[1] For Barnabei's excavations see Fausto Benedetti, _Gli Scavi di
Narce ed il Museo di Villa Giulia_ (1900).
[2] For a further discussion see _ad fin._, section _Language_.
[3] See Pauli, _Altitalische Forschungen_, vol. i.; also sect.
_Language_ (below).
[4] Cf. the contents of the graves found by Boni in the Roman Forum
(_Notizie degli Scavi_, 1902, 1903, 1905) with the objects
represented in the plates of Montelius, _La Civilisation primitive en
Italie_, pt. i. For the cemeteries at Novilara cf. Brizio, _Monumenti
antichi_, vol. v.
[5] [Greek: ten te Rhomen auten ton suggrapheon Tyrrenida polin einai
hupelabon], Dion. Hal. i. 29; but see sect. _Language_ for meaning of
[Greek: Tyrrenia].
[6] For the wars of the Greeks against the Carthaginians and the
Etruscans see Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, ii. 218 ff.
[7] Pliny (_H.N._ xxxvii. 11). He says that amber was brought by the
Germans down the valley of the Po. Thence the trade-route crossed the
Apennines to Pisa (Scylax in _Geographi minores_, ed. Didot, i. p.
25). In the consideration of problems suggested by amber it is too
often forgotten that a very beautiful dark amber is found in Sicily.
[8] Montelius, _Civilization primitive en Italie_, ii. pl. 265; cf.
Petrie. _Naukratis_, i. pl. 20, fig. 15, and Perrot-Chipiez,
_Histoire de l'art_, iii.
[9] _Monumenti dell' Inst. Arch. Rom._ x. pl. 31; _Museo Etrusco
Vaticano_, i. pl. 63-69; cf. _Annali dell' Inst. Arch._, 1896, p. 199
ff.
[10] Vase with hieroglyphs found at Santa Marinella, _Bollettino
dell' Inst. Arch._, 1841, p. 111; _Mon. antichi_, viii. p. 88.
[11] G. Dennis, _Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria_.
[12] Varro _ap._ Serv. _ad Aen._ viii. 526; see Helbig, _Bull. dell'
Inst. Arch._ (1876), 227.
[13] Censorinus, _De Die Nat._ 17.
[14] See Preller, _Roem. Myth._ s.v. "Volcanus." Opposed to this see
Wissowa, _Religion u. Kultus der Roemer_, who seems to misinterpret
the evidence.
[15] Strabo v. 2. 39; cf. Livy i. 30; Dion. Hal. iii. 32.
[16] Nigidius Figulus _ap._ Arnob. _adv._ Nat. iii. 40; cf. _Nig.
Fig. reliquiae_, ed. Ant. Swoboda (1888), p. 83.
[17] Montelius, _Civ. Prim. en Italie_.
[18] For an illustration of the Corneto tomb see ARCHITECTURE, vol.
ii. p. 559.
[19] Appian viii. 66; Tertullian, _De spect._ 5; Plutarch, _Qu. Rom._
107.
[20] Dion. Hal. vii. 72.
[21] Montelius, _Civ. Prim._ ii. pl. 172.
[22] Ib. pl. 333; cf. 343.
[23] Ib. pl. 166.
[24] Ib. pl. 173.
[25] _Monum. Ant_. xv. p. 151; _Bull. d. Com. Arch. di Roma_, 1898,
p. 111.
[26] _Annali dell' Inst. Arch._, 1876, 230.
[27] Gerhard, _Etruskische Spiegel_; Koerte, _Rilievi delle urne
Etrusche_.
[28] See Pottier, _Catalogue des vases antiques, II. L'Ecole
Ionienne_, Boehlau, _Aus ionischen und italischen Nekropolen_; Karo,
_De arte vascularia antiquissima_; Endt, _Ionische Vasenmalerei_. See
further CERAMICS, Sec. Etruscan.
[29] Athen. i. 28.
[30] Martha, _L'Art etrusque_, pl. I, 4; _Bull. dell' Inst._ (1837)
p. 46.
[31] Plutarch, _Camillus_, 12.
[32] Gerhard, _Etr. Spiegel_ (continued by Klugmann and Koerte).
[33] Mirrors of Greek style, Gerhard, 111, 112, 116, 240, 305, 352;
Klugmann-Koerte, 107, 131, 160.
[34] See plates in Martha and in _Monumenti dell' Inst._, also _Mon.
Ant._ iv. and Milani's _Studie materiali_.
[35] Juvenal v. 164; Ovid, _Am._ iii. 13. 25 ff.
[36] Pliny, _H.N._ xiv. 9; xvi. 216.
[37] From the Polledrara tomb at Vulci, Martha fig. 335.
[38] _Coll. Tyszkiewicz_, pl. 13.
[39] _Mon. dell' Inst._ vi. pl. 59, cf. _Annali_ (1861), p. 402;
_Mon. Ant._ viii. pl. xiii.-xiv.
[40] _Mon. dell' Inst._ viii. pl. 20; Martha p. 347.
[41] Martha pp. 333, 348.
[42] See Koerte, _Rilievi delle urne Etrusche_.
[43] See _Mon. dell' Inst._ i. pl. 32-33, v. 16, 17, 33, 34, vi.
30-32, 79, viii. 36, ix. 13-15; Micali, _Mon. Ined._ pl. 58. Cf.
Helbig, _Annali_ (1863) p. 336, (1870) pp. 5-74; Brunn, ib. (1866),
p. 442.
[44] Mommsen, _Roem. Muenzwesen_; G.F. Hill, _Handbook of Greek and
Roman Coins_; Deecke, _Etruskische Forschungen_; also article
NUMISMATICS.
ETTENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, pleasantly
situated on the Ettenbach, under the western slope of the Black Forest,
7 m. E. from the Rhine by rail. Pop. (1900) 3106. It has a handsome
Roman Catholic church, with ceiling frescoes, and containing the tomb of
Cardinal Rohan, the last prince bishop of Strassburg, who resided here
from 1790 till 1803; a Protestant church and a medieval town-hall. Its
industries include the manufacture of tobacco, soap and leather, and
there is a considerable trade in wine and agricultural produce. Founded
in the 8th century by Eddo, bishop of Strassburg, Ettenheim remained
attached to that see until 1802, when it passed to Baden. Louis Antoine
Henri de Bourbon-Conde, duke of Enghien (1772-1804), who had taken
refuge here in 1801, was arrested in Ettenheim on the 15th of March 1804
and conveyed to Paris, where he was shot on the 20th of March following.
The Benedictine abbey of Ettenheimmuenster, which was founded in the 8th
century and which was dissolved in 1803, occupied a site south of the
town.
ETTINGSHAUSEN, CONSTANTIN, BARON VON (1826-1897), Austrian geologist and
botanist, was born in Vienna on the 16th of June 1826. He graduated as a
doctor of medicine in Vienna, and became in 1854 professor of botany and
natural history at the medical and surgical military academy in that
city. In 1871 he was chosen professor of botany at Graz, a position
which he occupied until the close of his life. He was distinguished for
his researches on the Tertiary floras of various parts of Europe, and on
the fossil floras of Australia and New Zealand. He died at Graz on the
1st of February 1897.
PUBLICATIONS.--_Die Farnkraeuter der Jetztwelt zur Untersuchung und
Bestimmung der in den Formationen der Erdrinde eingeschlossenen
Ueberreste von vorweltlichen Arten dieser Ordnung nach dem
Flaechen-Skelet bearbeitet_ (1865); _Physiographie der
Medicinal-Pflanzen_ (1862); _A Monograph of the British Eocene Flora_
(with J. Starkie Gardner), Palaeontograph. Soc. vol. i. (Filices,
1879-1882).
ETTLINGEN, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Alb,
and the railway Mannheim-Basel, 41/2 m. S. of Karlsruhe. Pop. (1905) 8040.
It is still surrounded by old walls and ditches, and presents a medieval
and picturesque appearance. Among its more striking edifices are an old
princely residence, with extensive grounds, an Evangelical and two Roman
Catholic churches, and the buildings of a former monastery. There are
also many Roman remains, notable among them the "Neptune" sculpture, now
embedded in the wall of the town-hall. Its chief manufactures are
paper-making, spinning, weaving and machine building. The cultivation of
wine and fruit is also largely carried on, and in these products
considerable trade is done.
The first notice of Ettlingen dates from the 8th century. It became a
town in 1227 and was presented by the emperor Frederick II. to the
margrave of Baden. In 1689 it was pillaged by the French, and near the
town Moreau defeated the archduke Charles on the 9th and 10th of July
1796.
See Schwarz, _Geschichte der Stadt Ettlingen_ (Carlsruhe, 1900).
ETTMUeLLER, ERNST MORITZ LUDWIG (1802-1877), German philologist, was born
at Gersdorf near Loebau, in Saxony, on the 5th of October 1802. He was
privately educated by his father, the Protestant pastor of the village,
entered the gymnasium at Zittau in 1816 and studied from 1823 to 1826 at
the university of Leipzig. After a period of about two years during
which he was partly abroad and partly at Gersdorf, he proceeded to Jena,
where in 1830 he delivered, under the auspices of the university, a
course of lectures on the old Norse poets. Three years later he was
called to occupy the mastership of German language and literature at the
Zuerich gymnasium; and in 1863 he left the gymnasium for the university,
with which he had been partially connected twenty years before. He died
at Zuerich in April 1877. To the study of English Ettmueller contributed
by an alliterative translation of Beowulf (1840), an Anglo-Saxon
chrestomathy entitled _Engla and Seaxna scopas and boceras_ (1850), and
a well-known _Lexicon Anglo-Saxonicum_ (1851), in which the explanations
and comments are given in Latin, but the words unfortunately are
arranged according to their etymological affinity, and the letters
according to phonetic relations. He edited a large number of High and
Low German texts, and to the study of the Scandinavian literatures he
contributed an edition of the _Voeluspa_ (1831), a translation of the
_Lieder der Edda von den Nibelungen_ (1837) and an old Norse reading
book and vocabulary. He was also the author of a _Handbuch der deutschen
Literaturgeschichte_ (1847), which includes the treatment of the
Anglo-Saxon, the Old Scandinavian, and the Low German branches; and he
popularized a great deal of literary information in his _Herbstabende
und Winternaechte: Gespraeche ueber Dichtungen und Dichter_ (1865-1867).
The alliterative versification which he admired in the old German poems
he himself employed in his _Deutsche Stammkoenige_ (1844) and _Das
verhaengnissvolle Zahnweh, oder Karl der Grosse und der Heilige Goar_
(1852).
ETTMUeLLER, MICHAEL (1644-1683), German physician, was born at Leipzig on
the 26th of May 1644, studied at his native place and at Wittenberg, and
after travelling in Italy, France and England was recalled in 1668 to
Leipzig, where he was admitted a member of the faculty of medicine in
1676. About the same time the university confided to him the chair of
botany, and appointed him extraordinary professor of surgery and
anatomy. He died on the 9th of March 1683, at Leipzig. He enjoyed a
great reputation as a lecturer, and wrote many tracts on medical and
chemical subjects. His collected works were published in 1708 by his
son, Michael Ernst Ettmueller (1673-1732), who was successively professor
of medicine (1702), anatomy and surgery (1706), physiology (1719) and
pathology (1724) at Leipzig.
ETTRICK, a river and parish of Selkirkshire, Scotland. The river rises
in Capel Fell (2223 ft.), a hill in the extreme S.W. of the shire, and
flows in a north-easterly direction for 32 m. to its junction with the
Tweed, its principal affluent being the Yarrow. In the parish of Ettrick
were born James Hogg, the "Ettrick shepherd" (the site of the cottage
being marked by a monument erected in 1898), Tibbie (Elizabeth) Shiel
(1782-1878), keeper of the famous inn at the head of St Mary's Loch,
both of whom are buried in the churchyard, and Thomas Boston
(1713-1767), one of the founders of the Relief church. About 2 m. below
Ettrick church is Thirlestane Castle, the seat of Lord Napier and
Ettrick, a descendant of the Napiers of Merchiston, and beside it is the
ruin of the stronghold that belonged to John Scott of Thirlestane, to
whom, in reward for his loyalty, James V. granted a sheaf of spears as a
crest, and the motto, "Ready, aye ready." Two miles up Rankle Burn, a
right-hand tributary, lies the site of Buccleuch, another stronghold of
the Scotts, which gave them the titles of earl (1619) and duke (1663).
Only the merest fragment remains of Tushielaw tower, occupying high
ground opposite the confluence of the Rankle and the Ettrick, the home
of Adam Scott, "King of the Border," who was executed for his misdeeds
in 1530. Lower down the dale is Deloraine, recalling one of the leading
characters in _The Lay of the Last Minstrel_. If the name come from the
Gaelic _dail Orain_, "Oran's field," the district was probably a scene
of the labours of St Oran (d. 548), an Irish saint and friend of
Columba. It seems that Sir Walter Scott's rhythm has caused the accent
wrongly to be laid on the last, instead of the penultimate syllable.
Carterhaugh, a corruption of Carelhaugh, occupying the land where
Ettrick and Yarrow meet, was the scene of the ballad of "Young Tamlane,"
and of the historic football match in 1815, under the auspices of the
duke of Buccleuch, between the burghers of Selkirk, championed by Walter
Scott, sheriff of the Forest (not yet a baronet), and the men of Yarrow
vale, championed by the Ettrick shepherd.
ETTY, WILLIAM (1787-1849), British painter, was born at York, on the
10th of March 1787. His father had been in early life a miller, but had
finally established himself in the city of York as a baker of
spice-bread. After some scanty instruction of the most elementary kind,
the future painter, at the age of eleven and a half, left the paternal
roof, and was bound apprentice in the printing-office of the _Hull
Packet_. Amid many trials and discouragements he completed his term of
seven years' servitude, and having in that period come by practice, at
first surreptitious, though afterwards allowed by his master "in lawful
hours," to know his own powers, he removed to London.
The kindness of an elder brother and a wealthy uncle, William Etty,
himself an artist, stood him in good stead. He commenced his training by
copying without instruction from nature, models, prints, &c.--his first
academy, as he himself says, being a plaster-cast shop in Cock Lane,
Smithfield. Here he made a copy from an ancient cast of Cupid and
Psyche, which was shown to Opie, and led to his being enrolled in 1807
as student of the Academy, whose schools were at that time conducted in
Somerset House. Among his fellow scholars at this period of his career
were some who in after years rose to eminence in their art, such as
Wilkie, Haydon, Collins, Constable. His uncle generously paid the
necessary fee of one hundred guineas, and in the summer of 1807 he was
admitted to be a private pupil of Sir Thomas Lawrence, who was at the
very acme of his fame. Etty himself always looked on this privilege as
one of incalculable value, and till his latest day regarded Lawrence as
one of the chief ornaments of British art. For some years after he
quitted Sir Thomas's studio, even as late as 1816, the influence of his
preceptor was traceable in the mannerism of his works. Though he had by
this time made great progress in his art, his career was still one of
almost continual failure, hardly cheered by even a passing ray of
success. In 1811, after repeated rejections, he had the satisfaction of
seeing his "Telemachus rescuing Antiope" on the walls of the Academy. It
was badly hung, however, and attracted little notice. For the next five
years he persevered with quiet and constant energy in overcoming the
disadvantages of his early training with yearly growing success, and he
was even beginning to establish something like a name when in 1816 he
resolved to improve his knowledge of art by a journey to Italy. After an
absence of three months, however, he was compelled to return home
without having penetrated farther south than Florence. Struggles and
vexations still continued to harass him, but he bore up against them
with patient endurance and force of will. In 1820 his "Coral-finders,"
exhibited at the Royal Academy, attracted much attention, and its
success was more than equalled by that of "Cleopatra's arrival in
Cilicia," shown in the following year. In 1822 he again set out on a
tour to Italy, taking Paris on his way, and astonishing his
fellow-students at the Louvre by the rapidity and fidelity with which he
copied from the old masters in that gallery. On arriving at Rome he
immediately resumed his studies of the old masters, and elicited many
expressions of wonder from his Italian fellow-artists for the same
qualities which had gained the admiration of the French. Though Etty was
duly impressed by the grand _chefs-d'oeuvre_ of Raphael and Michelangelo
at Rome, he was not sorry to exchange that city for Venice, which he
always regarded as the true home of art in Italy. His own style as a
colourist held much more of the Venetian than of any other Italian
school, and he admired his prototypes with a zeal and exclusiveness that
sometimes bordered on extravagance.
Early in 1824 he returned home to find that honours long unjustly
withheld were awaiting him. In that year he was made an associate of the
Royal Academy, and in 1828 he was promoted to the full dignity of an
Academician. In the interval between these dates he had produced the
"Combat (Woman interceding for the Vanquished)," and the first of the
series of three pictures on the subject of Judith, both of which
ultimately came into the possession of the Scottish Academy. Etty's
career was from this time one of slow but uninterrupted success. In 1830
he again crossed the channel with the view to another art tour through
the continent; but he was overtaken in Paris by the insurrection of the
Three Days, and was so much shocked by the sights he was compelled to
witness in that time that he returned home with all convenient speed.
During the next ten years of his life the zeal and unabated assiduity of
his studies were not at all diminished. He was a constant attendant at
the Academy Life School, where he used to work regularly along with the
students, notwithstanding the remonstrances of some of his
fellow-Academicians, who thought the practice undignified. The course of
his studies was only interrupted by occasional visits to his native
city, and to Scotland, where he was welcomed with the utmost enthusiasm,
and _feted_ with the most gratifying heartiness by his brother-artists
at Edinburgh. On the occasion of one of these visits he gave the
finishing touches to his trio of Judiths. In 1840, and again in 1841,
Etty undertook a pilgrimage to the Netherlands, to seek and examine for
himself the masterpieces of Rubens in the churches and public galleries
there. Two years later he once more visited France with a view to
collecting materials for what he called "his last epic," his famous
picture of "Joan of Arc." This subject, which would have tasked to the
full even his great powers in the prime and vigour of manhood, proved
almost too serious an undertaking for him in his old age. It exhibits,
at least, amid great excellences, undeniable proofs of decay on the part
of the painter; yet it brought a higher price than any of his earlier
and more perfect works, L2500. In 1848, after completing this work, he
retired to York, having realized a comfortable independence. One wish
alone remained for him now to gratify; he desired to see a "gathering"
of his pictures. With much difficulty and exertion he was enabled to
assemble the great majority of them from various parts of the British
Islands; and so numerous were they that the walls of the large hall he
engaged in London for their exhibition were nearly covered. This took
place in the summer of 1849; on the 13th of November of that same year
he died. He received the honours of a public funeral in his native city.
Etty holds a secure place among English artists. His drawing was
frequently incorrect, but in feeling and skill as a colourist he has few
equals. His most conspicuous defects as a painter were the result of
insufficient general culture and narrowness of sympathy.
See Etty's autobiography, published in the _Art Journal_ for 1849, and
the _Life of William Etty, R.A._, by Gilchrist (2 vols., 1855).
ETYMOLOGY (Gr. [Greek: etymos], true, and [Greek: logos], account), that
part or branch of the science of linguistics which deals with the origin
or derivation of words. The Greek word [Greek: etymos], in so far as it
was applied to words, referred to the real underlying meaning rather
than to the origin. It was the Stoics who asserted that the discovery of
[Greek: to etymon] would explain the essence of the things and ideas
represented by words. Plato in the _Cratylus_ makes a nearer approach to
the modern view when he connects, e.g. [Greek: gyne], woman, with
[Greek: gone], seed, while he jests at such etymological feats as the
derivation of [Greek: ouranos], heaven, [Greek: apo tou oran ta ano],
from looking at things above, or [Greek: anthropos], man, from [Greek:
ho anathron ha opopen], he who looks up at what he sees. Until the
comparative study of philology and the development of the laws
underlying phonetic changes, the derivation of words was a matter mostly
of guess-work, sometimes right but more often wrong, based on
superficial resemblances of form and the like. This popular etymology,
to which the Germans have given the name _Volksetymologie_ or
folk-etymology, has had much influence in the form which words take
(e.g. "crawfish" or "crayfish," from the French _crevis_, modern
_ecrevisse_, or "sand-blind," from _samblind_, i.e. semi-, half-blind),
and has frequently been the occasion of homonyms. W.W. Skeat has
embodied in certain canons or rules some well-known principles which
should be observed in giving the etymology of a word; these may be
usefully given here: "(1) Before attempting an etymology, ascertain the
earliest form and use of the word, and observe chronology. (2) Observe
history and geography; borrowings are due to actual contact. (3) Observe
phonetic laws, especially those which regulate the mutual relation of
consonants in the various Aryan languages, at the same time comparing
the vowel sounds. (4) In comparing two words, A and B, belonging to the
same language, of which A contains the lesser number of syllables, A
must be taken to be the more original word, unless we have evidence of
contraction or other corruption. (5) In comparing two words, A and B,
belonging to the same language and consisting of the same number of
syllables, the older form can usually be distinguished by observing the
sound of the principal vowel. (6) Strong verbs, in the Teutonic
languages, and the so-called "irregular verbs" in Latin, are commonly to
be considered as primary, other related forms being taken from them. (7)
The whole of a word, and not a portion only, ought to be reasonably
accounted for; and, in tracing changes of form, any infringement of
phonetic laws is to be regarded with suspicion. (8) Mere resemblances of
form and apparent connexion in sense between languages which have
different phonetic laws or no necessary connexion are commonly a
delusion, and are not to be regarded. (9) When words in two different
languages are more nearly alike than the ordinary phonetic laws would
allow, there is a strong probability that one language has borrowed the
word from the other. Truly cognate words ought not to be _too much_
alike. (10) It is useless to offer an explanation of an English word
which will not also explain all the cognate forms" (Introduction to
_Etymological Dictionary of the English Language_, 1898).
An English word is either "the extant formal representative or direct
phonetic descendant of an earlier (Teutonic) word; or it has been
_adopted_ or _adapted_ from some foreign language," adoption being a
popular, and adaptation being a literary or learned process; finally,
there is _formation_, i.e. the "combination of existing words (foreign
or native) or parts of words with each other or with living formatives,
i.e. syllables which no longer exist as separate words, but yet have an
appreciable signification which they impart to the new product" (see
Introduction to the Oxford _New English Dictionary_, p. xx). A further
classification of words according to their origin is that into (1)
naturals, i.e. purely native words, like "mother," "father," "house";
(2) those which become perfectly naturalized, though of foreign origin,
like "cat," "mutton," "beef"; (3) denizens, words naturalized in usage
but keeping the foreign pronunciation, spelling and inflections, e.g.
"focus," "camera"; (4) aliens, words for foreign things, institutions,
offices, &c., for which there is no English equivalent, e.g., _menu_,
_table d'hote_, _impi_, _lakh_, _mollah_, _tarbush_; (5) casuals, e.g.,
_bloc_, _Ausgleich_, _sabotage_, differing only from "aliens" in their
temporary use. The full etymology of a word should include the phonetic
descent, the source of the word, whether from a native or from a foreign
origin, and, if the latter, whether by adoption or adaptation, or, if a
_formed_ word, the origin of the parts which go to make it up. In the
present edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ such full etymologies,
which would be necessary and in place in an etymological dictionary,
have not been given in every instance, but brief etymological notes are
appended, showing in outline the sources and history, and in many cases
the development in meaning. (See also DICTIONARY.)
EU, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Seine-Inferieure, on the river Bresle, 64 m. N.N.E. of Rouen on the
Western railway, and 2 m. E.S.E. of Le Treport, at the mouth of the
Bresle, which is canalized between the two towns. Pop. (1906) 4865. The
extensive forest of Eu lies to the south-east of the town. Eu has three
buildings of importance--the beautiful Gothic church of St Laurent (12th
and 13th centuries) of which the exterior of the choir with its three
tiers of ornamented buttressing and the double arches between the
pillars of the nave are architecturally notable; the chapel of the
Jesuit college (built about 1625), in which are the tombs of Henry,
third duke of Guise, and his wife, Katherine of Cleves; and the chateau.
The latter was begun by Henry of Guise in 1578, in place of an older
chateau burnt by Louis XI. in 1475 to prevent its capture by the
English. It was continued by Mademoiselle de Montpensier in the latter
half of the 17th century, and restored by Louis Philippe who, in 1843
and 1845, received Queen Victoria within its walls. In 1902 the greater
part of the building was destroyed by fire. The town has a tribunal of
commerce and a communal college, flour-mills, manufactories of
earthenware, biscuits, furniture, casks, and glass and brick works; the
port has trade in grain, timber, hemp, flax, &c.
Eu (Augusta) was in existence under the Romans. The first line of its
counts, supposed to be descended from the dukes of Normandy, had as
heiress Alix (died 1227), who married Raoul (Ralph) de Lusignan, known
as the Sire d'Issoudun from his lordship of that name. Through their
grand-daughter Marie, the countship of Eu passed by marriage to the
house of Brienne, two members of which, both named Raoul, were
constables of France. King John confiscated the countship in 1350, and
gave it to John of Artois (1352). His great-grandson, Charles, son of
Philip of Artois, count of Eu, and Marie of Berry, played a conspicuous
part in the Hundred Years' War. He was taken prisoner at the battle of
Agincourt (1415), and remained in England twenty-three years, in
accordance with the dying injunctions of Henry V. that he was not to be
let go until his son, Henry VI., was of age to govern his dominions. He
accompanied Charles VII. on his campaigns in Normandy and Guyenne, and
was made lieutenant-general of these two provinces. It was he who
effected a reconciliation between the king and the dauphin after the
revolt of the latter. He was created a peer of France in 1458, and made
governor of Paris during the war of the League of the Public Weal
(1465). He died on the 15th of July 1472 at the age of about
seventy-eight, leaving no children. His sister's son, John of Burgundy,
count of Nevers, now received the countship, which passed through
heiresses, in the 15th century, to the house of Cleves, and to that of
Lorraine-Guise. In 1660 Henry II. of Lorraine, duke of Guise, sold it to
"Mademoiselle," Anne Marie Louise d'Orleans, duchesse de Montpensier
(q.v.), who made it over (1682) to the duke of Maine, bastard son of
Louis XIV., as part of the price of the release of her lover Lauzun. The
second son of the duke of Maine, Louis Charles de Bourbon (1701-1775),
bore the title of count of Eu. In 1755 he inherited from his elder
brother, Louis Auguste de Bourbon (1700-1755), prince de Dombes, great
estates, part of which he sold to the king. The remainder, which was
still considerable, passed to his cousin the duke of Penthievre. These
estates were confiscated at the Revolution; but at the Restoration they
were bestowed by Louis XVII. on the duchess-dowager of Orleans who, in
1821, bequeathed them to her son, afterwards King Louis Philippe. They
were again confiscated in 1852, but were restored to the Orleans family
by the National Assembly after the Franco-German War. The title of count
of Eu was revived in the 19th century in favour of the eldest son of the
duke of Nemours, second son of King Louis Philippe.
EUBOEA (pronounced _Evvia_ in the modern language), EURIPOS, or
NEGROPONT, the largest island of the Grecian archipelago. It is
separated from the mainland of Greece by the Euboic Sea. In general
outline it is long and narrow; it is about 90 m. long, and varies in
breadth from 30 m. to 4. Its general direction is from N.W. to S.E., and
it is traversed throughout its length by a mountain range, which forms
part of the chain that bounds Thessaly on the E., and is continued south
of Euboea in the lofty islands of Andros, Tenos and Myconos. The
principal peaks of this range are grouped in three knots which divide
the island into three portions. Towards the north, opposite the Locrian
territory, the highest peaks are Mts. Gaetsades (4436 ft.) and Xeron
(3232 ft.). The former was famed in ancient times for its medicinal
plants, and at its foot are the celebrated hot springs, near the town of
Aedepsus (mod. Lipsos), called the Baths of Heracles, used, we are told,
by the dictator L. Cornelius Sulla, and still frequented by the Greeks
for the cure of gout, rheumatism and digestive disorders. These springs,
strongly sulphurous, rise a short distance inland at several points, and
at last pour steaming over the rocks, which they have yellowed with
their deposit, into the Euboic Sea. Opposite the entrance of the Maliac
Gulf is the promontory of Cenaeum, the highest point (2221 ft.) behind
which is now called Lithada, a corruption of Lichades, the ancient name
of the islands off the extremity of the headland. Here again we meet
with the legends of Heracles, for this cape, together with the
neighbouring coast of Trachis, was the scene of the events connected
with the death of that hero, as described by Sophocles in the
_Trachiniae_. Near the north-east extremity of the island, and almost
facing the entrance of the Gulf of Pagasae, is the promontory of
Artemisium, celebrated for the great naval victory gained by the Greeks
over the Persians, 480 B.C. Towards the centre, to the N.E. of Chalcis,
rises the highest of its mountains, Dirphys or Dirphe, now Mount Delphi
(5725 ft.), the bare summit of which is not entirely free from snow till
the end of May, while its sides are clothed with pines and firs, and
lower down with chestnuts and planes. It is one of the most conspicuous
summits of eastern Greece, and from its flanks the promontory of
Chersonesus projects into the Aegean. At the southern extremity the
highest mountain is Ocha, now called St Elias (4830 ft.). The
south-western promontory was named Geraestus, the south-eastern
Caphareus; the latter, an exposed point, attracts the storms, which rush
between it and the neighbouring cliffs of Andros as through a funnel.
The whole of the eastern coast is rocky and destitute of harbours,
especially the part called Coela, or "the Hollows," where part of the
Persian fleet was wrecked. So greatly was this dreaded by sailors that
the principal line of traffic from the north of the Aegean to Athens
used to pass by Chalcis and the Euboic Sea.
Euboea was believed to have originally formed part of the mainland, and
to have been separated from it by an earthquake. This is the less
improbable because it lies in the neighbourhood of a line of earthquake
movement, and both from Thucydides and from Strabo we hear of the
northern part of the island being shaken at different periods, and the
latter writer speaks of a fountain at Chalcis being dried up by a
similar cause, and a mud volcano formed in the neighbouring plain.
Evidences of volcanic action are also traceable in the legends connected
with Heracles at Aedepsus and Cenaeum, which here, as at Lemnos and
elsewhere in Greece, have that origin. Its northern extremity is
separated from the Thessalian coast by a strait, which at one point is
not more than a mile and a half in width. In the neighbourhood of
Chalcis, both to the north and the south, the bays are so confined as
readily to explain the story of Agamemnon's fleet having been detained
there by contrary winds. At Chalcis itself, where the strait is
narrowest, it is called the Euripus, and here it is divided in the
middle by a rock, on which formerly a castle stood. The channel towards
Boeotia, which is now closed, is spanned by a stone bridge. The other,
which is far the deeper of the two, is crossed by an iron swing-bridge,
allowing for the passage of vessels. This bridge, which dates from 1896,
replaced a smaller wooden swing-bridge erected in 1856. The
extraordinary changes of tide which take place in this passage have been
a subject of wonder from classical times. At one moment the current runs
like a river in one direction, and shortly afterwards with equal
velocity in the other. Strabo speaks of it as varying seven times in the
day, but it is more accurate to say, with Livy, that it is irregular. A
bridge was first constructed here in the twenty-first year of the
Peloponnesian War, when Euboea revolted from Athens; and thus the
Boeotians, whose work it was, contrived to make that country "an island
to every one but themselves." The Boeotians by this means secured a
powerful weapon of offence against Athens, being able to impede their
supplies of gold and corn from Thrace, of timber from Macedonia, and of
horses from Thessaly. The name Euripus was corrupted during the middle
ages into Evripo and Egripo, and in this latter form transferred to the
whole island, whence the Venetians, when they occupied the district,
altered it to Negroponte, referring to the bridge which connected it
with the mainland.
The rivers of Euboea are few in number and scanty in volume. In the
north-eastern portion the Budorus flows into the Aegean, being formed by
two streams which unite their waters in a small plain, and were perhaps
the Cereus and Neleus concerning which the story was told that sheep
drinking the water of the one became white, of the other black. On the
north coast, near Histiaea, is the Callas; and on the western side the
Lelantus, near Chalcis, flowing through the plain of the same name. This
plain, which intervenes between Chalcis and Eretria, and was a fruitful
source of contention to those cities, is the most considerable of the
few and small spaces of level ground in the island, and was fertile in
corn. Aristotle, when speaking of the aristocratic character of the
horse, as requiring fertile soil for its support, and consequently being
associated with wealth, instances its use among the Chalcidians and
Eretrians, and in the former of those two states we find a class of
nobles called _Hippobotae_. This rich district was afterwards occupied
by Athenian cleruchs. The next largest plain was that of Histiaea, and
at the present day this and the neighbourhood of the Budorus (Ahmet-Aga)
are the two best cultivated parts of Euboea, owing to the exertions of
foreign colonists. The mountains afford excellent pasturage for sheep
and cattle, which were reared in great quantities in ancient times, and
seem to have given the island its name; these pastures belonged to the
state. The forests are extensive and fine, and are now superintended by
government officials, called [Greek: dasophylakes], in spite or with the
connivance of whom the timber is being rapidly destroyed--partly from
the merciless way in which it is cut by the proprietors, partly from its
being burnt by the shepherds, for the sake of the rich grass that
springs up after such conflagrations, and partly owing to the goats,
whose bite kills all the young growths. In the mountains were several
valuable mines of iron and copper; and from Karystos, at the south of
the island, came the green and white marble, the modern Cipollino, which
was in great request among the Romans of the imperial period for
architectural purposes, and the quarries of which belonged to the
emperor. The scenery of Euboea is perhaps the most beautiful in Greece,
owing to the varied combinations of rock, wood and water; for from the
uplands the sea is almost always in view, either the wide island-studded
expanse of the Aegean, or the succession of lakes formed by the Euboic
Sea, together with mountains of exquisite outline, while the valleys and
maritime plains are clothed either with fruit trees or with plane trees
of magnificent growth.
On the other hand, no part of Greece is so destitute of interesting
remains of antiquity as Euboea. The only site which has attracted
archaeologists is that of Eretria (q.v.), which was excavated by the
American School of Athens in 1890-1895.
Like most of the Greek islands, Euboea was originally known under other
names, such as Macris and Doliche from its shape, and Ellopia and
Abantis from the tribes inhabiting it. The races by which it was
occupied at an early period were different in the three districts, into
which, as we have seen, it was naturally divided. In the northern
portion we find the Histiaei and Ellopes, Thessalian races, which
probably had passed over from the Pagasaean Gulf. In central Euboea were
the Curetes and Abantes, who seem to have come from the neighbouring
continent by way of the Euripus; of these the Abantes, after being
reinforced by Ionians from Attica, rose to great power, and exercised a
sort of supremacy over the whole island, so that in Homer the
inhabitants generally are called by that name. The southern part was
occupied by the Dryopes, part of which tribe, after having been expelled
from their original seats in the south of Thessaly by the Dorians,
migrated to this island, and established themselves in the three cities
of Karystos, Dystos and Styra. The population of Euboea at the present
day is made up of elements not less various, for many of the Greek
inhabitants seem to have immigrated, partly from the mainland, and
partly from other islands; and besides these, the southern portion is
occupied by Albanians, who probably have come from Andros; and in the
mountain districts nomad Vlach shepherds are found.
_History._--The history of the island is for the most part that of its
two principal cities, Chalcis and Eretria, the latter of which was
situated about 15 m. S.E. of the former, and was also on the shore of
the Euboic Sea. The neighbourhood of the fertile Lelantian or Lelantine
plain, and their proximity to the place of passage to the mainland, were
evidently the causes of the choice of site, as well as of their
prosperity. Both cities were Ionian settlements from Attica, and their
importance in early times is shown by their numerous colonies in Magna
Graecia and Sicily, such as Cumae, Rhegium and Naxos, and on the coast
of Macedonia, the projecting portion of which, with its three
peninsulas, hence obtained the name of Chalcidice. In this way they
opened new trade routes to the Greeks, and extended the field of
civilization. How great their commerce was is shown by the fact that the
Euboic scale of weights and measures was in use at Athens (until Solon,
q.v.) and among the Ionic cities generally. They were rival cities, and
at first appear to have been equally powerful; one of the earliest of
the sea-fights mentioned in Greek history took place between them, and
in this we are told that many of the other Greek states took part. It
was in consequence of the aid which the people of Miletus lent to the
Eretrians on this occasion that Eretria sent five ships to aid the
Ionians in their revolt against the Persians (see IONIA); and owing to
this, that city was the first place in Greece proper to be attacked by
Datis and Artaphernes in 490 B.C. It was utterly ruined on that
occasion, and its inhabitants were transported to Persia. Though it was
restored after the battle of Marathon, on a site at a little distance
from its original position, it never regained its former eminence, but
it was still the second city in the island. From this time its neighbour
Chalcis, which, though it suffered from a lack of good water, was, as
Strabo says, the natural capital from its commanding the Euripus, held
an undisputed supremacy. Already, however, this city had suffered from
the growing power of Athens. In the year 506, when the Chalcidians
joined with the Boeotians and the Spartan king Cleomenes in a league
against that state, they were totally defeated by the Athenians, who
established 4000 Attic settlers (see CLERUCHY) on their lands, and seem
to have reduced the whole island to a condition of dependence. Again, in
446, when Euboea endeavoured to throw off the yoke, it was once more
reduced by Pericles, and a new body of settlers was planted at Histiaea
in the north of the island, after the inhabitants of that town had been
expelled. This event is referred to by Aristophanes in the _Clouds_
(212), where the old farmer, on being shown Euboea on the map "lying
outstretched in all its length," remarks,--"I know; we laid it prostrate
under Pericles." The Athenians fully recognized its importance to them,
as supplying them with corn and cattle, as securing their commerce, and
as guaranteeing them against piracy, for its proximity to the coast of
Attica rendered it extremely dangerous to them when in other hands, so
that Demosthenes, in the _De corona_, speaks of a time when the pirates
that made it their headquarters so infested the neighbouring sea as to
prevent all navigation. But in the 21st year of the Peloponnesian war
the island succeeded in regaining its independence. After this we find
it taking sides with one or other of the leading states, until, after
the battle of Chaeronea, it passed into the hands of Philip II. of
Macedon, and finally into those of the Romans. By Philip V. of Macedon
Chalcis was called one of the three fetters of Greece, Demetrias on the
Gulf of Pagasae and Corinth being the other two.
In modern history Euboea or Negropont comes once more prominently into
notice at the time of the fourth crusade. In the partition of the
Eastern empire by the Latins which followed that event the island was
divided into three fiefs, the occupants of which ere long found it
expedient to place themselves under the protection of the Venetian
republic, which thenceforward became the sovereign power in the country.
For more than two centuries and a half during which the Venetians
remained in possession, it was one of the most valuable of their
dependencies, and the lion of St Mark may still be seen, both over the
sea gate of Chalcis and in other parts of the town. At length in 1470,
after a valiant defence, this well-fortified city was wrested from them
by Mahommed II., and the whole island fell into the hands of the Turks.
One desperate attempt to regain it was made by Francesco Morosini (d.
1694) in 1688, when the city was besieged by land and sea for three
months; but owing to the strength of the place, and the disease which
thinned their ranks, the assailants were forced to withdraw. At the
conclusion of the Greek War of Independence, in 1830, the island was
delivered from the Turkish sway, and constituted a part of the newly
established Greek state. Euboea at the present time produces a large
amount of grain, and its mineral wealth is also considerable, great
quantities of magnesia and lignite being exported. In 1899 it was
constituted a separate nome (pop. 1907, 116,903).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.--H.N. Ulrichs, _Reisen und Forschungen in Griechenland_,
vol. ii. (Berlin, 1863); C. Bursian, _Geographie von Griechenland_,
vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1872); C. Neumann and J. Partsch, _Physikalische
Geographie von Griechenland_ (Breslau, 1885); Baedeker's _Greece_ (3rd
ed., Leipzig, 1905); for statistics see GREECE: _Topography_.
(H. F. T.)
EUBULIDES, a native of Miletus, Greek philosopher and successor of
Eucleides as head of the Megarian school. Nothing is known of the events
of his life. Indirect evidence shows that he was a contemporary of
Aristotle, whom he attacked with great bitterness. There was also a
tradition that Demosthenes was one of his pupils. His name has been
preserved chiefly by some celebrated, though false and captious,
syllogisms of which he was the reputed author. Though mainly examples of
verbal quibbling, they serve to show the difficulties of language and of
explaining the relations of sense-given impressions. Eubulides wrote a
treatise on Diogenes the Cynic and also a number of comedies. (See
MEGARIAN SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY.)
EUBULUS, of Anaphlystus, Athenian demagogue during the time of
Demosthenes. He was a persistent opponent of that statesman, and was
chiefly instrumental in securing the acquittal of Aeschines (who had
been his own clerk) when accused of treachery in connexion with the
embassy to Philip of Macedon. Eubulus took little interest in military
affairs, and was (at any rate at first) a strong advocate of peace at
any price. He devoted himself to matters of administration, especially
in the department of finance, and although he is said to have increased
the revenues and to have done real service to his country, there is no
doubt that he took advantage of his position to make use of the material
forces of the state for his own aggrandizement. His proposal that any
one who should move that the Theoric Fund should be applied to military
purposes should be put to death may have gained him the goodwill of the
people, but it was not in the true interest of the state. Later, Eubulus
himself seems to have recognized this, and to have been desirous of
modifying or repealing the regulation, but it was too late; Athens had
lost all feelings of patriotism; cowardly and indolent, she rivalled
even Tarentum in her luxury and extravagance (Theopompus in Athenaeus
iv. p. 166). As one of the chief members of an embassy to Philip,
Eubulus allowed himself to be won over, and henceforth did his utmost to
promote the cause of the Macedonian. The indignant remonstrances of
Demosthenes failed to weaken Eubulus's hold on the popular favour, and
after his death (before 330) he was distinguished with special honours,
which were described by Hypereides in a speech ([Greek: Peri ton
Euboulou doreon]) now lost. Eubulus was no doubt a man of considerable
talent and reputation as an orator, but none of his speeches has
survived, nor is there any appreciation of them in ancient writers.
Aristotle (_Rhetoric_, i. 15. 15) mentions a speech against Chares, and
Theopompus (in his _Philippica_) had given an account of his life,
extracts from which are preserved in Harpocration.
See Demosthenes, _De corona_, pp. 232, 235; _De falsa legatione_, pp.
434, 435, 438; _Adversus Leptinem_, p. 498; _In Midiam_, pp. 580, 581;
Aeschines, _De falsa legatione, ad fin_.; Index to C.W. Mueller's
_Oratores Attici_; A.D. Schaefer, _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (1885).
EUBULUS, Athenian poet of the Middle comedy, flourished about 370 B.C.
Fragments from about fifty of the 104 plays attributed to him are
preserved in Athenaeus. They show that he took little interest in
political affairs, but confined himself chiefly to mythological
subjects, ridiculing, when opportunity offered, the bombastic style of
the tragedians, especially Euripides. His language is pure, and his
versification correct.
Fragments in T. Kock. _Comicorum Atticorum fragmenta_, ii. (1884).
EUCALYPTUS, a large genus of trees of the natural order Myrtaceae,
indigenous, with a few exceptions, to Australia and Tasmania. In
Australia the Eucalypti are commonly called "gum-trees" or "stringy-bark
trees," from their gummy or resinous products, or fibrous bark. The
genus, from the evidence of leaf-remains, appears to have been
represented by several species in Eocene times. The leaves are leathery
in texture, hang obliquely or vertically, and are studded with glands
which contain a fragrant volatile oil. The petals cohere to form a
cap[1] which is discarded when the flower expands. The fruit is
surrounded by a woody cup-shaped receptacle and contains very numerous
minute seeds. The Eucalypti are rapid in growth, and many species are of
great height, _E. amygdalina_, the tallest known tree, attaining to as
much as 480 ft., exceeding in height the Californian big-tree (_Sequoia
gigantea_), with a diameter of 81 ft. _E. globulus_, so called from the
rounded form of its cap-like corolla, is the blue gum tree of Victoria
and Tasmania. The leaves of trees from three to five years of age are
large, sessile and of a glaucous-white colour, and grow horizontally;
those of older trees are ensiform, 6-12 in. long, and bluish-green in
hue, and are directed downwards. The flowers are single or in clusters,
and nearly sessile. This species is one of the largest trees in the
world, and attains a height of 375 ft. Since 1854 it has been
successfully introduced into the south of Europe, Algeria, Egypt,
Tahiti, New Caledonia, Natal and India, and has been extensively planted
in California, and, with the object of lessening liability to droughts,
along the line of the Central Pacific railway. It would probably thrive
in any situation having a mean annual temperature not below 60 deg. F., but
it will not endure a temperature of less than 27 deg. F. Its supposed
property of reducing the amount of malaria in marshy districts is
attributable to the drainage effected by its roots, rather than to the
antiseptic exhalations of its leaves. To the same cause also is ascribed
the gradual disappearance of mosquitoes in the neighbourhood of
plantations of this tree, as at Lake Fezara, in Algeria. Since about
1870, when the tree was planted in its cloisters, the monastery of St
Paolo a la tre Fontana has become habitable throughout the year,
although situated in one of the most fever-stricken districts of the
Roman Campagna. An essential oil is obtained by aqueous distillation of
the leaves of this and other species of _Eucalyptus_, which is a
colourless or straw-coloured fluid when freshly prepared, with a
characteristic odour and taste, of sp. gr. 0.910 to 0.930, and soluble
in its own weight of alcohol. This consists of many different bodies,
the most important of which is eucalyptol, a volatile oil, which
constitutes about 70%. This is the portion of eucalyptus oil which
passes over between 347 deg. and 351 deg. F., and crystallizes at 30 deg. F. It
consists chiefly of a terpene and cymene. Eucalyptus oil also contains,
after exposure to the air, a crystallizable resin derived from
eucalyptol. The dose of the oil is 1/2 to 3 minims. Eucalyptol may be
given in similar doses, and is preferable for purposes of inhalation.
The oil derived from _E. amygdalina_ contains a large quantity of
phellandrene, which forms a crystalline nitrate, and is very irritating
when inhaled. The oils from different species of _Eucalyptus_ vary
widely in composition.
Eucalyptus oil is probably the most powerful antiseptic of its class,
especially when it is old, as ozone is formed in it on exposure to air.
Internally it has the typical actions of a volatile oil in marked
degree. Like quinine, it arrests the normal amoeboid movements of the
polymorphonuclear leucocytes, and has a definite antiperiodic action;
but it is a very poor substitute for quinine in malaria. In large doses
it acts as an irritant to the kidneys, by which it is largely excreted,
and as a marked nervous depressant, abolishing the reflex functions of
the spinal cord and ultimately arresting respiration by its action on
the medullary centre. An emulsion, made by shaking up equal parts of the
oil and powdered gum-arabic with water, has been used as a urethral
injection, and has also been given internally in drachm doses in
pulmonary tuberculosis and other microbic diseases of the lungs and
bronchi. The oil has somehow acquired an extraordinary popular
reputation in influenza, but there is no evidence to show that it has
any marked influence upon this disease or that its use tends to lessen
the chances of infection. It has been used as an antiseptic by surgeons,
and is an ingredient of "catheter oil," used for sterilizing and
lubricating urethral catheters, now that carbolic oil, formerly
employed, has been shown to be practically worthless as an antiseptic.
_Eucalyptus rostrata_ and other species yield eucalyptus or red gum,
which must be distinguished from Botany Bay kino. Red gum is very
powerfully astringent and is given internally, in doses of 2 to 5
grains, in cases of diarrhoea and pharyngeal inflammation. It is
prepared by the pharmacist in the form of tinctures, insufflations,
syrups, lozenges, &c. Red gum is official in Great Britain. _E.
globulus_, _E. resinifera_, and other species, yield what is known as
Botany Bay kino, an astringent dark-reddish amorphous resin, which is
obtained in a semi-fluid state by making incisions in the trunks of the
trees. The kino of _E. gigantea_ contains a notable proportion of gum.
J.H. Maiden enumerates more than thirty species as kino-yielding. From
the leaves and young bark of _E. mannifera_ and _E. viminalis_ is
procured Australian manna, a hard, opaque, sweet substance, containing
melitose. On destructive distillation the leaves yield much gas, 10,000
cub. ft. being obtained from one ton. The wood is extensively used in
Australia as fuel, and the timber is of remarkable size, strength and
durability. Maiden enumerates nearly 70 species as timber-yielding trees
including _E. amygdalina_, the wood of which splits with remarkable
facility, _E. botryoides_, hard, tough and durable and one of the finest
timbers for shipbuilding, _E. diversicolor_ or "karri," _E. globulus_,
_E. leucoxylon_ or ironbark, _E. marginata_ or "jarrah" (see JARRAH
WOOD), _E. obliqua_, _E. resinifera_, _E. siderophloia_ and others. The
timber is often very hard, tough and durable, and useful for
shipbuilding, building, fencing, planks, &c. The bark of different
species of _Eucalyptus_ has been used in paper-making and tanning, and
in medicine as a febrifuge.
For further details see Baron von Mueller's monograph of the genus,
_Eucalyptographia_ (Melbourne, 1879-1884); J.H. Maiden, _Useful Native
Plants of Australia_ (1889).