _Euclidis Megarensis geometriae libri
duo_ contain nearly all the definitions of the first three books of
the _Elements_, the postulates, and most of the axioms. The
enunciations, with diagrams but no proofs, are given of most of the
propositions in the first, second and fourth books, and a few from the
third. Some centuries afterwards, Euclid was translated into Arabic,
but the only printed version in that language is the one made of the
thirteen books of the _Elements_ by Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi (13th
century), which appeared at Rome in 1594.
The first printed edition of Euclid was a translation of the fifteen
books of the _Elements_ from the Arabic, made, it is supposed, by
Adelard of Bath (12th century), with the comments of Campanus of
Novara. It appeared at Venice in 1482, printed by Erhardus Ratdolt,
and dedicated to the doge Giovanni Mocenigo. This edition represents
Euclid very inadequately; the comments are often foolish, propositions
are sometimes omitted, sometimes joined together, useless cases are
interpolated, and now and then Euclid's order changed.
The first printed translation from the Greek is that of Bartholomew
Zamberti, which appeared at Venice in 1505. Its contents will be seen
from the title: _Euclidis megaresis philosophi platonici
Mathematicaru[z] disciplinaru Janitoris: Habent in hoc volumine
quicuq[z] ad mathematica substantia aspirat: elemetorum libros xiii cu
expositione Theonis insignis mathematici ... Quibus ... adjuncta.
Deputatum scilicet Euclidi volume xiiii cu expositioe Hypsi. Alex.
Itideq[z] Phaeno. Specu. Perspe. cum expositione Theonis ac mirandus
ille liber Datorum cum expostioe Pappi Mechanici una cu Marini
dialectici protheoria. Bar. Zaber. Vene. Interpte._
The first printed Greek text was published at Basel, in 1533, with the
title [Greek: Eukleidou Stoicheion bibl. ie ek ton Theonos synousion].
It was edited by Simon Grynaeus from two MSS. sent to him, the one
from Venice by Lazarus Bayfius, and the other from Paris by John
Ruellius. The four books of Proclus's commentary are given at the end
from an Oxford MS. supplied by John Claymundus.
The English edition, the only one which contains all the extant works
attributed to Euclid, is that of Dr David Gregory, published at Oxford
in 1703, with the title, [Greek: Eukleidou ta sozomena]. _Euclidis
quae supersunt omnia_. The text is that of the Basel edition,
corrected from the MSS. bequeathed by Sir Henry Savile, and from
Savile's annotations on his own copy. The Latin translation, which
accompanies the Greek on the same page, is for the most part that of
Commandino. The French edition has the title, _Les Oeuvres d'Euclide,
traduites en Latin et en Francais, d'apres un manuscrit tres-ancien
qui etait reste inconnu jusqu'a nos jours. Par F. Peyrard, Traducteur
des oeuvres d'Archimede_. It was published at Paris in three volumes,
the first of which appeared in 1814, the second in 1816 and the third
in 1818. It contains the _Elements_ and the _Data_, which are, says
the editor, certainly the only works which remain to us of this
ever-celebrated geometer. The texts of the Basel and Oxford editions
were collated with 23 MSS., one of which belonged to the library of
the Vatican, but had been sent to Paris by the comte de Peluse
(Monge). The Vatican MS. was supposed to date from the 9th century;
and to its readings Peyrard gave the greatest weight. What may be
called the German edition has the title [Greek: Eukleidou Stoicheia].
_Euclidis Elementa ex optimis libris in usum Tironum Graece edita ab
Ernesto Ferdinando August_. It was published at Berlin in two parts,
the first of which appeared in 1826 and the second in 1829. The above
mentioned texts were collated with three other MSS. Modern standard
editions are by Dr Heiberg of Copenhagen, _Euclidis Elementa, edidit
et Latine interpretatus est J.L. Heiberg_. vols. i.-v. (Lipsiae,
1883-1888), and by T.L. Heath, _The Thirteen Books of Euclid's
Elements_, vols. i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1908).
Of translations of the _Elements_ into modern languages the number is
very large. The first English translation, published at London in
1570, has the title, _The Elements of Geometrie of the most auncient
Philosopher Euclide of Megara. Faithfully (now first) translated into
the Englishe toung, by H. Billingsley, Citizen of London. Whereunto
are annexed certaine Scholies, Annotations and Inventions, of the best
Mathematiciens, both of time past and in this our age_. The first
French translation of the whole of the _Elements_ has the title, _Les
Quinze Livres des Elements d'Euclide. Traduicts de Latin en Francois.
Par D. Henrion, Mathematicien_. The first edition of it was published
at Paris in 1615, and a second, corrected and augmented, in 1623.
Pierre Forcadel de Bezies had published at Paris in 1564 a translation
of the first six books of the _Elements_, and in 1565 of the seventh,
eighth and ninth books. An Italian translation, with the title,
_Euclide Megarense acutissimo philosopho solo introduttore delle
Scientie Mathematice. Diligentemente rassettato, et alla integrita
ridotto, per il degno professore di tal Scientie Nicolo Tartalea
Brisciano_, was published at Venice in 1569, and Federico Commandino's
translation appeared at Urbino in 1575; a Spanish version, _Los Seis
Libros primeros de la geometria de Euclides. Traduzidos en legua
Espanola por Rodrigo Camorano, Astrologo y Mathematico_, at Seville in
1576; and a Turkish one, translated from the edition of J. Bonnycastle
by Husain Rifki, at Bulak in 1825. Dr Robert Simson's editions of the
first six and the eleventh and twelfth books of the _Elements_, and of
the _Data_.
AUTHORITIES.--The authors and editions above referred to; Fabricius,
_Bibliotheca Graeca_, vol. iv.; Murhard's _Litteratur der
mathematischen Wissenschaften_; Heilbronner's _Historia matheseos
universae_; De Morgan's article "Eucleides" in Smith's _Dictionary of
Biography and Mythology_; Moritz Cantor's _Geschichte der Mathematik_,
vol. i. (J. S. M.)
EUCRATIDES, king of Bactria (c. 175-129 B.C.), came to the throne by a
rebellion against the dynasty of Euthydemus, whose son Demetrius had
conquered western India. His authority was challenged by a great many
other pretenders and Greek dynasts in Sogdiana, Aria (Herat), Drangiana
(Sijistan), &c., whose names--Pantaleon, Agathocles, Antimachus,
Antalcidas "the victorious" ([Greek: nikephoros]), Plato, whose unique
coin is dated from the year 147 of the Seleucid era (= 166 B.C.), and
others--are known only from coins with Greek and Indian legends. In the
west the Parthian king Mithradates I. began to enlarge his kingdom and
attacked Eucratides; he succeeded in conquering two provinces between
Bactria and Parthia, called by Strabo "the country of Aspiones and
Turiua," two Iranian names. But the principal opponent of Eucratides was
Demetrius (q.v.) of India, who attacked him with a large army "of
300,000 men"; Eucratides fled with 300 men into a fortress and was
besieged. But at last he beat Demetrius, and conquered a great part of
western India. According to Apollodorus of Artemita, the historian of
the Parthians, he ruled over 1000 towns (Strabo xv. 686; transferred to
Diodotus of Bactria in Justin 41, 4. 6); and the extent of his kingdom
over Bactria, Sogdiana (Bokhara), Drangiana (Sijistan), Kabul and the
western Punjab is confirmed by numerous coins. On these coins, which
bear Greek and Indian legends (in Kharoshti writing, cf. BACTRIA), he is
called "the great King Eucratides." On one his portrait and name are
associated on the reverse with those of Heliocles and Laodice; Heliocles
was probably his son, and the coin may have been struck to celebrate his
marriage with Laodice, who seems to have been a Seleucid princess. In
Bactria Eucratides founded a Greek city, Eucratideia (Strabo xi. 516,
Ptolem. vi. 11. 8). On his return from India Eucratides was (about 150
B.C.) murdered by his son, whom he had made co-regent (Justin 41, 6).
This son is probably the Heliocles just mentioned, who on his coins
calls himself "the Just" ([Greek: basileos Heliokleous dikaiou]). In his
time the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom lost the countries north of the Hindu
Kush. Mongolian tribes, the Yue-chi of the Chinese, called by the Greeks
Scythians, by the Indians Saka, among which the Tochari are the most
conspicuous, invaded Sogdiana in 159 B.C. and conquered Bactria in 139.
Meanwhile the Parthian kings Mithradates I. and Phraates II. conquered
the provinces in the west of the Hindu Kush (Justin 41, 6. 8); for a
short time Mithradates I. extended his dominion to the borders of India
(Diod. 33. 18, Orosius v. 4. 16). When Antiochus VII. Sidetes tried once
more to restore the Seleucid dominion in 130, Phraates allied himself
with the Scythians (Justin 42, 1. 1); but after his decisive victory in
129 he was attacked by them and fell in the battle. The changed state of
affairs is shown by the numerous coins of Heliocles; while his
predecessors maintained the Attic standard, which had been dominant
throughout the Greek east, he on his later coins passes over to a native
silver standard, and his bronze coins became quite barbarous. Besides
his coins we possess coins of many other Greek kings of these times,
most of whom take the epithet of "invincible" ([Greek: aniketos]) and
"saviour" ([Greek: soter]). They are records of a desperate struggle of
the Greeks to maintain their nationality and independence in the Far
East; one usurper after the other rose to fight for the rescue of the
kingdom. But these internal wars only accelerated the destruction; about
120 B.C. almost the whole of eastern Iran was in the hands either of a
Parthian dynasty or of the Mongol invaders, who are now called
Indo-Scythians. Only in the Kabul valley and western India the Greeks
maintained themselves about two generations longer (see MENANDER).
(Ed. M.)
EUDAEMONISM (from Gr. [Greek: eudaimonia], literally the state of being
under the protection of a benign spirit, a "good genius"), in ethics,
the name applied to theories of morality which find the chief good of
man in some form of happiness. The term Eudaemonia has been taken in a
large number of senses, with consequent variations in the meaning of
Eudaemonism. To Plato the "happiness" of all the members of a state,
each according to his own capacity, was the final end of political
development. Aristotle, as usual, adopted "eudaemonia" as the term which
in popular language most nearly represented his idea and made it the
keyword of his ethical doctrine. None the less he greatly expanded the
content of the word, until the popular idea was practically lost: if a
man is to be called [Greek: eudaimon], he must have all his powers
performing their functions freely in accordance with virtue, as well as
a reasonable degree of material well-being; the highest conceivable good
of man is the life of contemplation. Aristotle further held that the
good man in achieving virtue must experience pleasure ([Greek: hedone]),
which is, therefore, not the same as, but the sequel to or concomitant
of eudaemonia. Subsequent thinkers have to a greater or less degree
identified the two ideas, and much confusion has resulted. Among the
ancients the Epicureans expressed all eudaemonia in terms of pleasure.
On the other hand attempts have been made to separate hedonism, as the
search for a continuous series of physical pleasures, from eudaemonism,
a condition of enduring mental satisfaction. Such a distinction involves
the assumptions that bodily pleasures are generically different from
mental ones, and that there is in practice a clearly marked dividing
line,--both of which hypotheses are frequently denied. Among modern
writers, James Seth (_Ethical Princ._, 1894) resumes Aristotle's
position, and places Eudaemonism as the mean between the Ethics of
Sensibility (hedonism) and the Ethics of Rationality, each of which
overlooks the complex character of human life. The fundamental
difficulty which confronts those who would distinguish between pleasure
and eudaemonia is that all pleasure is ultimately a mental phenomenon,
whether it be roused by food, music, doing a moral action or committing
a theft. There is a marked disposition on the part of critics of
hedonism to confuse "pleasure" with animal pleasure or "passion,"--in
other words, with a pleasure phenomenon in which the predominant feature
is entire lack of self-control, whereas the word "pleasure" has strictly
no such connotation. Pleasure is strictly nothing more than the state of
being pleased, and hedonism the theory that man's chief good consists in
acting in such a way as to bring about a continuous succession of such
states. That they are in some cases produced by physical or sensory
stimuli does not constitute them irrational, and it is purely arbitrary
to confine the word pleasure to those cases in which such stimuli are
the proximate causes. The value of the term Eudaemonism as an antithesis
to Hedonism is thus very questionable.
EUDOCIA AUGUSTA (c. 401-c. 460), the wife of Theodosius II., East Roman
emperor, was born in Athens, the daughter of the sophist Leontius, from
whom she received a thorough training in literature and rhetoric.
Deprived of her small patrimony by her brothers' rapacity, she betook
herself to Constantinople to obtain redress at court. Her
accomplishments attracted Theodosius' sister Pulcheria, who took her
into her retinue and destined her to be the emperor's wife. After
receiving baptism and discarding her former name, Athenais, for that of
Aelia Licinia Eudocia, she was married to Theodosius in 421; two years
later, after the birth of a daughter, she received the title Augusta.
The new empress repaid her brothers by making them consuls and prefects,
and used her large influence at court to protect pagans and Jews. In
438-439 she made an ostentatious pilgrimage to Jerusalem, whence she
brought back several precious relics; during her stay at Antioch she
harangued the senate in Hellenic style and distributed funds for the
repair of its buildings. On her return her position was undermined by
the jealousy of Pulcheria and the groundless suspicion of an intrigue
with her protege Paulinus, the master of the offices. After the latter's
execution (440) she retired to Jerusalem, where she was made responsible
for the murder of an officer sent to kill two of her followers and
stripped of her revenues. Nevertheless she retained great influence;
although involved in the revolt of the Syrian monophysites (453), she
was ultimately reconciled to Pulcheria and readmitted into the orthodox
church. She died at Jerusalem about 460, after devoting her last years
to literature. Among her works were a paraphrase of the Octateuch in
hexameters, a paraphrase of the books of Daniel and Zechariah, a poem on
St Cyprian and on her husband's Persian victories. A _Passion History_
compiled out of Homeric verses, which Zonaras attributed to Eudocia, is
perhaps of different authorship.
See W. Wiegand, _Eudokia_ (Worms, 1871); F. Gregorovius, _Athenais_
(Leipzig, 1892); C. Diehl, _Figures byzantines_ (Paris, 1906), pp.
25-49; also THEODOSIUS. On her works cf. A. Ludwich, _Eudociae
Augustae carminum reliquiae_ (Koenigsberg, 1893).
EUDOCIA MACREMBOLITISSA (c. 1021-1096), daughter of John Macrembolites,
was the wife of the Byzantine emperor Constantine X., and after his
death (1067) of Romanus IV. She had sworn to her first husband on his
death-bed not to marry again, and had even imprisoned and exiled
Romanus, who was suspected of aspiring to the throne. Perceiving,
however, that she was not able unaided to avert the invasions which
threatened the eastern frontier of the empire, she revoked her oath,
married Romanus, and with his assistance dispelled the impending danger.
She did not live very happily with her new husband, who was warlike and
self-willed, and when he was taken prisoner by the Turks (1071) she was
compelled to vacate the throne in favour of her son Michael and retire
to a convent, where she died. The dictionary of mythology entitled
[Greek: Ionia] ("Collection of Violets"), which formerly used to be
ascribed to her, was not composed till 1543 (Constantine Palaeokappa).
See J. Flach, _Die Kaiserin Eudokia Makrembolitissa_ (Tuebingen, 1876);
P. Pulch, _De Eudociae quod fertur Violario_ (Strassburg, 1880); and
in _Hermes_, xvii. (1882), p. 177 ff.
EUDOXIA LOPUKHINA (1669-1731), tsaritsa, first consort of Peter the
Great, was the daughter of the boyarin Theodore Lopukhin. Peter, then a
youth of seventeen, married her on the 27th of January 1689 at the
command of his mother, who hoped to wean him from the wicked ways of the
German suburb of Moscow by wedding him betimes to a lady who was as
pious as she was beautiful. The marriage was in every way unfortunate.
Accustomed from her infancy to the monastic seclusion of the _terem_, or
women's quarter, Eudoxia's mental horizon did not extend much beyond her
embroidery-frame or her illuminated service-book. From the first her
society bored Peter unspeakably, and after the birth of their second,
short-lived son Alexander, he practically deserted her. In 1698 she was
unceremoniously sent off to the Pokrovsky monastery at Suzdal for
refusing to consent to a divorce, though it was not till June 1699 that
she disappeared from the world beneath the hood of sister Elena. In the
monastery, however, she was held in high honour by the archimandrite;
the nuns persisted in regarding her as the lawful empress; and she was
permitted an extraordinary degree of latitude, unknown to Peter, who
dragged her from her enforced retreat in 1718 on a charge of adultery.
As the evidence was collected by Peter's creatures, it is very doubtful
whether Eudoxia was guilty, though she was compelled to make a public
confession. She was then divorced and consigned to the remote monastery
of Ladoga. Here she remained for ten years till the accession of her
grandson, Peter II., when the reactionaries proposed to appoint her
regent. She was escorted with great ceremony to Moscow in 1728 and
exhibited to the people attired in the splendid, old-fashioned robes of
a tsaritsa; but years of rigid seclusion had dulled her wits, and her
best friends soon convinced themselves that a convent was a much more
suitable place for her than a throne. An allowance of 60,000 roubles a
year was accordingly assigned to her, and she disappeared again in a
monastery at Moscow, where she died in 1731.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, _Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1895),
chaps. ii. and iv.; and _The First Romanovs_ (London, 1905), chaps.
viii. and xii. (R. N. B.)
EUDOXUS, of Cnidus, Greek savant, flourished about the middle of the 4th
century B.C. It is chiefly as an astronomer that his name has come down
to us (see ASTRONOMY and ZODIAC). From a life by Diogenes Laertius, we
learn that he studied at Athens under Plato, but, being dismissed,
passed over into Egypt, where he remained for sixteen months with the
priests of Heliopolis. He then taught physics in Cyzicus and the
Propontis, and subsequently, accompanied by a number of pupils, went to
Athens. Towards the end of his life he returned to his native place,
where he died. Strabo states that he discovered that the solar year is
longer than 365 days by 6 hours; Vitruvius that he invented a sun-dial.
The _Phaenomena_ of Aratus is a poetical account of the astronomical
observations of Eudoxus. Several works have been attributed to him, but
they are all lost; some fragments are preserved in the extant [Greek:
Ton Aratou kai Eudoxou phainomenon exegeseon biblia tria] of the
astronomer Hipparchus (ed. C. Manitius, 1894). According to Aristotle
(_Ethics_ x. 2), Eudoxus held that pleasure was the chief good, because
(1) all beings sought it and endeavoured to escape its contrary, pain;
(2) it is an end in itself, not a relative good. Aristotle, who speaks
highly of the sincerity of Eudoxus's convictions, while giving a
qualified approval to his arguments, considers him wrong in not
distinguishing the different kinds of pleasure and in making pleasure
the _summum bonum_.
See J.A. Letronne, _Sur les ecrites et les travaux d'Eudoxe de Cnide,
d'apres L. Ideler_ (1841); G.V. Schiaparelli, _Le Sfere omocentriche
di Eudosso_ (Milan, 1876); T.H. Martin in _Academie des inscriptions_,
3rd of October, 1879; article in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
Encyklopaedie_.
EUDOXUS, of Cyzicus, Greek navigator, flourished about 130 B.C. He was
employed by Ptolemy Euergetes, who sent out a fleet under him to explore
the Arabian Sea. After two successful voyages, Eudoxus left the Egyptian
service, and proceeded to Cadiz with the object of fitting out an
expedition for the purpose of African discovery; and we learn from
Strabo, who utilized the results of his observations, that the veteran
explorer made at least two voyages southward along the coast of Africa.
There is a good account of Eudoxus in E.H. Bunbury, _History of
Ancient Geography_, ii. (1879); see also P. Gaffarel, _Eudoxe de
Cyzique_ (1873).
EUGENE OF SAVOY [FRANCOIS EUGENE], PRINCE (1663-1736), fifth son of
Prince Eugene Maurice of Savoy-Carignano, count of Soissons, and of
Olympia Mancini, niece of Cardinal Mazarin, was born at Paris on the
18th of October 1663. Originally destined for the church, Eugene was
known at court as the petit abbe, but his own predilection was strongly
for the army. His mother, however, had fallen into disgrace at court,
and his application for a commission, repeated more than once, was
refused by Louis XIV. This, and the influence of his mother, produced in
him a lifelong resentment against the king. Having quitted France in
disgust, he proceeded to Vienna, where his relative the emperor Leopold
I. received him kindly, and he served with the Austrian army during the
campaign of 1683 against the Turks. He displayed his bravery in a
cavalry fight at Petronell (7th July) and in the great battle for the
relief of Vienna. The emperor now gave him the command of a regiment of
dragoons. At the capture of Buda in 1686 he received a wound (3rd
August), but he continued to serve up to the siege of Belgrade in 1688,
in which he was dangerously wounded. At the instigation of Louvois, a
decree of banishment from France was now issued against all Frenchmen
who should continue to serve in foreign armies. "The king will see me
again," was Eugene's reply when the news was communicated to him; he
continued his career in foreign service.
Prince Eugene's next employment was in a service that required
diplomatic as well as military skill (1689). He was sent by the emperor
Leopold to Italy with the view of binding the duke of Savoy to the
coalition against France and of co-operating with the Italian and
Spanish troops. Later in 1689 he served on the Rhine and was again
wounded. He returned to Italy in time to take part in the battle of
Staffarda, which resulted in the defeat of the coalition at the hands of
the French marshal Catinat; but in the spring of 1691 Prince Eugene,
having secured reinforcements, caused the siege of Coni to be raised,
took possession of Carmagnola, and in the end completely defeated
Catinat. He followed up his success by entering Dauphine, where he took
possession of Embrun and Gap. After another campaign, which was
uneventful, the further prosecution of the war was abandoned owing to
the defection of the duke of Savoy from the coalition, and Prince Eugene
returned to Vienna, where he soon afterwards received the command of the
army in Hungary, on the recommendation of the veteran count Ruediger von
Starhemberg, the defender of Vienna in 1683. It was about this time that
Louis XIV. secretly offered him the baton of a marshal of France, with
the government of Champagne which his father had held, and also a
pension. But Eugene rejected these offers with indignation, and
proceeded to operate against the Turks commanded by Kara Mustapha. After
some skilful manoeuvres, he surprised the enemy (September 11th, 1697)
at Zenta, on the Theiss. His attack was vigorous and daring, and the
victory was one of the most complete and important ever won by the
Austrian arms. Formerly it was often stated that the battle of Zenta was
fought against express orders from the court, that Eugene was placed
under arrest for violating these orders, and that a proposal to bring
him before a council of war was frustrated only by the threatening
attitude of the citizens of Vienna. This story, minute in details as it
is, is entirely without foundation. After a further period of
manoeuvres, peace was at length concluded at Karlowitz on the 26th of
January 1699.
Two years later he was again in active service in the War of the
Spanish Succession (q.v.). At the beginning of the year 1701 he was sent
into Italy once more to oppose his old antagonist Catinat. He achieved a
rapid success, crossing the mountains from Tirol into Italy in spite of
almost insurmountable difficulties (_Journal d. militaerwissensch.
Verein_, No. 5, 1907), forcing the French army, after sustaining several
checks, to retire behind the Oglio, where a series of reverses equally
unexpected and severe led to the recall of Catinat in disgrace. The
incapable duke of Villeroi, who succeeded to the command of which
Catinat had been deprived, ventured to attack Eugene at Chiari, and was
repulsed with great loss. And this was only the forerunner of more
signal reverses; for, in a short time, Villeroi was forced to abandon
the whole of the Mantuan territory and to take refuge in Cremona, where
he seems to have considered himself secure. By means of a stratagem,
however, Eugene penetrated into the city during the night, at the head
of 2000 men, and, though he found it impossible to hold the town,
succeeded in carrying off Villeroi as a prisoner. But as the duke of
Vendome, a much abler general, replaced the captive, the incursion,
daring though it was, proved anything but advantageous to the Austrians.
The generalship of his new opponent, and the fact that the French army
had been largely reinforced, while reinforcements had not been sent from
Vienna, forced Prince Eugene to confine himself to a war of observation.
The campaign was terminated by the sanguinary battle of Luzzara, fought
on the 1st of August 1702, in which each party claimed the victory. Both
armies having gone into winter quarters, Eugene returned to Vienna,
where he was appointed president of the council of war. He then set out
for Hungary in order to combat the insurgents in that country; but his
means proving insufficient, he effected nothing of importance. The
collapse of the revolt, however, soon freed the prince for the more
important campaign in Bavaria, where, in 1704, he made his first
campaign along with Marlborough. Similarity of tastes, views and talents
soon established between these two great men a friendship which is
rarely to be found amongst military chiefs, and contributed in the
fullest measure to the success which the allies obtained. The first and
perhaps the most important of these successes was that of Hoechstaedt or
Blenheim (q.v.) on the 3rd of August 1704, where the English and
imperial troops triumphed over one of the finest armies that France had
ever sent into Germany.
But since Prince Eugene had quitted Italy, Vendome, who commanded the
French army in that country, had obtained various successes against the
duke of Savoy, who had once more joined Austria. The emperor deemed the
crisis so serious that he recalled Eugene and sent him to Italy to the
assistance of his ally. Vendome at first opposed great obstacles to the
plan which the prince had formed for carrying succours into Piedmont;
but after a variety of marches and counter-marches, in which both
commanders displayed signal ability, the two armies met at Cassano
(August 16, 1705), where a deadly engagement ensued, and Prince Eugene
received two severe wounds which forced him to quit the field. This
accident decided the fate of the battle and for the time suspended the
prince's march towards Piedmont. Vendome, however, was recalled, and La
Feuillade (who succeeded him) was incapable of long arresting the
progress of such a commander as Eugene. After once more passing several
rivers in presence of the French army, and executing one of the most
skilful and daring marches he had ever performed, the latter appeared
before the entrenched camp at Turin, which place the French were now
besieging with an army eighty thousand strong. Prince Eugene had only
thirty thousand men; but his antagonist the duke of Orleans, though full
of zeal and courage, wanted experience, and Marshal Marsin, his
_adlatus_, held powers from Louis XIV. which could not fail to produce
dissensions in the French headquarters. With equal courage and address,
Eugene profited by the misunderstandings between the French generals;
and on the 7th of September 1706 he attacked the French army in its
entrenchments and gained a victory which decided the fate of Italy. In
the heat of the battle Eugene received a wound, and was thrown from his
horse. His recompense for this important service was the government of
the Milanese, of which he took possession with great pomp on the 16th of
April 1707. He was also made lieutenant-general to the emperor Joseph I.
The attempt which he made against Toulon in the course of the same year
failed completely, because the invasion of the kingdom of Naples
retarded the march of the troops which were to have been employed in it,
and this delay afforded Marshal de Tesse time to make good dispositions.
Obliged to renounce his project, therefore, the prince went to Vienna,
where he was received with great enthusiasm both by the people and by
the court. "I am very well satisfied with you," said the emperor,
"excepting on one point only, which is, that you expose yourself too
much." This monarch immediately despatched Eugene to Holland, and to the
different courts of Germany, in order to forward the necessary
preparations for the campaign of the following year, 1708 (see SPANISH
SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE).
Early in the spring of 1708 the prince proceeded to Flanders, in order
to assume the command of the German army which his diplomatic ability
had been mainly instrumental in assembling, and to unite his forces with
those of Marlborough. The campaign was opened by the victory of
Oudenarde (q.v.), to which the perfect union of Marlborough and Eugene
on the one hand, and the misunderstanding between Vendome and the duke
of Burgundy on the other, seem to have equally contributed. The French
immediately abandoned the Low Countries, and, remaining in observation,
made no attempt whatever to prevent Eugene's army, covered by that of
Marlborough, making the siege of Lille. The French governor, Boufflers,
made a glorious defence, and Eugene paid a flattering tribute to his
valour in inviting him to prepare the articles of capitulation himself,
with the words "I subscribe to everything beforehand, well persuaded
that you will not insert anything unworthy of yourself or of me." After
this important conquest, Eugene and Marlborough proceeded to the Hague,
where they were received in the most flattering manner by the public, by
the states-general, and above all, by their esteemed friend the
pensionary Heinsius. Negotiations were then opened for peace, but proved
fruitless. In 1709 France put forth a supreme effort, and placed Marshal
Villars, her best living general, in command. The events of this year
were very different to those of previous campaigns, and the bloody
battle of Malplaquet (q.v.), though a victory for Marlborough and
Eugene, led to little result, and this at the cost of enormous losses.
The Dutch army, it is said, never recovered from the slaughter of
Malplaquet; indeed, the success was so dearly bought that the allies
found themselves soon afterwards out of all condition to undertake
anything. Their army accordingly went into winter quarters, and Prince
Eugene returned to Vienna, whence the emperor almost immediately
despatched him to Berlin. From the king of Prussia the prince obtained
everything which he had been instructed to require; and having thus
fulfilled his mission, he returned into Flanders, where, excepting the
capture of Douai, Bethune and Aire, the campaign of 1710 presented
nothing remarkable. On the death of the emperor Joseph I. in April 1711,
Prince Eugene, in concert with the empress, exerted his utmost
endeavours to secure the crown to the archduke, who afterwards ascended
the imperial throne under the name of Charles VI. In the same year the
changes which had occurred in the policy, or rather the caprice, of
Queen Anne, brought about an approximation between England and France,
and put an end to the influence which Marlborough had hitherto
possessed. When this political revolution became known, Prince Eugene
immediately repaired to London, charged with a mission from the emperor
to re-establish the credit of his illustrious companion in arms, as well
as to re-attach England to the coalition. The mission having proved
unsuccessful, the emperor found himself under the necessity of making
the campaign of 1712 with the aid of the Dutch alone. The defection of
the English, however, did not induce Prince Eugene to abandon his
favourite plan of invading France. He resolved, at whatever cost, to
penetrate into Champagne; and in order to support his operations by the
possession of some important places, he began by making himself master
of Quesnoy. But the Dutch, having been surprised and beaten in the lines
of Denain, where Prince Eugene had placed them at too great a distance
to receive timely support in case of an attack, he was obliged to raise
the siege of Landrecies, and to abandon the project which he had so long
cherished. This was the last campaign in which Austria acted in
conjunction with her allies. Abandoned first by England and then by
Holland, the emperor, notwithstanding these desertions, still wished to
maintain the war in Germany; but Eugene was unable to relieve either
Landau or Freiburg, which were successively obliged to capitulate; and
seeing the Empire thus laid open to the armies of France, and even the
Austrian hereditary states themselves exposed to invasion, the prince
counselled his master to make peace. Sensible of the prudence of this
advice, the emperor immediately entrusted Eugene with full powers to
negotiate a treaty of peace, which was concluded at Rastadt on the 6th
of March 1714. On his return to Vienna, Prince Eugene was employed for a
time in political matters, and at this time he exchanged the government
of the Milanese for that of the Austrian Netherlands.
It was not long, however, before he was again called on to assume the
command of the army in the field. In the spring of 1716 the emperor,
having concluded an offensive alliance with Venice against Turkey,
appointed Eugene to command the army of Hungary; and at Peterwardein he
gained (5th of August 1716) a signal victory over a Turkish army of more
than twice his own strength. In recognition of this service to
Christendom the pope sent to the victorious general the consecrated hat
and sword which the court of Rome was accustomed to bestow upon those
who had triumphed over the infidels. Eugene won another victory in this
campaign at Temesvar. But the ensuing campaign, that of 1717, was still
more remarkable on account of the battle of Belgrade. After having
besieged the city for a month Eugene found himself in a most critical,
if not hopeless situation. He had to deal not only with the garrison of
30,000 men, but with a relieving army of 200,000, and his own force was
only about 40,000 strong. In these circumstances the only possible
deliverance was by a bold and decided stroke. Accordingly on the morning
of the 16th of August 1717 Prince Eugene ordered a general attack, which
resulted in the total defeat of the enemy with an enormous loss, and in
the capitulation of the city six days afterwards. The prince was wounded
in the heat of the action, this being the thirteenth time that he had
been hit upon the field of battle. On his return to Vienna he received,
among other testimonies of gratitude, a sword valued at 80,000 florins
from the emperor. The popular song "Prinz Eugen, der edle Ritter,"
commemorates the victory of Belgrade. In the following year, 1718, after
some fruitless negotiations with a view to the conclusion of peace, he
again took the field; but the treaty of Passarowitz (July 21, 1718) put
an end to hostilities at the moment when the prince had well-founded
hopes of obtaining still more important successes than those of the last
campaign, and even of reaching Constantinople, and dictating a peace on
the shores of the Bosporus.
As the government of the Netherlands, up to 1724 held by Eugene, had now
for some reason been bestowed on a sister of the emperor, the prince was
appointed vicar-general of Italy, with a pension of 300,000 florins.
Though still retaining his official position and much of his influence
at court, his personal relations with the emperor were not so cordial as
before, and he suffered from the intrigues of the Spanish or anti-German
party. The most remarkable of these political intrigues was the
conspiracy of Tedeschi and Nimptsch against the prince in 1719. On
discovering this the prince went to the emperor and threatened to lay
down all his offices if the conspirators were not punished, and after
some resistance he achieved his purpose. During the years of peace
between the treaty of Passarowitz and the War of the Polish Succession,
Eugene occupied himself with the arts and with literature, to which he
had hitherto been able to devote little of his time. This new interest
led him to correspond with many of the most eminent men in Europe. But
the contest which arose out of the succession of Augustus II. to the
throne of Poland having afforded Austria a pretext for attacking France,
war was resolved on, contrary to the advice of Eugene (1734). In spite
of this, however, he was appointed to command the army destined to act
upon the Rhine, which from the commencement had very superior forces
opposed to it; and if it could not prevent the capture of Philipsburg
after a long siege, it at least prevented the enemy from entering
Bavaria. Prince Eugene, having now attained his seventy-first year, no
longer possessed the vigour and activity necessary for a general in the
field, and he welcomed the peace which was concluded on the 3rd of
October 1735. On his return to Vienna his health declined more and more,
and he died in that capital on the 21st of April 1736, leaving an
immense inheritance to his niece, the princess Victoria of Savoy.
Of a character cold and severe, Prince Eugene had almost no other
passion than that of glory. He died unmarried, and seemed so little
susceptible to female influence that he was styled a Mars without a
Venus. That he was one of the great captains of history is universally
admitted. He was strangely unlike the commanders of his time in many
respects, though as a matter of course he was, when he saw fit to follow
the accepted rules, equal to any in careful and methodical strategy. The
special characteristics of his generalship were imagination, fiery
energy, and a tactical resolution which was rare indeed in the 18th
century. Despising the lives of his soldiers as much as he exposed his
own, it was always by persevering efforts and great sacrifices that he
obtained victory. His almost invariable success raised the reputation of
the Austrian army to a point which it never reached either before or
since his day. War was with him a passion. Always on the march, in
camps, or on the field of battle during more than fifty years, and under
the reigns of three emperors, he had scarcely passed two years together
without fighting. Yet his political activity was not inconsiderable, and
his advice was always sound and well-considered; while in his government
of the Netherlands, which he exercised through the marquis de Prie, he
set himself resolutely to oppose the many wild schemes, such as Law's
Mississippi project, in which the times were so fertile. His interest in
literature and art has been alluded to above. His palace in Vienna, and
the Belvedere near that city, his library, and his collection of
paintings, were renowned. Prince Eugene was a man of the middle size,
but, upon the whole, well made; the cast of his visage was somewhat
long, his mouth moderate and almost always open; his eyes were black and
animated, and his complexion such as became a warrior.
See A. v. Arneth, _Prinz Eugen_ (3 vols., Vienna, 1858; 2nd ed.,
1864); H. v. Sybel, _Prinz Eugen von Savoyen_ (Munich, 1868); Austrian
official history, _Feldzuge des Prinzen Eugen von Savoyen_ (Vienna,
1876); Malleson, _Prince Eugene_ (London, 1888); Heller, _Militaerische
Korrespondenz des Prinzen Eugens_ (Vienna, 1848); Keym, _Prinz Eugen_
(Freiburg, 1899); _Oesterr. militaerische Zeitschrift_ ("Streffleur");
Ridler's _Oesterr. Archiv fuer Geschichte_ (1831-1833); _Archivio
storico Italico_, vol. 17; _Mitteil. des Instituts fuer oesterr.
Geschichtsforschung_, vol. 13.
The political memoirs attributed to Prince Eugene (ed. Sartori,
Tuebingen, 1812) are spurious; see Boehm, _Die Sammlung der
hinterlassenen politischen Schriften des Prinzen Eugens_ (Freiburg,
1900).
EUGENE, a city and the county-seat of Lane county, Oregon, U.S.A., on
the Willamette river, at the head of navigation, about 125 m. S. of
Portland. Pop. (1900) 3236, of whom 237 were foreign-born; (1910 Federal
census) 9009. Eugene is served by the Southern Pacific railroad and by
interurban electric railway. It is situated on the edge of a broad and
fertile prairie, at the foot of a ridge of low hills and within view of
the peaks of the Coast Range; the streets are pleasantly shaded with
Oregon maples. The city is most widely known as the seat of the
University of Oregon. This institution, opened in 1876 and having 95
instructors and 734 students in 1907-1908, occupies eight buildings on a
grassy slope along the river bank, and embraces a college of literature,
science and the arts, a college of engineering, a graduate school, and
(at Portland) a school of law and a school of medicine. In the city is
the Eugene Divinity School of the Disciples of Christ, opened in 1895.
Eugene is the commercial centre of an extensive agricultural district;
does a large business in grain, fruit, hops, cattle, wool and lumber;
and has various manufactures, including flour, lumber, woollen goods and
canned fruit. Eugene was settled in 1854, and was first incorporated in
1864.
EUGENICS (from the Gr. [Greek: eugenes], well born), the modern name
given to the science which deals with the influences which improve the
inborn qualities of a race, but more particularly with those which
develop them to the utmost advantage, and which generally serves to
disseminate knowledge and encourage action in the direction of
perpetuating a higher racial standard. The founder of this science may
be said to be Sir Francis Galton (q.v.), who has done much to further
its study, not only by his writings, but by the establishment of a
research fellowship and scholarship in eugenics in the university of
London. The aim of the science as laid down by Galton is to bring as
many influences as can reasonably be employed, to cause the useful
classes in the community to contribute _more_ than their proportion to
the next generation. It can hardly be said that the science has advanced
beyond the stage of disseminating a knowledge of the laws of heredity,
so far as they are surely known, and endeavouring to promote their
further study. Useful work has been done in the compilation of
statistics of the various conditions affecting the science, such as the
rates with which the various classes of society in ancient and modern
nations have contributed in civic usefulness to the population at
various times, the inheritance of ability, the influences which affect
marriage, &c.
Works by Galton bearing on eugenics are: _Hereditary Genius_ (2nd ed.,
1892), _Human Faculty_ (1883), _Natural Inheritance_ (1889), _Huxley
Lecture of the Anthropol. Inst. on the Possible Improvement of the
Human Breed under the existing Conditions of Law and Sentiment_
(1901); see also, _Biometrika_ (a journal for the statistical study of
biological problems, of which the first volume was published in 1902).
EUGENIE [MARIE-EUGENIE-IGNACE-AUGUSTINE DE MONTIJO] (1826- ), wife of
Napoleon III., emperor of the French, daughter of Don Cipriano Guzman y
Porto Carrero, count of Teba, subsequently count of Montijo and grandee
of Spain, was born at Grenada on the 5th of May 1826. Her mother was a
daughter of William Kirkpatrick, United States consul at Malaga, a
Scotsman by birth and an American by nationality. Her childhood was
spent in Madrid, but after 1834 she lived with her mother and sister
chiefly in Paris, where she was educated, like so many French girls of
good family, in the convent of the Sacre Coeur. When Louis Napoleon
became president of the Republic she appeared frequently with her mother
at the balls given by the prince president at the Elysee, and it was
here that she made the acquaintance of her future husband. In November
1852 mother and daughter were invited to Fontainebleau, and in the
picturesque hunting parties the beautiful young Spaniard, who showed
herself an expert horsewoman, was greatly admired by all present and by
the host in particular. Three weeks later, on the 2nd of December, the
Empire was formally proclaimed, and during a series of fetes at
Compiegne, which lasted eleven days (19th to 30th December), the emperor
became more and more fascinated. On New Year's Eve, at a ball at the
Tuileries, Mdlle de Montijo, who had necessarily excited much jealousy
and hostility in the female world, had reason to complain that she had
been insulted by the wife of an official personage. On hearing of it the
emperor said to her, "Je vous vengerai"; and within three days he made a
formal proposal of marriage. In a speech from the throne on the 22nd of
January he formally announced his engagement, and justified what some
people considered a mesalliance. "I have preferred," he said, "a woman
whom I love and respect to a woman unknown to me, with whom an alliance
would have had advantages mixed with sacrifices." Of her whom he had
chosen he ventured to make a prediction: "Endowed with all the qualities
of the soul, she will be the ornament of the throne, and in the day of
danger she will become one of its courageous supports." The marriage was
celebrated with great pomp at Notre Dame on the 30th of January 1853. On
the 16th of March 1856 the empress gave birth to a son, who received the
title of Prince Imperial. The emperor's prediction regarding her was not
belied by events. By her beauty, elegance and charm of manner she
contributed largely to the brilliancy of the imperial regime, and when
the end came, she was, as the official _Enquete_ made by her enemies
proved, one of the very few who showed calmness and courage in face of
the rising tide of revolution. The empress acted three times as regent
during the absence of the emperor,--in 1859, 1865 and 1870,--and she was
generally consulted on important questions. When the emperor vacillated
between two lines of policy she generally urged on him the bolder
course; she deprecated everything tending to diminish the temporal power
of the papacy, and she disapproved of the emperor's liberal policy at
the close of his reign. On the collapse of the Empire she fled to
England, and settled with the emperor and her son at Chislehurst. After
the emperor's death she removed to Farnborough, where she built a
mausoleum to his memory. In 1879 her son was killed in the Zulu War, and
in the following year she visited the spot and brought back the body to
be interred beside that of his father. At Farnborough and in a villa she
built at Cap Martin on the Riviera, she continued to live in retirement,
following closely the course of events, but abstaining from all
interference in French politics.
EUGENIUS, the name of four popes.
EUGENIUS I., pope from 654 to 657. Elected on the banishment of Martin
I. by the emperor Constans II., and at the height of the Monothelite
crisis, he showed greater deference than his predecessor to the
emperor's wishes, and made no public stand against the patriarchs of
Constantinople. He, however, held no communication with them, being
closely watched in this respect by Roman opinion.
EUGENIUS II., pope, was a native of Rome, and was chosen to succeed
Pascal I. in 824. His election did not take place without difficulty.
Eugenius was the candidate of the nobles, and the clerical faction
brought forward a competitor. But the monk Wala, the representative of
the emperor Lothair, succeeded in arranging matters, and Eugenius was
elected. Lothair, however, came to Rome in person, and took advantage of
this opportunity to redress many abuses in the papal administration, to
vest the election of the pope in the nobles, and to confirm the statute
that no pope should be consecrated until his election had the approval
of the emperor. A council which assembled at Rome during the reign of
Eugenius passed several enactments for the restoration of church
discipline, took measures for the foundation of schools and chapters,
and decided against priests wearing a secular dress or engaging in
secular occupations. Eugenius also adopted various provisions for the
care of the poor and of widows and orphans. He died in 827. (L. D.*)
EUGENIUS III. (Bernardo Paganelli), pope from the 15th of February 1145
to the 8th of July 1153, a native of Pisa, was abbot of the Cistercian
monastery of St Anastasius at Rome when suddenly elected to succeed
Lucius II. His friend and instructor, Bernard of Clairvaux, the most
influential ecclesiastic of the time, remonstrated against his election
on account of his "innocence and simplicity," but Bernard soon
acquiesced and continued to be the mainstay of the papacy throughout
Eugenius's pontificate. It was to Eugenius that Bernard addressed his
famous work _De consideratione_. Immediately after his election, the
Roman senators demanded the pope's renunciation of temporal power. He
refused and fled to Farfa, where he was consecrated on the 17th of
February. By treaty of December 1145 he recognized the republic under
his suzerainty, substituted a papal prefect for the "patrician" and
returned to Rome. The celebrated schismatic, Arnold of Brescia, however,
put himself again at the head of the party opposed to the temporal power
of the papacy, re-established the patricianate, and forced the pope to
leave Rome. Eugenius had already, on hearing of the fall of Edessa,
addressed a letter to Louis VII. of France (December 1145), announcing
the Second Crusade and granting plenary indulgence under the usual
conditions to those who would take the cross; and in January 1147 he
journeyed to France to further preparations for the holy war and to seek
aid in the constant feuds at Rome. After holding synods at Paris, Reims
and Trier, he returned to Italy in June 1148 and took up his residence
at Viterbo. The following month he excommunicated Arnold of Brescia in a
synod at Cremona, and thenceforth devoted most of his energies to the
recovery of his see. As the result of negotiations between Frederick
Barbarossa and the Romans, Eugenius was finally enabled to return to
Rome in December 1152, but died in the following July. He was succeeded
by Anastasius IV. Eugenius retained the stoic virtues of monasticism
throughout his stormy career, and was deeply reverenced for his personal
character. His tomb in St Peter's acquired fame for miraculous cures,
and he was pronounced blessed by Pius IX. in 1872.
The chief sources for the career of Eugenius III. are his letters in
J.P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat_., vols. 106, 180, 182, and in _Bibliotheque
de l'Ecole des Chartes_, vol. 57 (Paris, 1896); the life by Cardinal
Boso in J.M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_, vol. 2; and the life
by John of Salisbury in _Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores_,
vol. 20.
See J. Langen, _Geschichte der roemischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
Innocenz III_. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle
Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); K.J.
von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; Jaffe-Wattenbach,
_Regesta pontif_. Roman. (1885-1888); M. Jocham, _Geschichte des
Lebens u. der Verehrung des seligen Papstes Eugen III_. (Augsburg,
1873); G. Sainati, _Vita del beato Eugenio III_ (Pisa, 1868); J.
Jastrow and G. Winter, _Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der
Hohenstaufen_, i. (Stuttgart, 1897); C. Neumann, _Bernhard von
Clairvaux u. die Anfaenge der zweiten Kreuzzuges_ (Heidelberg, 1882);
B. Kugler, _Analekten zur Geschichte des zweiten Kreuzzugs_ (Tuebingen,
1878, 1883). (C. H. Ha.)
Eugenius IV. (Gabriel Condulmieri), pope from the 3rd of March 1431 to
the 23rd of February 1447, was born at Venice of a merchant family in
1383. He entered the Celestine order and came into prominence during the
pontificate of his uncle, Gregory XII., by whom he was appointed bishop
of Siena, papal treasurer, protonotary, cardinal-priest of St Marco e St
Clemente, and later cardinal-priest of Sta Maria in Trastevere. His
violent measures, as pope, against the relations of his predecessor,
Martin V., at once involved him in a serious contest with the powerful
house of Colonna. But by far the most important feature of Eugenius's
pontificate was the great struggle between pope and council. On the 23rd
of July 1431 his legate opened the council of Basel which had been
convoked by Martin, but, distrustful of its purposes and moved by the
small attendance, the pope issued a bull on the 18th of December 1431,
dissolving the council and calling a new one to meet in eighteen months
at Bologna. The council refused to dissolve, renewed the revolutionary
resolutions by which the council of Constance had been declared superior
to the pope, and cited Eugenius to appear at Basel. A compromise was
arranged by Sigismund, who had been crowned emperor at Rome on the 31st
of May 1433, by which the pope recalled the bull of dissolution, and,
reserving the rights of the Holy See, acknowledged the council as
ecumenical (15th of December 1433). The establishment of an
insurrectionary republic at Rome drove him into exile in May 1434, and,
although the city was restored to obedience in the following October, he
remained at Florence and Bologna. Meanwhile the struggle with the
council broke out anew. Eugenius at length convened a rival council at
Ferrara on the 8th of January 1438 and excommunicated the prelates
assembled at Basel. The result was that the latter formally deposed him
as a heretic on the 25th of June 1439, and in the following November
elected the ambitious Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, antipope under the
title of Felix V. The conduct of France and Germany seemed to warrant
this action, for Charles VII. had introduced the decrees of the council
of Basel, with slight changes, into the former country through the
Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (7th of July 1438), and the diet of Mainz
had deprived the pope of most of his rights in the latter country (26th
of March 1439). At Florence, whither the council of Ferrara had been
transferred on account of an outbreak of the plague, was effected in
July 1439 a union with the Greeks, which, as the result of political
necessities, proved but temporary. This union was followed by others of
even less stability. Eugenius signed an agreement with the Armenians on
the 22nd of November 1439, and with a part of the Jacobites in 1443; and
in 1445 he received the Nestorians and Maronites. He did his best to
stem the Turkish advance, pledging one-fifth of the papal income to the
crusade which set out in 1443, but which met with overwhelming defeat.
His rival, Felix V., meanwhile obtained small recognition, and the
latter's ablest adviser, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, made peace with
Eugenius in 1442. The pope's recognition of the claims to Naples of King
Alphonso of Aragon withdrew the last important support from the council
of Basel, and enabled him to make a victorious entry into Rome on the
28th of September 1443, after an exile of nearly ten years. His protests
against the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges were ineffectual, but by means
of the Concordat of the Princes, negotiated by Piccolomini with the
electors in February 1447, the whole of Germany declared against the
antipope. Although his pontificate had been so stormy and unhappy that
he is said to have regretted on his death-bed that he ever left his
monastery, nevertheless Eugenius's victory over the council of Basel and
his efforts in behalf of church unity contributed greatly to break down
the conciliar movement and restore the papacy to the position it had
held before the Great Schism. Eugenius was dignified in demeanour, but
inexperienced and vacillating in action and excitable in temper. Bitter
in his hatred of heresy, he yet displayed great kindness to the poor. He
laboured to reform the monastic orders, especially the Franciscan, and
was never guilty of nepotism. Although a type of the austere monk in his
private life, he was a sincere friend of art and learning, and in 1431
re-established finally the university at Rome. He died on the 23rd of
February 1447, and was succeeded by Nicholas V.
See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. 1., trans, by F.I.
Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. 3
(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 7,
trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); K.J. von Hefele,
_Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 7, 2nd ed.; H.H. Milman, _Latin
Christianity_, vol. 8 (London, 1896); G. Voigt, _Enea Silvio de
Piccolomini_, Bd. 1-3 (Berlin, 1856); _Aus den Annaten-Registern der
Paepste Eugen IV., Pius II., Paul II. u. Sixtus IV_., ed. by K. Hayn
(Cologne, 1896). There is an admirable article by Tschackert in
Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_, 3rd ed. vol. 5. (C. H. Ha.)
EUGENOL (_allyl guaiacol, eugenic acid_), C10H12O2, an odoriferous
principle; it is the chief constituent of oil of cloves, and occurs in
many other essential oils. It can be synthetically prepared by the
reduction of coniferyl alcohol, (HO)(CH3O)C6H3.CH:CH.CH2OH, which occurs
in combination with glucose in the glucoside coniferin, C16H22O8. It is
a colourless oil boiling at 247 deg. C., and having a spicy odour. On
oxidation with potassium permanganate it gives homovanillin, vanillin,
&c.; with chromic acid in acetic acid solution it is converted into
carbon dioxide and acetic acid, whilst nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic
acid. By the action of alkalis it is converted into iso-eugenol, which
on oxidation yields vanillin, the odorous principle of vanilla (q.v.).
This transformation of allyl phenols into propenyl phenols is very
general (see _Ber_., 1889, 22, p. 2747; 1890, 23, p. 862). Alkali fusion
of eugenol gives protocatechuic acid. The amount of eugenol in oil of
cloves can be estimated by acetylation, in presence of pyridine (A.
Verley and Fr. Baelsing, _Ber._, 1901, 34, P. 3359). _Chavibetol_, an
isomer of eugenol, occurs in the ethereal oil obtained from _Piper
betle_.
The structural relations are:
OH OH OH OCH3
/\ /\ /\ /\
/ \OCH3 / \OCH3 / \OCH3 / \
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
\ / \ / \ / \ /
\/ \/ \/ \/
CH2.CH:CH2 CH:CH.CH3 CHO CH.CH:CH2
Eugenol Iso-eugenol Vanillin Chavibetol
EUHEMERUS [EUEMERUS, EVEMERUS], Greek mythographer, born at Messana, in
Sicily (others say at Chios, Tegea, or Messene in Peloponnese),
flourished about 300 B.C., and lived at the court of Cassander. He is
chiefly known by his _Sacred History_ ([Greek: Hiera anagraphe]), a
philosophical romance, based upon archaic inscriptions which he claimed
to have found during his travels in various parts of Greece. He
particularly relies upon an account of early history which he discovered
on a golden pillar in a temple on the island of Panchaea when on a
voyage round the coast of Arabia, undertaken at the request of
Cassander, his friend and patron. There is apparently no doubt that this
island is imaginary. In this work he for the first time systematized an
old Oriental (perhaps Phoenician) method of interpreting the popular
myths, asserting that the gods who formed the chief objects of popular
worship had been originally heroes and conquerors, who had thus earned a
claim to the veneration of their subjects. This system spread widely,
and the early Christians especially appealed to it as a confirmation of
their belief that ancient mythology was merely an aggregate of fables of
human invention. Euhemerus was a firm upholder of the Cyrenaic
philosophy, and by many ancient writers he was regarded as an atheist.
His work was translated by Ennius into Latin, but the work itself is
lost, and of the translation only a few fragments, and these very short,
have come down to us.
This rationalizing method of interpretation is known as Euhemerism.
There is no doubt that it contains an element of truth; as among the
Romans the gradual deification of ancestors and the apotheosis of
emperors were prominent features of religious development, so among
primitive peoples it is possible to trace the evolution of family and
tribal gods from great chiefs and warriors. All theories of religion
which give prominence to ancestor worship and the cult of the dead are
to a certain extent Euhemeristic. But as the sole explanation of the
origin of the idea of gods it is not accepted by students of comparative
religion. It had, however, considerable vogue in France. In the 18th
century the abbe Banier, in his _Mythologie et la fable expliquees par
l'histoire_, was frankly Euhemeristic; other leading Euhemerists were
Clavier, Sainte-Croix, Raoul Rochette, Em. Hoffmann and to a great
extent Herbert Spencer.
See Raymond de Block, _Evhemere, son lime et sa doctrine_ (Mons,
1876); G.N. Nemethy, _Euhemeri relliquiae_ (Budapest, 1889); Gauss,
_Quaestiones Euhemereae_ (Kempen, 1860); Otto Sieroka, _De Euhemero_
(1869); Susemihl, _Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur in der
Alexandrinerzeit_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1891); and works on comparative
religion and mythology.
EULENSPIEGEL [ULENSPIEGEL], TILL, the name of a German folk-hero, and
the title of a popular German chapbook on the subject, of the beginning
of the 16th century. The oldest existing German text of the book was
printed at Strassburg in 1515 (_Ein kurtzweilig lesen von Dyl
Vlenspiegel geboren vss dem land zu Brunsswick_), and again in 1519.
This is not in the original dialect, which was undoubtedly Low Saxon,
but in High German, the translation having been formerly ascribed--but
on insufficient evidence--to the Catholic satirist Thomas Murner. Its
hero, Till Eulenspiegel or Ulenspiegel, the son of a peasant, was born
at Kneitlingen in Brunswick, at the end of the 13th or at the beginning
of the 14th century. He died, according to tradition, at Moelln near
Luebeck in 1350. The jests and practical jokes ascribed to him were
collected--if we may believe a statement in one of the old prints--in
1483; but in any case the edition of 1515 was not even the oldest High
German edition. Eulenspiegel himself is locally associated with the Low
German area extending from Magdeburg to Hanover, and from Lueneburg to
the Harz Mountains. He is the wily peasant who loves to exercise his wit
and roguery on the tradespeople of the towns, above all, on the
innkeepers; but priests, noblemen, even princes, are also among his
victims. His victories are often pointless, more often brutal; he stoops
without hesitation to scurrility and obscenity, while of the finer,
sharper wit which the humanists and the Italians introduced into the
anecdote, he has little or nothing. His jests are coarsely practical,
and his satire turns on class distinctions. In fact, this chapbook might
be described as the retaliation of the peasant on the townsman who in
the 14th and 15th centuries had begun to look down upon the country boor
as a natural inferior.
In spite of its essentially Low German character, _Eulenspiegel_ was
extremely popular in other lands, and, at an early date, was translated
into Dutch, French, English, Latin, Danish, Swedish, Bohemian and
Polish. In England, "Howleglas" (Scottish, _Holliglas_) was long a
familiar figure; his jests were rapidly adapted to English conditions,
and appropriated in the collections associated with Robin Goodfellow,
Scogan and others. Ben Johnson refers to him as "Howleglass" and
"Ulenspiegel" in his _Masque of the Fortunate Isles, Poetaster,
Alchemist_ and _Sad Shepherd_, and a verse by Taylor the "water poet"
would seem to imply that the "Owliglasse" was a familiar popular type.
Till Eulenspiegel's "merry pranks" have been made the subject of a
well-known orchestral symphony by Richard Strauss. In France, it may be
noted, the name has given rise to the words _espiegle_ and
_espieglerie_.
The Strassburg edition of 1515 (British Museum) has been reprinted by
H. Knust in the _Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke des 16. und 17.
Jahrh._ No. 55-56 (1885); that of 1519 by J.M. Lappenberg, _Dr Thomas
Murners Ulenspiegel_ (1854). W. Scherer ("Die Anfaenge des Prosaromans
in Deutschland," in _Quellen und Forschungen_, vol. xxi., 1877, pp. 28
ff. and 78 ff.) has shown that there must have been a still earlier
High German edition. See also C. Walter in _Niederdeutsches Jahrbuch_,
xix. (1894), pp. 1 ff. Further editions appeared at Cologne, printed
by Servais Kruffter, undated (reproduced in photo-lithography from the
two imperfect copies in Berlin and Vienna, 1865); Erfurt, 1532,
1533-1537 and 1538; Cologne, 1539; Strassburg, 1539; Augsburg, 1540
and 1541; Strassburg, 1543; Frankfort on the Main, 1545; Strassburg,
1551; Cologne, 1554, &c. Johann Fischart published an adaptation in
verse, _Der Eulenspiegel Reimensweis_ (Strassburg, 1571), K. Simrock a
modernization in 1864 (2nd ed., 1878); there is also one by K. Pannier
in Reclam's _Universalbibliothek_ (1883). The earliest translation was
that into Dutch, printed by Hoochstraten at Antwerp (Royal Lib.,
Copenhagen); it is undated, but may have appeared as early as 1512.
See facsimile reprint by M. Nijhoff (the Hague, 1898). This served as
the basis for the first French version: _Ulenspiegel, de sa vie, de
ses oeuvres et merveilleuses aduentures par luy faictes ...
nouuellement translate et corrige de Flamant en Francoys_ (Paris,
1532). Reprint, edited by P. Jannet (1882). This was followed by
upwards of twenty French editions down to the beginning of the 18th
century. The latest translation is that by J.C. Delepierre (Bruges,
1835 and 1840). Cf. Prudentius van Duyse, _Etude litteraire sur Tiel
l'Espiegle_ (Ghent, 1858). The first complete English translation was
also made from the Dutch, and bears the title: _Here beginneth a merye
Jest of a man called Howleglas_, &c., printed by Copland in three
editions, probably between 1548 and 1560. Reprint by F. Ouvry (1867).
This, however, was itself merely a reprint of a still older English
edition (1518?), of which the British Museum possesses fragments.
Reprinted by F. Brie, _Eulenspiegel in England_ (1903). In 1720
appeared _The German Rogue, or the Life and Merry Adventures of Tiel
Eulenspiegel. Made English from the High-Dutch_; and an English
illustrated edition, adapted by K.R.H. Mackenzie in 1880 (2nd ed.,
1890). On Eulenspiegel in England, see especially C.H. Herford,
_Studies in the Literary Relations of England and Germany in the
Sixteenth Century_ (1888), pp. 242 ff., and F. Brie's work already
referred to. (J. G. R.)
EULER, LEONHARD (1707-1783), Swiss mathematician, was born at Basel on
the 15th of April 1707, his father Paul Euler, who had considerable
attainments as a mathematician, being Calvinistic pastor of the
neighbouring village of Riechen. After receiving preliminary
instructions in mathematics from his father, he was sent to the
university of Basel, where geometry soon became his favourite study. His
mathematical genius gained for him a high place in the esteem of Jean
Bernoulli, who was at that time one of the first mathematicians in
Europe, as well as of his sons Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli. Having
taken his degree as master of arts in 1723, Euler applied himself, at
his father's desire, to the study of theology and the Oriental languages
with the view of entering the church, but, with his father's consent, he
soon returned to geometry as his principal pursuit. At the same time, by
the advice of the younger Bernoullis, who had removed to St Petersburg
in 1725, he applied himself to the study of physiology, to which he made
a happy application of his mathematical knowledge; and he also attended
the medical lectures at Basel. While he was engaged in physiological
researches, he composed a dissertation on the nature and propagation of
sound, and an answer to a prize question concerning the masting of
ships, to which the French Academy of Sciences adjudged the second rank
in the year 1727.
In 1727, on the invitation of Catherine I., Euler took up his residence
in St Petersburg, and was made an associate of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1730 he became professor of physics, and in 1733 he succeeded Daniel
Bernoulli in the chair of mathematics. At the commencement of his new
career he enriched the academical collection with many memoirs, which
excited a noble emulation between him and the Bernoullis, though this
did not in any way affect their friendship. It was at this time that he
carried the integral calculus to a higher degree of perfection, invented
the calculation of sines, reduced analytical operations to a greater
simplicity, and threw new light on nearly all parts of pure mathematics.
In 1735 a problem proposed by the academy, for the solution of which
several eminent mathematicians had demanded the space of some months,
was solved by Euler in three days, but the effort threw him into a fever
which endangered his life and deprived him of the use of his right eye.
The Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1738 adjudged the prize to his
memoir on the nature and properties of fire, and in 1740 his treatise on
the tides shared the prize with those of Colin Maclaurin and Daniel
Bernoulli--a higher honour than if he had carried it away from inferior
rivals.
In 1741 Euler accepted the invitation of Frederick the Great to Berlin,
where he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences and professor of
mathematics. He enriched the last volume of the _Melanges_ or
Miscellanies of Berlin with five memoirs, and these were followed, with
an astonishing rapidity, by a great number of important researches,
which are scattered throughout the annual memoirs of the Prussian
Academy. At the same time he continued his philosophical contributions
to the Academy of St Petersburg, which granted him a pension in 1742.
The respect in which he was held by the Russians was strikingly shown in
1760, when a farm he occupied near Charlottenburg happened to be
pillaged by the invading Russian army. On its being ascertained that the
farm belonged to Euler, the general immediately ordered compensation to
be paid, and the empress Elizabeth sent an additional sum of four
thousand crowns.
In 1766 Euler with difficulty obtained permission from the king of
Prussia to return to St Petersburg, to which he had been originally
invited by Catherine II. Soon after his return to St Petersburg a
cataract formed in his left eye, which ultimately deprived him almost
entirely of sight. It was in these circumstances that he dictated to his
servant, a tailor's apprentice, who was absolutely devoid of
mathematical knowledge, his _Anleitung zur Algebra_ (1770), a work
which, though purely elementary, displays the mathematical genius of its
author, and is still reckoned one of the best works of its class.
Another task to which he set himself immediately after his return to St
Petersburg was the preparation of his _Lettres a une princesse
d'Allemagne sur quelques sujets de physique et de philosophie_ (3 vols.,
1768-1772). They were written at the request of the princess of
Anhalt-Dessau, and contain an admirably clear exposition of the
principal facts of mechanics, optics, acoustics and physical astronomy.
Theory, however, is frequently unsoundly applied in it, and it is to be
observed generally that Euler's strength lay rather in pure than in
applied mathematics.
In 1755 Euler had been elected a foreign member of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris, and some time afterwards the academical prize was
adjudged to three of his memoirs _Concerning the Inequalities in the
Motions of the Planets_. The two prize-questions proposed by the same
academy for 1770 and 1772 were designed to obtain a more perfect theory
of the moon's motion. Euler, assisted by his eldest son Johann Albert,
was a competitor for these prizes, and obtained both. In the second
memoir he reserved for further consideration several inequalities of the
moon's motion, which he could not determine in his first theory on
account of the complicated calculations in which the method he then
employed had engaged him. He afterwards reviewed his whole theory with
the assistance of his son and W.L. Krafft and A.J. Lexell, and pursued
his researches until he had constructed the new tables, which appeared
in his _Theoria motuum lunae_ (1772). Instead of confining himself, as
before, to the fruitless integration of three differential equations of
the second degree, which are furnished by mathematical principles, he
reduced them to the three co-ordinates which determine the place of the
moon; and he divided into classes all the inequalities of that planet,
as far as they depend either on the elongation of the sun and moon, or
upon the eccentricity, or the parallax, or the inclination of the lunar
orbit. The inherent difficulties of this task were immensely enhanced by
the fact that Euler was virtually blind, and had to carry all the
elaborate computations it involved in his memory. A further difficulty
arose from the burning of his house and the destruction of the greater
part of his property in 1771. His manuscripts were fortunately
preserved. His own life was only saved by the courage of a native of
Basel, Peter Grimmon, who carried him out of the burning house.
Some time after this an operation restored Euler's sight; but a too
harsh use of the recovered faculty, along with some carelessness on the
part of the surgeons, brought about a relapse. With the assistance of
his sons, and of Krafft and Lexell, however, he continued his labours,
neither the loss of his sight nor the infirmities of an advanced age
being sufficient to check his activity. Having engaged to furnish the
Academy of St Petersburg with as many memoirs as would be sufficient to
complete its _Acta_ for twenty years after his death, he in seven years
transmitted to the academy above seventy memoirs, and left above two
hundred more, which were revised and completed by another hand.
Euler's knowledge was more general than might have been expected in one
who had pursued with such unremitting ardour mathematics and astronomy
as his favourite studies. He had made very considerable progress in
medical, botanical and chemical science, and he was an excellent
classical scholar, and extensively read in general literature. He was
much indebted to an uncommon memory, which seemed to retain every idea
that was conveyed to it, either from reading or meditation. He could
repeat the _Aeneid_ of Virgil from the beginning to the end without
hesitation, and indicate the first and last line of every page of the
edition which he used. Euler's constitution was uncommonly vigorous, and
his general health was always good. He was enabled to continue his
labours to the very close of his life. His last subject of investigation
was the motion of balloons, and the last subject on which he conversed
was the newly discovered planet Herschel (Uranus). He died of apoplexy
on the 18th of September 1783, whilst he was amusing himself at tea with
one of his grandchildren.
Euler's genius was great and his industry still greater. His works, if
printed in their completeness, would occupy from 60 to 80 quarto
volumes. He was simple and upright in his character, and had a strong
religious faith. He was twice married, his second wife being a
half-sister of his first, and he had a numerous family, several of whom
attained to distinction. His _eloge_ was written for the French Academy
by the marquis de Condorcet, and an account of his life, with a list of
his works, was written by Von Fuss, the secretary to the Imperial
Academy of St Petersburg.
The works which Euler published separately are: _Dissertatio physica
de sono_ (Basel, 1727, in 4to); _Mechanica, sive motus scientia
analytice exposita_ (St Petersburg, 1736, in 2 vols. 4to); _Einleitung
in die Arithmetik_ (ibid., 1738, in 2 vols. 8vo), in German and
Russian; _Tentamen novae theoriae musicae_ (ibid. 1739, in 4to);
_Methodus inveniendi lineas curvas, maximi minimive proprietate
gaudentes_ (Lausanne, 1744, in 4to); _Theoria motuum planetarum et
cometarum_ (Berlin, 1744, in 4to); _Beantwortung_, &c., or Answers to
Different Questions respecting Comets (ibid., 1744, in 8vo); _Neue
Grundsatze_, &c., or New Principles of Artillery, translated from the
English of Benjamin Robins, with notes and illustrations (ibid., 1745,
in 8vo); _Opuscula varii argumenti_ (ibid., 1746-1751, in 3 vols.
4to); _Novae et correctae tabulae ad loca lunae computanda_ (ibid.,
1746, in 4to); _Tabulae astronomicae solis et lunae_ (ibid., 4to);
_Gedanken_, &c., or Thoughts on the Elements of Bodies (ibid. 4to);
_Rettung der gottlichen Offenbarung_, &c., Defence of Divine
Revelation against Free-thinkers (ibid., 1747, in 4to); _Introductio
in analysin infinitorum_ (Lausanne, 1748, in 2 vols. 4to); _Scientia
navalis, seu tractatus de construendis ac dirigendis navibus_ (St
Petersburg, 1749, in 2 vols. 4to); Theoria motus lunae (Berlin, 1753,
in 4to); _Dissertatio de principio minimae actionis, una cum examine
objectionum cl. prof. Koenigii_ (ibid., 1753, in 8vo); _Institutiones
calculi differentialis, cum ejus usu in analysi Infinitorum ac
doctrina serierum_ (ibid., 1755, in 4to); _Constructio lentium
objectivarum_, &c. (St Petersburg, 1762, in 4to); _Theoria motus
corporum solidorum seu rigidorum_ (Rostock, 1765, in 4to);
_Institutiones calculi integralis_ (St Petersburg, 1768-1770, in 3
vols. 4to); _Lettres a une Princesse d'Allemagne sur quelques sujets
de physique et de philosophie_ (St Petersburg, 1768-1772, in 3 vols.
8vo); _Anleitung zur Algebra_, or Introduction to Algebra (ibid.,
1770, in 8vo); _Dioptrica_ (ibid., 1767-1771, in 3 vols. 4to);
_Theoria motuum lunae nova methodo pertractata_ (ibid., 1772, in 4to);
_Novae tabulae lunares_ (ibid., in 8vo); _Theorie complete de la
construction et de la manoeuvre des vaisseaux_ (ibid., 1773, in 8vo);
_Eclaircissements sur etablissements en faveur tant des veuves que
des morts_, without a date; _Opuscula analytica_ (St Petersburg,
1783-1785, in 2 vols. 4to).
See Rudio, _Leonhard Euler_ (Basel, 1884); M. Cantor, _Geschichte der
Mathematik_.
EUMENES, the name of two rulers of Pergamum.
1. EUMENES I. succeeded his uncle Philetaerus in 263 B.C. The only
important event in his reign was his victory near Sardis over Antiochus
Soter, which enabled him to secure possession of the districts round his
capital. (See PERGAMUM.)
2. EUMENES II., son of Attalus I., was king of Pergamum from 197-159
B.C. During the greater part of his reign he was a loyal ally of the
Romans, who bestowed upon him signal marks of favour. He materially
contributed to the defeat of Antiochus of Syria at the battle of
Magnesia (190), and as a reward for his services the Thracian Chersonese
and all Antiochus's possessions as far as the Taurus were bestowed upon
him, including a protectorate of such Greek cities as had not been
declared free. In his quarrels with his neighbours the Romans intervened
on his behalf, and on the occasion of his visit to Rome to complain of
the conduct of Perseus, king of Macedonia, he was received with the
greatest distinction. On his return journey he narrowly escaped
assassination by the emissaries of Perseus. Although he supported the
Romans in the war against Macedonia, he displayed so little energy and
interest (even recalling his auxiliaries) that he was suspected of
intriguing with the enemy. According to Polybius there was some
foundation for the suspicion, but Eumenes declared that he had merely
been negotiating for an exchange of prisoners. Nothing, however, came of
these negotiations, whatever may have been their real object; and
Eumenes, in order to avert suspicion, sent his congratulations to Rome
by his brother Attalus after the defeat of Perseus (168). Attalus was
received courteously but coldly; and Eumenes in alarm set out to visit
Rome in person, but on his arrival at Brundusium was ordered to leave
Italy at once. Eumenes never regained the good graces of the Romans, who
showed especial favour to Attalus on his second visit to Rome, probably
with the object of setting him against Eumenes; but the ties of kinship
proved too strong. The last years of his reign were disturbed by renewed
hostilities against Prusias of Bithynia and the Celts of Galatia, and
probably only his death prevented a war with Rome. Eumenes, although
physically weak, was a shrewd and vigorous ruler and politician, who
raised his little state from insignificance to a powerful monarchy.
During his reign Pergamum became a flourishing city, where men of
learning were always welcome, among them Crates of Mallus, the founder
of the Pergamene school of criticism. Eumenes adorned the city with
splendid buildings, amongst them the great altar with the frieze
representing the Battle of the Giants; but the greatest monument of his
liberality was the foundation of the library, which was second only to
that of Alexandria.
See Livy xxxix. 51, xlii. 11-16; Polybius xxi.-xxxii.; Appian,
_Syriaca_; Livy, _Epit_. 46; Cornelius Nepos, _Hannibal_, 10; A.G. van
Cappelle, _Commentatio de regibus et antiquitatibus Pergamenis_
(Amsterdam, 1841). For the altar of Zeus, see PERGAMUM; for treaty
with Cretan cities (183 B.C.) see _Monumenti antichi_, xviii. 177.
EUMENES (c. 360-316 B.C.), Macedonian general, was a native of Cardia in
the Thracian Chersonesus. At a very early age he was employed as private
secretary by Philip II. of Macedon, and on the death of that prince, by
Alexander, whom he accompanied into Asia. In the division of the empire
on Alexander's death, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to
Eumenes; but as they were not yet subdued, Leonnatus and Antigonus were
charged by Perdiccas to put him in possession. Antigonus, however,
disregarded the order, and Leonnatus in vain attempted to induce Eumenes
to accompany him to Europe and share in his far-reaching designs.
Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia. When Craterus
and Antipater, having reduced Greece, determined to pass into Asia and
overthrow the power of Perdiccas, their first blow was aimed at
Cappadocia. Craterus and Neoptolemus, satrap of Armenia, were completely
defeated by Eumenes (321); Neoptolemus was killed, and Craterus died of
his wounds. After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt by his own soldiers,
the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes to death, and charged
Antipater and Antigonus with the execution of their order. Eumenes,
being defeated through the treachery of one of his officers, fled to
Nora, a strong fortress on the confines of Cappadocia and Lycaonia,
where he defended himself for more than a year. The death of Antipater
(319) produced complications. He left the regency to his friend
Polyperchon over the head of his son Cassander, who entered into an
alliance with Antigonus and Ptolemy against Polyperchon, supported by
Eumenes, who, having escaped from Nora, was threatening Syria and
Phoenicia. In 318 Antigonus marched against him, and Eumenes withdrew
east to join the satraps of the provinces beyond the Tigris. After two
indecisive battles in Iran, Eumenes was betrayed by his own soldiers to
Antigonus and put to death. He was an able soldier, who did his utmost
to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia; but his efforts
were frustrated by the generals and satraps, who hated and despised the
"secretary" and "foreigner."
See Plutarch, _Eumenes_; Cornelius Nepos, _Eumenes_; Diod. Sic.
xviii., xix.; Arrian, _Anabasis_, vii.; Quintus Curtius x. 4. 10;
Justin xiii. 8; A. Vezin, _Eumenes von Kardia. Ein Beitrag zur
Geschichte der Diadochenzeit_ (Muenster i. W., 1907). Also MACEDONIAN
EMPIRE.
EUMENIDES (from Gr. [Greek: eumenes], kindly; [Greek: eu], well, and
[Greek: menos], disposition), the "kindly ones," a euphemism for the
Furies or Erinyes (q.v.). They give their name to a famous play by
Aeschylus (q.v.), written in glorification of the old religion and
aristocratic government of Athens, in opposition to the new democracy of
the Periclean period.
EUMENIUS (c. A.D. 260-311), one of the Roman panegyrists, was born at
Augustodunum (_Autun_) in Gallia Lugdunensis. He was of Greek descent;
his grandfather, who had migrated from Athens to Rome, finally settled
at Autun as a teacher of rhetoric. Eumenius probably took his place, for
it was from Autun that he went to be _magister memoriae_ (private
secretary) to Constantius Chlorus, whom he accompanied on several of his
campaigns. In 296 Chlorus determined to restore the famous schools
(_scholae Maenianae_) of Autun, which had been greatly damaged by the
inroads of the Bagaudae (peasant banditti), and appointed Eumenius to
the management of them, allowing him to retain his offices at court and
doubling his salary. Eumenius generously gave up a considerable portion
of his emoluments to the improvement of the schools. There is no doubt
that Eumenius was a heathen, not even a nominal follower of
Christianity, like Ausonius and other writers from Gaul. Nothing is
known of his later years; but he must have lived at least till 311, if
the _Gratiarum Actio_ to Constantine is by him. Of the twelve discourses
included in the collection of _Panegyrici Latini_ (ed. E. Baehrens,
1874), the following are probably by Eumenius. (1) _Pro restaurandis_
(or _instaurandis_) _scholis_, delivered (297) in the forum at Autun
before the governor of the province. Its chief object is to set forth
the steps necessary to restore the schools to their former state of
efficiency, and the author lays stress upon the fact that he intends to
assist the good work out of his own pocket. (2) An address (297) to the
Caesar Constantius Chlorus, congratulating him on his victories over
Allectus and Carausius in Britain, and containing information of some
value as to the British methods of fighting. (3) A panegyric on
Constantine (310). (4) An address of thanks (311) from the inhabitants
of Autun (whose name had been changed from Augustodunum to Flavia) to
Constantine for the remission of taxes and other benefits. (5) A festal
address (307) on the marriage of Constantine and Fausta, the daughter of
Maximian. All these speeches, with the exception of (1), were delivered
at Augusta Trevirorum (Treves), whose birthday is celebrated in (3).
Eumenius is far the best of the orators of his time, and superior to the
majority of the writers of imperial panegyrics. He shows greater
self-restraint and moderation in his language, which is simple and pure,
and on the whole is free from the gross flattery which characterizes
such productions. This fault is most conspicuous in (3), which led Heyne
(_Opuscula_, vi. 80) to deny the authorship of Eumenius on the ground
that it was unworthy of him.
There are treatises on Eumenius by B. Kilian (Wuerzburg, 1869), S.
Brandt (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882), and H. Sachs (Halle, 1885); see
also Gaston Boissier, "Les Rheteurs gaulois du IV^e siecle," in
_Journal des savants_ (1884).
EUMOLPUS ("sweet singer"), in Greek mythology, son of Poseidon and
Chione, the daughter of Boreas, legendary priest, poet and warrior. He
finally settled in Thrace, where he became king. During a war between
the Eleusinians and Athenians under Erechtheus, he went to the
assistance of the former, who on a previous occasion had shown him
hospitality, but was slain with his two sons, Phorbas and Immaradus.
According to another tradition, Erechtheus and Immaradus lost their
lives; the Eleusinians then submitted to Athens on condition that they
alone should celebrate the mysteries, and that Eumolpus and the
daughters of Celeus should perform the sacrifices. It is asserted by
others that Eumolpus with a colony of Thracians laid claim to Attica as
having belonged to his father Poseidon (Isocrates, _Panath_. 193). The
Eleusinian mysteries were generally considered to have been founded by
Eumolpus, the first priest of Demeter, but, according to some, by
Eumolpus the son of Musaeus, Eumolpus the Thracian being the father of
Keryx, the ancestor of the priestly family of the Kerykes. As priest,
Eumolpus purifies Heracles from the murder of the Centaurs; as musician,
he instructs him (as well as Linus and Orpheus) in playing the lyre, and
is the reputed inventor of vocal accompaniments to the flute. Suidas
reckons him one of the early poets and a writer of hymns of
consecration, and Diodorus Siculus quotes a line from a Dionysiac hymn
attributed to Eumolpus. He is also said to have been the first priest of
Dionysus, and to have introduced the cultivation of the vine and fruit
trees (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 199). His grave was shown at Athens and
Eleusis. His descendants, called Eumolpidae, together with the Kerykes,
were the hereditary guardians of the mysteries (q.v.).
See Apollodorus ii. 5, iii. 15; Pausanias i. 38. 2; Hyginus, _Fab._
273; Homeric _Hymn to Demeter_, 476; Strabo vii. p. 321; Diod. Sic. i.
11; article "Eumolpidai," by J.A. Hild in Daremberg and Saglio's
_Dictionnaire des antiquites_.
EUNAPIUS, Greek sophist and historian, was born at Sardis, A.D. 347. In
his native city he studied under his relative the sophist Chrysanthius,
and while still a youth went to Athens, where he became a favourite
pupil of Proaeresius the rhetorician. He possessed a considerable
knowledge of medicine. In his later years he seems to have resided at
Athens, teaching rhetoric. Initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, he
was admitted into the college of the Eumolpidae and became hierophant.
There is evidence that he was still living in the reign of the younger
Theodosius (408-450). Eunapius was the author of two works, one entitled
_Lives of the Sophists_ ([Greek: Bioi philosophon kai sophiston]), and
the other consisting of a continuation of the history of Dexippus
(q.v.). The former work is still extant; of the latter only excerpts
remain, but the facts are largely incorporated in the work of Zosimus.
It embraced the history of events from A.D. 270-404. The _Lives of the
Sophists_, which deals chiefly with the contemporaries of the author, is
valuable as the only source for the history of the neo-Platonism of that
period. The style of both works is bad, and they are marked by a spirit
of bitter hostility to Christianity. Photius (cod. 77) had before him a
"new edition" of the history in which the passages most offensive to the
Christians were omitted.
Edition of the _Lives_ by J.F. Boissonade (1822), with notes by D.
Wyttenbach; history fragments in C.W. Mueller, _Fragmenta Hist.
Graecorum_, iv.; V. Cousin, _Fragments philosophiques_ (1865).
EUNOMIUS (d. c. 393), one of the leaders of the extreme or "anomoean"
Arians, who are sometimes accordingly called Eunomians, was born at
Dacora in Cappadocia early in the 4th century. He studied theology at
Alexandria under Aetius, and afterwards came under the influence of
Eudoxius of Antioch, where he was ordained deacon. On the recommendation
of Eudoxius he was appointed bishop of Cyzicus in 360. Here his free
utterance of extreme Arian views led to popular complaints, and Eudoxius
was compelled, by command of the emperor, Constantius II., to depose him
from the bishopric within a year of his elevation to it. During the
reigns of Julian and Jovian, Eunomius resided in Constantinople in
close intercourse with Aetius, consolidating an heretical party and
consecrating schismatical bishops. He then went to live at Chalcedon,
whence in 367 he was banished to Mauretania for harbouring the rebel
Procopius. He was recalled, however, before he reached his destination.
In 383 the emperor Theodosius, who had demanded a declaration of faith
from all party leaders, punished Eunomius for continuing to teach his
distinctive doctrines, by banishing him to Halmyris in Moesia. He
afterwards resided at Chalcedon and at Caesarea in Cappadocia, from
which he was expelled by the inhabitants for writing against their
bishop Basil. His last days were spent at Dacora his birthplace, where
he died about 393. His writings were held in high reputation by his
party, and their influence was so much dreaded by the orthodox, that
more than one imperial edict was issued for their destruction (_Cod.
Theod_. xvi. 34). Consequently his commentary on the epistle to the
Romans, mentioned by the historian Socrates, and his epistles, mentioned
by Philostorgius and Photius, are no longer extant. His first
apologetical work ([Greek: Apologetikos]), written probably about 360 or
365, has been entirely recovered from the celebrated refutation of it by
Basil, and may be found in J.A. Fabricius, _Bibl. Gr_. viii. pp.
262-305. A second apology, written before 379 ([Greek: Hyper apologias
apologia]), exists only in the quotations given from it in a refutation
by Gregory of Nyssa. The exposition of faith ([Greek: Ekthesis tes
pisteos]), called forth by the demand of Theodosius, is still extant,
and has been edited by Valesius in his notes to Socrates, and by Ch.
H.G. Rettberg in his _Marcelliana_.
The teaching of the Anomoean school, led by Aetius and Eunomius,
starting from the conception of God as [Greek: ho agennetos], argued
that between the [Greek: agennetos] and [Greek: gennetos] there could be
no _essential_, but at best only a _moral_, resemblance. "As the
Unbegotten, God is an absolutely simple being; an act of generation
would involve a contradiction of His essence by introducing duality into
the Godhead." According to Socrates (v. 24), Eunomius carried his views
to a practical issue by altering the baptismal formula. Instead of
baptizing in the name of the Trinity, he baptized in the name of the
Creator and into the death of Christ. This alteration was regarded by
the orthodox as so serious that Eunomians on returning to the church
were rebaptized, though the Arians were not. The Eunomian heresy was
formally condemned by the council of Constantinople in 381. The sect
maintained a separate existence for some time, but gradually fell away
owing to internal divisions.
See C.R.W. Klose, _Geschichte und Lehre des Eumonius_ (Kiel, 1833); F.
Loofs in Hauck-Herzog, _Realencyk. fuer prot. Theol_.; Whiston's
_Eunomianismus redivivus_ contains an English translation of the first
apology. See also ARIUS.
EUNUCH (Gr.[Greek: eunouchos]), an emasculated male. From remote
antiquity among the Orientals, as also at a later period in Greece,
eunuchs were employed to take charge of the women, or generally as
chamberlains--whence the name [Greek: oi ten eunen echontes], i.e. those
who have charge of the bed-chamber. Their confidential position in the
harems of princes frequently enabled them to exercise an important
influence over their royal masters, and even to raise themselves to
stations of great trust and power (see HAREM). Hence the term eunuch
came to be applied in Egypt to any court officer, whether a _castratus_
or not. The common idea that eunuchs are necessarily deficient in
courage and in intellectual vigour is amply refuted by history. We are
told, for example, by Herodotus that in Persia they were especially
prized for their fidelity; and they were frequently promoted to the
highest offices. Narses, the famous general under Justinian, was a
eunuch, as was also Hermias, governor of Atarnea in Mysia, to whose
manes the great Aristotle offered sacrifices, besides celebrating the
praises of his patron and friend in a poem (still extant) addressed to
_Virtue_ (see Lucian's dialogue entitled _Eunuchus_). The capacity of
eunuchs for public affairs is strikingly illustrated by the histories of
Persia, India and China; and considerable power was exercised by the
eunuchs under the later Roman emperors. The hideous trade of castrating
boys to be sold as eunuchs for Moslem harems has continued to modern
times, the principal district whence they are taken being north-central
Africa (Bagirmi, &c.). As the larger proportion of children die after
the operation (generally total removal) owing to unskilful surgery, such
as recover fetch at least three or four times the ordinary price of
slaves. Even more vile, as being practised by a civilized European
nation, was the Italian practice of castrating boys to prevent the
natural development of the voice, in order to train them as adult
soprano singers, such as might formerly be heard in the Sistine chapel.
Though such mutilation is a crime punishable with severity, the supply
of "soprani" never failed so long as their musical powers were in demand
in high quarters. Driven long ago from the Italian stage by public
opinion, they remained the musical glory and moral shame of the papal
choir till the accession of Pope Leo XIII., one of whose first acts was
to get rid of them. Mention must here also be made of the class of
voluntary eunuchs, who have emasculated themselves, or caused the
operation to be performed on them, for the avoidance of sexual sin or
temptation. This unnatural development of asceticism appears in early
Christian ages, its votaries acting on the texts Matt. xix. 12, v.
28-30. Origen's case is the most celebrated example, and by the 3rd
century there had arisen a sect of eunuchs, of whom Augustine says (_De
haeres_. c. 37), "Valesii et seipsos castrant et hospites suos, hoc modo
existimantes Deo se debere servire" (see Neander, _History of Chr.
Church_, vol. ii. p. 462; Bingham, _Antiq. Chr. Church_, book iv. chap.
3.) Such practices have been always opposed by the general body of the
Christian churches, but have not even now ceased. A secret sect of the
kind exists in Russia, whose practice of castration is expressed in
their name of Skopzi. (E. B. T.)
EUNUCH FLUTE, or ONION FLUTE (Fr. _flute eunuque, flute a l'onion,
mirliton_; Ger. _Zwiebelfloete_), a wind instrument in use during the
16th and 17th centuries, producing music akin to the comb-music of the
nursery, and still manufactured as a toy (_mirliton_). The onion flute
consists of a wooden tube widening out slightly to form a bell. The
upper end of the tube is closed by means of a very fine membrane similar
to an onion skin stretched across the aperture like the vellum of a
drum. The mouthpiece, a simple round hole, is pierced a couple of inches
below the membrane; into this hole the performer sings, his voice
setting up vibrations in the membrane, which thus intensifies the sound
and changes its timbre to a bleating quality. A movable cap fits over
the membrane to protect it. Mersenne[1] has given a drawing of the
eunuch flute together with a description; he states that the vibrations
of the membrane improve the sound of the voice, and by reflecting it,
give it an added charm. There were concerts of these flutes in four or
five parts in France, adds Mersenne, and they had the advantage over
other kinds of reproducing more nearly the sound of the voice.