FOOTNOTES:

[1] The opinion, long maintained by some, that he was identical with

Johann Fust, the printer, is now universally rejected.

[2] Many are given in Kiesewetter's _Faust_, p. 112, &c.

[3] In the _Literaturbrief_ of Feb. 16, 1759.

[4] Bayard Taylor's trans.

FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA, the younger, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and

wife of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. She is accused by Dio Cassius and

Capitolinus of gross profligacy, and was reputed to have instigated the

revolt of Avidius Cassius against her husband. She died in 175 or 176

(so Clinton, _Fasti rom._) at Halala, near Mount Taurus, in Cappadocia,

whither she had accompanied Aurelius. Charitable schools for orphan

girls (hence called _Faustinianae_) were founded in her honour, like

those established by her father Antoninus in honour of his wife, the

elder Faustina. Her statue was placed in the temple of Venus, and she

was numbered among the tutelary deities of Rome. From the fact that

Aurelius was always devoted to her and was heartbroken at her death, it

has been inferred that the unfavourable estimate of the historians is

prejudiced or at least mistaken.

See Capitolinus, _Marcus Aurelius_; Dio Cassius lxxi. 22, lxxiv. 3; E.

Renan, in _Melanges d'histoire et des voyages_, 169-195.

FAVARA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 5 m. E. of

Girgenti by road. Pop. (1901) 20,398. It possesses a fine castle of the

Chiaramonte family, erected in 1280. The town has a considerable

agricultural trade, and there are sulphur and other mines in the

neighbourhood.

FAVART, CHARLES SIMON (1710-1792), French dramatist, was born in Paris

on the 13th of November 1710, the son of a pastry-cook. He was educated

at the college of Louis-le-Grand, and after his father's death carried

on the business for a time. His first success in literature was _La

France delivree par la Pucelle d'Orleans_, a poem which obtained a prize

of the Academie des Jeux Flor ux. After the production of his first

vaudeville, _Les Deux Jumelles_ (1734), circumstances enabled him to

relinquish business and devote himself entirely to the drama. He

provided many pieces anonymously for the lesser theatres, and first put

his name to _La Chercheuse d'esprit_, which was produced in 1741. Among

his most successful works were _Annette et Lubin, Le Coq du village_

(1743), _Ninette a la cour_ (1753), _Les Trois Sultanes_ (1761) and

_L'Anglais a Bordeaux_ (1763). Favart became director of the Opera

Comique, and in 1745 married MARIE JUSTINE BENOITE DURONCERAY

(1727-1772), a beautiful young dancer, singer and actress, who as "Mlle

Chantilly" had made a successful debut the year before. By their united

talents and labours the Opera Comique rose to such a height of success

that it aroused the jealousy of the rival Comedie Italienne and was

suppressed. Favart, left thus without resources, accepted the proposal

of Maurice de Saxe, and undertook the direction of a troupe of comedians

which was to accompany his army into Flanders. It was part of his duty

to compose from time to time impromptu verses on the events of the

campaign, amusing and stimulating the spirits of the men. So popular

were Favart and his troupe that the enemy became desirous of hearing his

company and sharing his services, and permission was given to gratify

them, battles and comedies thus curiously alternating with each other.

But the marshal, who was an admirer of Mme Favart, began to persecute

her with his attentions. To escape him she went to Paris, and the wrath

of Saxe fell upon the husband. A _lettre de cachet_ was issued against

him, but he fled to Strassburg and found concealment in a cellar. Mme

Favart meanwhile had been established by the marshal in a house at

Vaugirard; but as she proved a fickle mistress she was suddenly arrested

and confined in a convent, where she was brought to unconditional

surrender in the beginning of 1750. Before the year was out the marshal

died, and Mme Favart reappeared at the Comedie Italienne, where for

twenty years she was the favourite actress. To her is largely due the

beginnings of the change in this theatre to performances of a lyric type

adapted from Italian models, which developed later into the genuine

French comic opera. She was also a bold reformer in matters of stage

costume, playing the peasant with bare arms, in wooden shoes and linen

dress, and not, as heretofore, in court costume with enormous hoops,

diamonds and long white kid gloves. With her husband, and other authors,

she collaborated in a number of successful pieces, and one--_La Fille

mal gardee_--she produced alone.

Favart survived his wife twenty years. After the marshal's death in 1750

he had returned to Paris, and resumed his pursuits as a dramatist. It

was at this time that the abbe de Voisenon became intimate with him and

took part in his labours, to what extent is uncertain. He had grown

nearly blind in his last days, and died in Paris on the 12th of May

1792. His plays have been several times republished in various editions

and selections (1763-1772, 12 vols.; 1810, 3 vols.; 1813; 1853). His

correspondence (1759-1763) with Count Durazzo, director of theatres at

Vienna, was published in 1808 as _Memoires et correspondance litteraire,

dramatique et anecdotique de C.S. Favart_. It furnishes valuable

information on the state of the literary and theatrical worlds in the

18th century.

Favart's second son, CHARLES NICOLAS JOSEPH JUSTIN FAVART (1749-1806),

was an actor of moderate talent at the Comedie Francaise for fifteen

years. He wrote a number of successful plays:--_Le Diable boiteux_

(1782), _Le Mariage singulier_ (1787) and, with his father, _La

Vieillesse d'Annette_ (1791). His son Antoine Pierre Charles Favart

(1780-1867) was in the diplomatic service, and assisted in editing his

grandfather's memoirs; he was a playwright and painter as well.

FAVERSHAM, a market town and river-port, member of the Cinque Port of

Dover, and municipal borough in the Faversham parliamentary division of

Kent, England, on a creek of the Swale, 9 m. W.N.W. of Canterbury on the

South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 11,290. The church of St

Mary of Charity, restored by Sir G.G. Scott in 1874, is of Early English

architecture, and has some remains on one of the columns of frescoes of

the same period, while the 14th-century paintings in the chancel are in

better preservation. Some of the brasses are very fine, and there is one

commemorating King Stephen, as well as a tomb said to be his. He was

buried at the abbey he founded here, of which only a wall and the

foundations below ground remain. At Davington, close to Faversham, there

are remains, incorporated in a residence, of the cloisters and other

parts of a Benedictine priory founded in 1153. Faversham has a free

grammar school founded in 1527 and removed to its present site in 1877.

Faversham Creek is navigable up to the town for vessels of 200 tons. The

shipping trade is considerable, chiefly in coal, timber and agricultural

produce. The oyster fisheries are important, and are managed by a very

ancient gild, the Company of Free Dredgermen of the Hundred and Manor of

Faversham. Brewing, brickmaking and the manufacture of cement are also

carried on, and there are several large powder mills in the vicinity.

The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,

686 acres.

There was a Romano-British village on the site of Faversham. The town

(Fauresfeld, Faveresham) owed its early importance to its situation as a

port on the Swale, to the fertile country surrounding it, and to the

neighbourhood of Watling Street. In 811 it was called the king's town,

and a witenagemot was held here under Aethelstan. In 1086 it was

assessed as royal demesne, and a market was held here at this date. An

abbey was built by Stephen in 1147, in which he and Matilda were buried.

They had endowed it with the manor and hundred of Faversham; this grant

caused many disputes between the abbot and men of Faversham concerning

the abbot's jurisdiction. Faversham was probably a member of Dover from

the earliest association of the Cinque Ports, certainly as early as

Henry III., who in 1252 granted among other liberties of the Cinque

Ports that the barons of Faversham should plead only in Shepway Court,

but ten years later transferred certain pleas to the abbot's court. In

this reign also the abbot appointed the mayor, but from the reign of

Edward I. he was elected by the freemen and then installed by the abbot.

The corporation was prescriptive, and a hallmote held in 1293 was

attended by a mayor and twelve jurats. All the liberties of the Cinque

Ports were granted to the barons of Faversham by Edward I. in 1302, and

confirmed by Edward III. in 1365, and by later monarchs. The governing

charter till 1835 was that of Henry VIII., granted in 1545 and confirmed

by Edward VI.

FAVORINUS (2nd century A.D.), Greek sophist and philosopher, flourished

during the reign of Hadrian. A Gaul by birth, he was a native of Arelate

(Arles), but at an early age began his lifelong travels through Greece,

Italy and the East. His extensive knowledge, combined with great

oratorical powers, raised him to eminence both in Athens and in Rome.

With Plutarch, who dedicated to him his treatise [Greek: Peri tou protou

psychrou], with Herodes Atticus, to whom he bequeathed his library at

Rome, with Demetrius the Cynic, Cornelius Fronto, Aulus Gellius, and

with Hadrian himself, he lived on intimate terms; his great rival, whom

he violently attacked in his later years, was Polemon of Smyrna. It was

Favorinus who, on being silenced by Hadrian in an argument in which the

sophist might easily have refuted his adversary, subsequently explained

that it was foolish to criticize the logic of the master of thirty

legions. When the servile Athenians, feigning to share the emperor's

displeasure with the sophist, pulled down a statue which they had

erected to him, Favorinus remarked that if only Socrates also had had a

statue at Athens, he might have been spared the hemlock. Of the very

numerous works of Favorinus, we possess only a few fragments (unless the

[Greek: Korinthiakos logos] attributed to his tutor Dio Chrysostom is by

him), preserved by Aulus Gellius, Diogenes Laertius, Philostratus, and

Suidas, the second of whom borrows from his [Greek: Pantodape historia]

(miscellaneous history) and his [Greek: Apomnemoneumata] (memoirs). As a

philosopher, Favorinus belonged to the sceptical school; his most

important work in this connexion appears to have been [Greek:

Purrhoneioi tropoi] (the Pyrrhonean Tropes) in ten books, in which he

endeavours to show that the methods of Pyrrho were useful to those who

intended to practise in the law courts.

See Philostratus, _Vitae sophistarum_, i. 8; Suidas, _s.v._; frags. in

C.W. Muller, _Frag. Hist. Graec._ iii. 4; monographs by L. Legre

(1900), T. Colardeau (1903).

FAVRAS, THOMAS DE MAHY, MARQUIS DE (1744-1790), French royalist, was

born on the 26th of March 1744, at Blois. He belonged to a poor family

whose nobility dated from the 12th century. At seventeen he was a

captain of dragoons, and saw some service in the closing campaign of the

Seven Years' War. In 1772 he became first lieutenant of the Swiss guards

of the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.). Unable to meet the

expenses of his rank, which was equivalent to the grade of colonel in

the army, he retired in 1775. He married in 1776 Victoria Hedwig

Caroline, princess of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg, whose mother, deserted

by her husband Prince Carl Ludwig in 1749, had found refuge with her

daughter in the house of Marshal Soubise. After his marriage he went to

Vienna to press the restitution of his wife's rights, and spent some

time in Warsaw. In 1787 he was authorized to raise a patriotic legion to

help the Dutch against the stadtholder William IV. and his Prussian

allies. Returning to Paris at the outbreak of the Revolution, he became

implicated in schemes for the escape of Louis XVI. from Paris and the

dominance of the National Assembly. He was commissioned by the count of

Provence through one of his gentlemen, the comte de la Chatre, to

negotiate a loan of two million francs from the bankers Schaumel and

Sartorius. Favras took into his confidence certain officers by whom he

was betrayed; and, with his wife, he was arrested on Christmas Eve 1789

and imprisoned in the Abbaye. A fortnight later they were separated,

Favras being removed to the Chatelet. It was stated in a leaflet

circulated throughout Paris that Favras had organized a plot of which

the count of Provence was the moving spirit. A force of 30,000 was to be

raised, La Fayette and Bailly, the mayor of Paris, were to be

assassinated, and Paris was to be starved into submission by cutting off

supplies. The count hastened publicly to disavow Favras in a speech

delivered before the commune of Paris and in a letter to the National

Assembly, although there is no reasonable doubt of his complicity in the

plot that did exist. In the course of a trial of nearly two months'

duration the witnesses disagreed, and even the editor of the

_Revolutions de Paris_ (No. 30) admitted that the evidence was

insufficient but an armed attempt of the Royalists on the Chatelet on

the 26th of January, which was defeated by La Fayette, roused the

suspicious temper of the Parisians to fury, and on the 18th of February

1790, in spite of the courageous defence of his counsel, Favras was

condemned to be hanged. He refused to give any information of the

alleged plot, and the sentence was carried out on the Place de Greve the

next day, to the delight of the populace, since it was the first

instance when no distinction in the mode of execution was allowed

between noble and commoner. Favras was generally regarded as a martyr to

his refusal to implicate the count of Provence, and Madame de Favras was

pensioned by Louis XVI. She left France, and her son Charles de Favras

served in the Austrian and the Russian armies. He received an allowance

from Louis XVIII. Her daughter Caroline married Rudiger, Freiherr von

Stillfried Ratenic, in 1805.

The official _dossier_ of Favras's trial for high treason against the

nation disappeared from the Chatelet, but its substance is preserved in

the papers of a clerk.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For particulars see A. Tuetey, _Repertoire general des

sources manuscrites de l'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution

Francaise_ (vol. i., 1890, pp. 175-177); M. Tourneux, _Bibl. de

l'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution Francaise_ (vol. i. pp.

196-198, 1890). His brother, M. Mahy de Cormere, published a _Memoire

justificatif_ in 1790 and a _Justification_ in 1791. See also a memoir

by Eduard, Freiherr v. Stillfried Ratenic (Vienna, 1881), and an

article by Alexis de Valon in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (15th June

1851).

FAVRE, JEAN ALPHONSE (1815-1890), Swiss geologist, was born at Geneva on

the 31st of March 1815. He was for many years professor of geology in

the academy at Geneva, and afterwards president of the Federal

Commission with charge of the geological map of Switzerland. One of his

earliest papers was _On the Anthracites of the Alps_ (1841), and later

he gave special attention to the geology of Savoy and of Mont Blanc, and

to the ancient glacial phenomena of those Alpine regions. His

elucidation of the geological structure demonstrated that certain

anomalous occurrences of fossils were due to repeated interfoldings of

the strata and to complicated overthrust faults. In 1867 he published

_Recherches geologiques dans les parties de la Savoie, du Piemont et de

la Suisse voisines du Mont Blanc_. He died at Geneva in June 1890.

His son ERNEST FAVRE (b. 1845) has written on the palaeontology and

geology of Galicia, Savoy and the Fribourg Alps, and of the Caucasus and

Crimea.

FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL (1809-1880), French statesman, was born at

Lyons on the 21st of March 1809, and began his career as an advocate.

From the time of the revolution of 1830 he openly declared himself a

republican, and in political trials he seized the opportunity to express

his opinions. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected deputy for

Lyons to the Constituent Assembly, where he sat among the moderate

republicans, voting against the socialists. When Louis Napoleon was

elected President of France, Favre made himself conspicuous by his

opposition, and on the 2nd of December 1851 he tried with Victor Hugo

and others to organize an armed resistance in the streets of Paris.

After the _coup d'etat_ he withdrew from politics, resumed his

profession, and distinguished himself by his defence of Felice Orsini,

the perpetrator of the attack against the life of Napoleon III. In 1858

he was elected deputy for Paris, and was one of the "Five" who gave the

signal for the republican opposition to the Empire. In 1863 he became

the head of his party, and delivered a number of addresses denouncing

the Mexican expedition and the occupation of Rome. These addresses,

eloquent, clear and incisive, won him a seat in the French Academy in

1867. With Thiers he opposed the declaration of war against Prussia in

1870, and at the news of the defeat of Napoleon III. at Sedan he

demanded from the Legislative Assembly the deposition of the emperor. In

the government of National Defence he became vice-president under

General Trochu, and minister of foreign affairs, with the onerous task

of negotiating peace with victorious Germany. He proved to be less

adroit as a diplomat than he had been as an orator, and committed

several irreparable blunders. His famous statement on the 6th of

September 1870 that he "would not yield to Germany an inch of territory

nor a single stone of the fortresses" was a piece of oratory which

Bismarck met on the 19th by his declaration to Favre that the cession of

Alsace and of Lorraine was the indispensable condition of peace. He also

made the mistake of not having an assembly elected which would have more

regular powers than the government of National Defence, and of opposing

the removal of the government from Paris during the siege. In the peace

negotiations he allowed Bismarck to get the better of him, and arranged

for the armistice of the 28th of June 1871 without knowing the situation

of the armies, and without consulting the government at Bordeaux. By a

grave oversight he neglected to inform Gambetta that the army of the

East (80,000 men) was not included in the armistice, and it was thus

obliged to retreat to neutral territory. He gave no proof whatever of

diplomatic skill in the negotiations for the treaty of Frankfort, and it

was Bismarck who imposed all the conditions. He withdrew from the

ministry, discredited, on the 2nd of August 1871, but remained in the

chamber of deputies. Elected senator on the 30th of January 1876, he

continued to support the government of the republic against the

reactionary opposition, until his death on the 20th of January 1880.

His work include many speeches and addresses, notably _La Liberte de la

Presse_ (1849), _Defense de F. Orsini_ (1866), _Discours de reception a

l'Academie francaise_ (1868), _Discours sur la liberte interieure_

(1869). In _Le Gouvernement de la Defense Nationale_, 3 vols.,

1871-1875, he explained his role in 1870-1871. After his death his

family published his speeches in 8 volumes.

See G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.);

also E. Benoit-Levy, _Jules Favre_ (1884).

FAVUS (Lat. for honeycomb), a disease of the scalp, but occurring

occasionally on any part of the skin, and even at times on mucous

membranes. The uncomplicated appearance is that of a number of

yellowish, circular, cup-shaped crusts (scutula) grouped in patches like

a piece of honeycomb, each about the size of a split pea, with a hair

projecting in the centre. These increase in size and become crusted

over, so that the characteristic lesion can only be seen round the edge

of the scab. Growth continues to take place for several months, when

scab and scutulum come away, leaving a shining bare patch destitute of

hair. The disease is essentially chronic, lasting from ten to twenty

years. It is caused by the growth of a fungus, and pathologically is the

reaction of the tissues to the growth. It was the first disease in which

a fungus was discovered--by J.L. Schonlein in 1839; the discovery was

published in a brief note of twenty lines in _Mullers Archiv_ for that

year (p. 82), the fungus having been subsequently named by R. Remak

_Achorion Schonleinii_ after its discoverer. The achorion consists of

slender, mycelial threads matted together, bearing oval, nucleated

gonidia either free or jointed. The spores would appear to enter through

the unbroken cutaneous surface, and to germinate mostly in and around

the hair-follicle and sometimes in the shaft of the hair. In 1892 two

other species of the fungus were described by P.G. Unna and Frank, the

_Favus griseus_, giving rise to greyish-yellow scutula, and the _Favus

sulphureus celerior_, causing sulphur-yellow scutula of a rapid growth.

Favus is commonest among the poorer Jews of Russia, Poland, Hungary,

Galicia and the East, and among the same class of Mahommedans in Turkey,

Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, Egypt, Algiers, &c. It is not rare in the

southern departments of France, in some parts of Italy, and in Scotland.

It is spread by contagion, usually from cats, often, however, from mice,

fowls or dogs. Lack of personal cleanliness is an almost necessary

factor in its development, but any one in delicate health, especially if

suffering from phthisis, seems especially liable to contract it. Before

treatment can be begun the scabs must be removed by means of carbolized

oil, and the head thoroughly cleansed with soft soap. The cure is then

brought about by the judicious use of parasiticides. If the nails are

affected, avulsion will probably be needed before the disease can be

reached.

FAWCETT, HENRY (1833-1884), English politician and economist, was born

at Salisbury on the 25th of August 1833. His father, William Fawcett, a

native of Kirkby Lonsdale, in Westmorland, started life as a draper's

assistant at Salisbury, opened a draper's shop on his own account in the

market-place there in 1825, married a solicitor's daughter of the city,

became a prominent local man, took a farm, developed his north-country

sporting instincts, and displayed his shrewdness by successful

speculations in Cornish mining. His second son, Henry, inherited a full

measure of his shrewdness, along with his masculine energy, his

straightforwardness, his perseverance and his fondness for fishing. The

father was active in electioneering matters, and his wife was an ardent

reformer. Henry Fawcett was educated locally and at King's College

school, London, and proceeded to Peterhouse, Cambridge, in October 1852,

migrating in 1853 to Trinity Hall. He was seventh wrangler in 1856, and

was elected to a fellowship at his college.

He had already attained some prominence as an orator at the Cambridge

Union. Before he left school he had formed the ambition of entering

parliament, and, being a poor man, he resolved to approach the House of

Commons through a career at the bar. He had already entered Lincoln's

Inn. His prospects, however, were shattered by a calamity which befell

him in September 1858, when two stray pellets from his father's

fowling-piece passed through the glasses he was wearing and blinded him

for life. Within ten minutes after his accident he had made up his mind

"to stick to his old pursuits as much as possible." He kept up all

recreations contributing to the enjoyment of life; he fished, rowed,

skated, took abundant walking and horse exercise, and learnt to play

cards with marked packs. Soon after his accident he established his

headquarters at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, entered cordially into the

social life of the college, and came to be regarded by many as a typical

Cambridge man. He gave up mathematics (for which he had little

aptitude), and specialized in political economy. He paid comparatively

little attention to economic history, but he was in the main a devout

believer in economic theory, as represented by Ricardo and his school.

The later philosophy of the subject he believed to be summed up in one

book, Mill's _Principles of Political Economy_, which he regarded as the

indispensable "vade mecum" of every politician. He was not a great

reader, and Mill probably never had a serious rival in his regard,

though he was much impressed by Buckle's _History of Civilization_ and

Darwin's _Origin of Species_ when they severally appeared. He made a

great impression in 1859 with a paper at the British Association, and he

soon became a familiar figure there and at various lecture halls in the

north as an exponent of orthodox economic theory. Of the sincerity of

his faith he gave the strongest evidence by his desire at all times to

give a practical application to his views and submit them to the test of

experiment. Among Mill's disciples he was, no doubt, far inferior as an

economic thinker to Cairnes, but as a popularizer of the system and a

demonstrator of its principles by concrete examples he had no rival. His

power of exposition was illustrated in his _Manual of Political Economy_

(1863), of which in twenty years as many as 20,000 copies were sold.

Alexander Macmillan had suggested the book, and it appeared just in time

to serve as a credential, when, in the autumn of 1863, Fawcett stood and

was elected for the Chair of Political Economy at Cambridge. The

appointment attached him permanently to Cambridge, gave him an income,

and showed that he was competent to discharge duties from which a blind

man is often considered to be debarred. He was already a member of the

Political Economy Club, and was becoming well known in political circles

as an advanced Radical. In January 1863, after a spirited though

abortive attempt in Southwark, he was only narrowly beaten for the

borough of Cambridge. Early in 1864 he was adopted as one of the Liberal

candidates at Brighton, and at the general election of 1865 he was

elected by a large majority. Shortly after his election he became

engaged to Millicent, daughter of Mr Newson Garrett of Aldeburgh,

Suffolk, and in 1867 he was married. Mrs Fawcett (b. 1847) became well

known for her social and literary work, and especially as an advocate,

in the press and on the platform, of women's suffrage and the higher

education and independent employment of women. And after her husband's

death, as well as during his lifetime, she was a prominent leader in

these movements.

Fawcett entered parliament just in time to see the close of Palmerston's

career and to hail the adoption by Gladstone of a programme of reform to

which most of the _laissez-faire_ economists gave assent. He was soon

known as a forcible speaker, and quickly overcame the imputation that he

was academic and doctrinaire, though it is true that a certain monotony

in delivery often gave a slightly too didactic tone to his discourses.

But it was as the uncompromising critic of the political shifts and

expedients of his leaders that he attracted most attention. He

constantly insisted upon the right of exercising private judgment, and

he especially devoted himself to the defence of causes which, as he

thought, were neglected both by his official leaders and by his Radical

comrades. Re-elected for Brighton to the parliament of 1868-1874, he

greatly hampered the government by his persistence in urging the

abolition of clerical fellowships and the payment of election expenses

out of the rates, and by opposing the "permissive compulsion" clauses of

the Elementary Education Bill, and the exclusion of agricultural

children from the scope of the act. His hatred of weak concessions made

him the terror of parliamentary wirepullers, and in 1871 he was not

undeservedly spoken of in _The Times_ as the most "thorough Radical now

in the House." His liberal ideals were further shocked by the methods by

which Gladstone achieved the abolition of Army Purchase. His disgust at

the supineness of the cabinet in dealing with the problems of Indian

finance and the growing evil of Commons Enclosures were added to the

catalogue of grievances which Fawcett drew up in a powerful article, "On

the Present Position of the Government," in the _Fortnightly Review_ for

November 1871. In 1867 he had opposed the expenses of a ball given to

the sultan at the India office being charged upon the Indian budget. In

1870 he similarly opposed the taxation of the Indian revenue with the

cost of presents distributed by the duke of Edinburgh in India. In 1871

he went alone into the lobby to vote against the dowry granted to the

princess Louise. The soundness of his principles was not impeached, but

his leaders looked askance at him, and from 1871 he was severely shunned

by the government whips. Their suspicion was justified when in 1873

Fawcett took a leading share in opposing Gladstone's scheme for

university education in Ireland as too denominational, and so

contributed largely to a conclusive defeat of the Gladstone ministry.

From 1869 to 1880 Fawcett concentrated his energies upon two important

subjects which had not hitherto been deemed worthy of serious

parliamentary attention. The first of these was the preservation of

commons, especially those near large towns; and the second was the

responsibility of the British government for the amendment of Indian

finance. In both cases the success which he obtained exhibited the

sterling sense and shrewdness which made up such a great part of

Fawcett's character. In the first case Fawcett's great triumph was the

enforcement of the general principle that each annual Enclosure Act must

be scrutinized by parliament and judged in the light of its conformity

to the interests of the community at large. Probably no one did more

than he did to prevent the disafforestation of Epping Forest and of the

New Forest. From 1869 he regularly attended the meetings of the Commons

Preservation Society, and he remained to the end one of its staunchest

supporters. His intervention in the matter of Indian finance, which

gained him the sobriquet of the "member for India," led to no definite

legislative achievements, but it called forth the best energies of his

mind and helped to rouse an apathetic and ignorant public to its duties

and responsibilities. Fawcett was defeated at Brighton in February 1874.

Two months later, however, he was elected for Hackney, and retained the

seat during his life. He was promptly replaced on the Indian Finance

Committee, and continued his searching inquiries with a view to promote

a stricter economy in the Indian budget, and a more effective

responsibility in the management of Indian accounts.

As an opponent of the Disraeli government (1874-1880) Fawcett came more

into line with the Liberal leaders. In foreign politics he gave a

general adhesion to Gladstone's views, but he continued to devote much

attention to Indian matters, and it was during this period that he

produced two of his best publications. His _Free Trade and Protection_

(1878) illustrated his continued loyalty to Cobdenite ideas. At the same

time his admiration for Palmerston and his repugnance to schemes of Home

Rule show that he was not by any means a peace-at-any-price man. He

thought that the Cobdenites had deserved well of their country, but he

always maintained that their foreign politics were biased to excess by

purely commercial considerations. As befitted a writer whose linguistic

gifts were of the slenderest, Fawcett's English was a sound homespun,

clear and unpretentious. In a vigorous employment of the vernacular he

approached Cobbett, whose writing he justly admired. The second

publication was his _Indian Finance_ (1880), three essays reprinted from

the _Nineteenth Century_, with an introduction and appendix. When the

Liberal party returned to power in 1880 Gladstone offered Fawcett a

place in the new government as postmaster-general (without a seat in the

cabinet). On Egyptian and other questions of foreign policy Fawcett was

often far from being in full harmony with his leaders, but his position

in the government naturally enforced reserve. He was, moreover, fully

absorbed by his new administrative functions. He gained the sympathy of

a class which he had hitherto done little to conciliate, that of public

officials, and he showed himself a most capable head of a public

department. To his readiness in adopting suggestions, and his

determination to push business through instead of allowing it to remain

permanently in the stage of preparation and circumlocution, the public

is mainly indebted for five substantial postal reforms:--(1) The parcels

post, (2) postal orders, (3) sixpenny telegrams, (4) the banking of

small savings by means of stamps, (5) increased facilities for life

insurance and annuities. In connexion with these last two improvements

Fawcett, in 1880, with the assistance of Mr James Cardin, took great

pains in drawing up a small pamphlet called _Aids to Thrift_, of which

over a million copies were circulated gratis. A very useful minor

innovation of his provided for the announcement on every pillar-box of

the time of the "next collection." In the post office, as elsewhere, he

was a strong advocate of the employment of women. Proportional

representation and the extension of franchise to women were both

political doctrines which he adopted very early in his career, and never

abandoned. Honours were showered upon him during his later years. He was

made an honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, a fellow of the Royal Society, and

was in 1883 elected lord rector of Glasgow University. But the stress of

departmental work soon began to tell upon his health. In the autumn of

1882 he had a sharp attack of diphtheria complicated by typhoid, from

which he never properly recovered. He resumed his activities, but on the

6th of November 1884 he succumbed at Cambridge to an attack of

congestion of the lungs. He was buried in Trumpington churchyard, near

Cambridge, and to his memory were erected a monument in Westminster

Abbey, a statue in Salisbury market-place, and a drinking fountain on

the Thames embankment.

In economic matters Fawcett's position can best be described as

transitional. He believed in co-operation almost as a panacea. In other

matters he clung to the old _laissez-faire_ theorists, and was a strong

anti-socialist, with serious doubts about free education, though he

supported the Factory Acts and wished their extension to agriculture.

Apparent inconsistencies were harmonized to a great extent by his

dominating anxiety to increase the well-being of the poor. One of his

noblest traits was his kindliness and genuine affection for the humble

and oppressed, country labourers and the like, for whom his sympathies

seemed always on the increase. Another was his disposition to interest

himself in and to befriend younger men. In the great affliction of his

youth Fawcett bore himself with a fortitude which it would be difficult

to parallel. The effect of his blindness was, as the event proved, the

reverse of calamitous. It brought the great aim and purpose of his life

to maturity at an earlier date than would otherwise have been possible,

and it had a mellowing influence upon his character of an exceptional

and beneficent kind. As a youth he was rough and canny, with a suspicion

of harshness. The kindness evoked by his misfortune, a strongly

reciprocated family affection, a growing capacity for making and keeping

friends--these and other causes tended to ripen all that was best, and

apparently that only, in a strong but somewhat stern character. His

acerbity passed away, and in later life was reserved exclusively for

official witnesses before parliamentary committees. Frank, helpful,

conscientious to a fault, a shrewd gossip, and a staunch friend, he was

a man whom no one could help liking. Several of his letters to his

father and mother at different periods of his career are preserved in

Leslie Stephen's admirable _Life_ (1885), and show a goodness of heart,

together with a homely simplicity of nature, which is most touching. In

appearance Fawcett was gaunt and tall, over 6 ft. 3 in. in height, large

of bone, and massive in limb. (T. Se.)

FAWCETT, JOHN (1768-1837), English actor and playwright, was born on the

29th of August 1768, the son of an actor of the same name (d. 1793). At

the age of eighteen he ran away from school and appeared at Margate as

Courtall in _The Belle's Stratagem_; afterwards he joined Tate

Wilkinson's company and turned from tragedy to low comedy parts. In 1791

he appeared at Covent Garden, and in 1794 at the Haymarket. Colman, then

manager of that house, wrote a number of parts designed to suit his

talents, and two of Fawcett's greatest successes were as Dr. Pangloss in

_The Heir at Law_ (1797) and as Dr Ollapod in _The Poor Gentleman_

(1798). He retired from the stage in 1830.

FAWKES, FRANCIS (1720-1777), English poet and divine, was born at

Warmsworth, near Doncaster, Yorkshire, where his father was rector, and

was baptized on the 4th of April 1720. After studying at Jesus College,

Cambridge, where he graduated M.A. in 1745, he took holy orders, and was

successively curate of Bramham, curate of Croydon, vicar of Orpington,

and rector of Hayes, and finally was made one of the chaplains to the

princess of Wales. His first publication is said to have been _Bramham

Park, a Poem_, in 1745; a volume of poems and translations appeared in

1761; and _Partridge Shooting_, an eclogue, in 1764. His translations of

the minor Greek poets--Anacreon, Sappho, Bion and Moschus, Musaeus,

Theocritus and Apollonius--acquired for him considerable fame, but they

are less likely to be remembered than his fine song, "Dear Tom, this

brown jug, that now foams with mild ale." Fawkes died on the 26th of

August 1777.

FAWKES, GUY (1570-1606), English "gunpowder plot" conspirator, son of

Edward Fawkes of York, a member of a good Yorkshire family and advocate

of the archbishop of York's consistory court, was baptized at St Michael

le Belfrey at York on the 16th of April 1570. His parents were

Protestants, and he was educated at the free school at York, where, it

is said, John and Christopher Wright and the Jesuit Tesimond _alias_

Greenway, afterwards implicated in the conspiracy, were his

schoolfellows. On his father's death in 1579 he inherited his property.

Soon afterwards his mother married, as her second husband, Dionis

Baynbrigge of Scotton in Yorkshire, to which place the family removed.

Fawkes's stepfather was connected with many Roman Catholic families, and

was probably a Roman Catholic himself, and Fawkes himself became a

zealous adherent of the old faith. Soon after he had come of age he

disposed of his property, and in 1593 went to Flanders and enlisted in

the Spanish army, assisting at the capture of Calais by the Spanish in

1596 and gaining some military reputation. According to Father Greenway

he was "a man of great piety, of exemplary temperance, of mild and

cheerful demeanour, an enemy of broils and disputes, a faithful friend

and remarkable for his punctual attendance upon religious observances,"

while his society was "sought by all the most distinguished in the

archduke's camp for nobility and virtue." He is described as "tall, with

brown hair and auburn beard."

In 1604 Thomas Winter, at the instance of Catesby, in whose mind the

gunpowder plot had now taken definite shape, introduced himself to

Fawkes in Flanders, and as "a confident gentleman," "best able for this

business," brought him on to England as assistant in the conspiracy.

Shortly afterwards he was initiated into the plot, after taking an oath

of secrecy, meeting Catesby, Thomas Winter, Thomas Percy and John Wright

at a house behind St Clement's (see GUNPOWDER PLOT and CATESBY, ROBERT).

Owing to the fact of his being unknown in London, to his exceptional

courage and coolness, and probably to his experience in the wars and at

sieges, the actual accomplishment of the design was entrusted to Fawkes,

and when the house adjoining the parliament house was hired in Percy's

name, he took charge of it as Percy's servant, under the name of Johnson

He acted as sentinel while the others worked at the mine in December

1604, probably directing their operations, and on the discovery of the

adjoining cellar, situated immediately beneath the House of Lords, he

arranged in it the barrels of gunpowder, which he covered over with

firewood and coals and with iron bars to increase the force of the

explosion. When all was ready in May 1605 Fawkes was despatched to

Flanders to acquaint Sir William Stanley, the betrayer of Deventer, and

the intriguer Owen with the plot. He returned in August and brought

fresh gunpowder into the cellars to replace any which might be spoilt by

damp. A slow match was prepared which would give him a quarter of an

hour in which to escape from the explosion. On Saturday, the 26th of

October, Lord Monteagle (q.v.) received the mysterious letter which

revealed the conspiracy and of which the conspirators received

information the following day. They, nevertheless, after some

hesitation, hoping that the government would despise the warning,

determined to proceed with their plans, and were encouraged in their

resolution by Fawkes, who visited the cellar on the 30th and reported

that nothing had been moved or touched. He returned accordingly to his

lonely and perilous vigil on the 4th of November. On that day the earl

of Suffolk, as lord chamberlain, visited the vault, accompanied by

Monteagle, remarked the quantity of faggots, and asked Fawkes, now

described as "a very tall and desperate fellow," who it was that rented

the cellar. Percy's name, which Fawkes gave, aroused fresh suspicions

and they retired to inform the king. At about ten o' clock Robert Keyes

brought Fawkes from Percy a watch, that he might know how the anxious

hours were passing, and very shortly afterwards he was arrested, and the

gunpowder discovered, by Thomas Knyvett, a Westminster magistrate.

Fawkes was brought into the king's bedchamber, where the ministers had

hastily assembled, at one o'clock. He maintained an attitude of defiance

and of "Roman resolution," smiled scornfully at his questioners, making

no secret of his intentions, replied to the king, who asked why he would

kill him, that the pope had excommunicated him, that "dangerous diseases

require a desperate remedy," adding fiercely to the Scottish courtiers

who surrounded him that "one of his objects was to blow back the Scots

into Scotland." His only regret was the failure of the scheme. "He

carrieth himself," writes Salisbury to Sir Charles Cornwallis,

ambassador at Madrid, "without any feare or perturbation ...; under all

this action he is noe more dismayed, nay scarce any more troubled than

if he was taken for a poor robbery upon the highway," declaring "that he

is ready to die, and rather wisheth 10,000 deaths, than willingly to

accuse his master or any other." He refused stubbornly on the following

days to give information concerning his accomplices; on the 8th he gave

a narrative of the plot, but it was not till the 9th, when the fugitive

conspirators had been taken at Holbeche, that torture could wring from

him their names. His imperfect signature to his confession of this date,

consisting only of his Christian name and written in a faint and

trembling hand, is probably a ghastly testimony to the severity of the

torture ("_per gradus ad ima_") which James had ordered to be applied if

he would not otherwise confess and the "gentler tortures" were

unavailing,--a horrible practice unrecognized by the law of England, but

usually employed and justified at this time in cases of treason to

obtain information. He was tried, together with the two Winters, John

Grant, Ambrose Rokewood, Robert Keyes and Thomas Bates, before a special

commission in Westminster Hall on the 27th of January 1606. In this case

there could be no defence and he was found guilty. He suffered death in

company with Thomas Winter, Rokewood and Keyes on the 31st, being drawn

on a hurdle from the Tower to the Parliament House, opposite which he

was executed. He made a short speech on the scaffold, expressing his

repentance, and mounted the ladder last and with assistance, being weak

from torture and illness. The usual barbarities practised upon him after

he had been cut down from the gallows were inflicted on a body from

which all life had already fled.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hist. of England_, by S.R. Gardiner, vol. i.; and the

same author's _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897); _What was the

Gunpowder Plot?_ by J. Gerard (1897); _The Gunpowder Plot_, by D.

Jardine (1857); _Calendar of State Pap. Dom. 1603-1610; State Trials_,

vol. ii.; _Archaeologia_, xii. 200; R. Winwood's _Memorials; Notes and

Queries_, vi. ser. vii. 233, viii. 136; _The Fawkeses of York in the

16th Century_, by R. Davies (1850); _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and

authorities cited there. The official account (untrustworthy in

details) is the _True and Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings

against the late most Barbarous Traitors_ (1606), reprinted by Bishop

Barlow of Lincoln as _The Gunpowder Treason_ (1679). See also

GUNPOWDER PLOT.

The lantern said to be Guy Fawkes's is in the Bodleian library at

Oxford. (P. C. Y.)

FAY, ANDRAS (1786-1864), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the 30th

of May 1786, at Kohany in the county of Zemplin, and was educated for

the law at the Protestant college of Sarospatak. His _Mesek_ (_Fables_),

the first edition of which appeared at Vienna in 1820, evinced his

powers of satire and invention, and won him the well-merited applause of

his countrymen. These fables, which, on account of their originality and

simplicity, caused Fay to be regarded as the Hungarian Aesop, were

translated into German by Petz (Raab, 1825), and partly into English by

E.D. Butler, _Hungarian Poems and Fables_ (London, 1877). Fay wrote also

numerous poems, the chief of which are to be found in the collections

_Bokreta_ (_Nosegay_) (Pest, 1807), and _Fris Bokreta_ (_Fresh Nosegay_)

(Pest, 1818). He also composed plays and romances and tales. In 1835 Fay

was elected to the Hungarian diet, and was for a time the leader of the

opposition party. It is to him that the Pest Savings Bank owes its

origin, and he was one of the chief founders of the Hungarian National

theatre. He died on the 26th of July 1864. His earlier works were

collected at Pest (1843-1844, 8 vols.). The most noteworthy of his later

works is a humorous novel entitled _Javor orvos es Bakator Ambrus

szolgaia_ (_Javor the Doctor and his servant Ambrose Bakator_), (Pest

1855, 2 vols.).

FAYAL (_Faial_), a Portuguese island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part

of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900) 22,262; area, 63 sq. m. Fayal,

i.e. "the beech wood," was so called from the former abundance of the

_Myrica faya_, which its discoverers mistook for beech trees. It is one

of the most frequented of the Azores, for it lies directly in the track

of vessels crossing the Atlantic, and has an excellent harbour at Horta

(q.v.), a town of 6574 inhabitants. Cedros (3278) and Feteira (2002) are

the other chief towns. The so-called "Fayal wine," which was largely

exported from the Azores in the 19th century, was really the produce of

Pico, a larger island lying to the east. The women of Fayal manufacture

fine lace from the agave thread. They also execute carvings in

snow-white fig-tree pith, and carry on the finer kinds of basket-making.

A small valley, called Flemengos, perpetuates the name of the Flemish

settlers, who have left their mark on the physical appearance of the

inhabitants. (See AZORES.)

FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Arkansas,

U.S.A., about 150 m. N.W. of Little Rock. Pop. (1890) 2942; (1900) 4061;

(1910) 4471. It is served by the St Louis & San Francisco railway. The

city lies about 1400 ft. above the sea, in the Ozark Mountain region.

There is much fine scenery in the neighbourhood, there are mineral

springs near by, and the place has become known as a summer resort.

Fayetteville is the seat of the University of Arkansas (incorporated

1871; opened 1872; co-educational), which includes the following

departments: at Fayetteville, a college of liberal arts, science and

engineering, a conservatory of music and art, a preparatory school, and

an agricultural college and agricultural experiment station; at Little

Rock, a medical school and a law school, and at Pine Bluff, the Branch

Normal College for negroes. In 1908 the university had 122 instructors

and a total enrolment of 1725 students. In Fayetteville there are a

National cemetery with 1236 soldiers' graves (782 "unknown") and a

Confederate cemetery with 725 graves and a memorial monument. In the

vicinity of Fayetteville there are deposits of coal; and the city is in

a fine fruit-growing region, apples being the principal crop. Much of

the surrounding country is still covered with timber. Among manufactures

are lumber, spokes, handles, waggons, lime, evaporated fruit and flour.

The first settlement on the site of what is now Fayetteville was made

between 1820 and 1825; when Washington county was created in 1828 the

place became the county-seat, and it was called Washington Court-house

until 1829, when it received its present name. The citizens of

Fayetteville were mainly Confederate sympathizers; Fayetteville was

raided by Federal cavalry on the 14th of July 1862, and was permanently

occupied by Federal troops in the autumn of the same year. Confederate

cavalry under Brigadier-General William Lewis Cabell attacked the city

on the 18th of April 1863, but were driven off. The town was burned in

August 1863, and shelled on the 3rd of November 1864, after the battle

of Pea Ridge, by a detachment of General Price's army. Fayetteville was

incorporated as a town in 1841, and in 1859 received a city charter,

which was abolished by act of the Legislature in 1867; under a general

law of 1869 the town was re-incorporated; and in 1906 it became a city

of the first class.

FAYETTEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cumberland county, North

Carolina, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Cape Fear river (at the head of

steamboat navigation), about 80 m. N.W. of Wilmington. Pop. (1890) 4222;

(1900) 4670, including 2221 negroes; (1910) 7045. It is served by the

Atlantic Coast Line railway and the short Raleigh & Southport railway,

and by steamboat lines to Wilmington. A scheme was set on foot for the

improvement by canalization of the Cape Fear river above Wilmington

under a Federal project of 1902, which provided for a channel 8 ft. deep

at low water from Wilmington to Fayetteville. Below Wilmington the

improvement of the river channel, 270 ft. wide and 16 ft. deep, was

completed in 1889, and the project of 1889 provided for an increase in

depth to 20 ft. Pine forests surround the town, and oaks and elms of

more than a century's growth shade its streets. Fayetteville has two

hospitals (each with a training school for nurses), and is the seat of a

state coloured normal school and of the Donaldson military school.

Several creeks and the upper Cape Fear river furnish considerable

water-power, and in or near Fayetteville are manufactories of cotton

goods, silk, lumber, wooden-ware, turpentine, carriages, wagons,

ploughs, edge tools and flour. In the earlier half of the 19th century

Fayetteville was a great inland market for the western part of the

state, for eastern Tennessee and for south-western Virginia. There is a

large vineyard in the vicinity; truck-gardening is an important industry

in the surrounding country; and Fayetteville is a shipping centre for

small fruits and vegetables, especially lettuce, melons and berries. The

municipality owns its water-works and its electric-lighting plant. The

vicinity was settled between 1729 and 1747 by Highlanders, the

settlement called Cross Creek lying within the present limits of

Fayetteville. In 1762, by an act of the assembly, a town was laid out

including Cross Creek, and was named Campbelltown (or "Campbeltown");

but in 1784, when Lafayette visited the town, its name was changed in

his honour to Fayetteville, though the name Cross Creek continued to be

used locally for many years. Flora McDonald, the famous Scottish

heroine, came to Campbelltown in April 1775 with her husband and

children, and here she seems to have lived during the remainder of that

year. The general assembly of the state met at Fayetteville in 1787,

1788 and 1789 (Newbern, Tarboro, Hillsboro and Fayetteville all being

rivals at this time for the honour of becoming the permanent capital);

and in 1789 the Federal constitution was here ratified for North

Carolina. In 1831 most of the town was burned. At the outbreak of the

Civil War, the state authorities seized the United States Arsenal at

Fayetteville, which contained 37,000 muskets and a complete equipment

for a battery of light artillery. In March 1865 General W.T. Sherman and

his army took possession of the town, destroyed the arsenal, and did

considerable damage to property. Fayetteville was chartered as a city in

1893. A serious flood occurred in August 1908.

FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1824-1907), English physician, was born at

Plymouth on the 6th of December 1824. After studying medicine at Charing

Cross hospital, London, he was in 1847 appointed medical officer of

H.M.S. "Victory," and soon afterwards accompanied the 3rd Lord

Mount-Edgcumbe on a tour through Europe, in the course of which he saw

fighting at Palmero and Rome. Appointed an assistant surgeon in Bengal

in 1850, he went through the Burmese campaign of 1852 and was political

assistant and Residency surgeon at Lucknow during the Mutiny. From 1859

to 1872 he was professor of surgery at the Medical College of Calcutta,

and when the prince of Wales made his tour in India he was appointed to

accompany him as physician. Returning from India, he acted as president

of the Medical Board of the India office from 1874 to 1895, and in 1896

he was created a baronet. Sir Joseph Fayrer, who became a fellow of the

Royal Society in 1877, wrote much on subjects connected with the

practice of medicine in India, and was especially known for his studies

on the poisonous snakes of that country and on the physiological effects

produced by their virus (_Thanatophidia of India_, 1872). In 1900

appeared his _Recollections of my Life_. He died at Falmouth on the 21st

of May 1907.

FAYUM, a mudiria (province) of Upper Egypt, having an area of 490 sq. m.

and a population (1907) of 441,583. The capital, Medinet-el-Fayum, is 81

m. S.S.W. of Cairo by rail. The Fayum proper is an oasis in the Libyan

Desert, its eastern border being about 15 m. west of the Nile. It is

connected with that river by the Bahr Yusuf, which reaches the oasis

through a gap in the hills separating the province from the Nile Valley.

South-west of the Fayum, and forming part of the mudiria, is the Gharak

depression. Another depression, entirely barren, the Wadi Rayan,

covering 280 sq. m., lies west of the Gharak. The whole region is below

sea-level, and save for the gap mentioned is encircled by the Libyan

hills. The lowest part of the province, the north-west end, is occupied

by the Birket el Kerun, or Lake of the Horns, whose surface level is 140

ft. below that of the sea. The lake covers about 78 sq. m.

Differing from the typical oasis, whose fertility depends on water

obtained from springs, the cultivated land in the Fayum is formed of

Nile mud brought down by the Bahr Yusuf. From this channel, 15 m. in

length from Lahun, at the entrance of the gap in the hills, to Medina,

several canals branch off and by these the province is irrigated, the

drainage water flowing into the Birket el Kerun. Over 400 sq. m. of the

Fayum is cultivated, the chief crops being cereals and cotton. The

completion of the Assuan dam by ensuring a fuller supply of water

enabled 20,000 acres of land, previously unirrigated and untaxed, to be

brought under cultivation in the three years 1903-1905. Three crops are

obtained in twenty months. The province is noted for its figs and

grapes, the figs being of exceptionally good quality. Olives are also

cultivated. Rose trees are very numerous and most of the attar of roses

of Egypt is manufactured in the province. The Fayum also possesses an

excellent breed of sheep. Lake Kerun abounds in fish, notably the

_bulti_ (Nile carp), of which considerable quantities are sent to Cairo.

Medinet el-Fayum (or Medina), the capital of the province, is a great

agricultural centre, with a population which increased from 26,000 in

1882 to 37,320 in 1907, and has several large bazaars, mosques, baths

and a much-frequented weekly market. The Bahr Yusuf runs through the

town, its banks lined with houses. There are two bridges over the

stream: one of three arches, which carries the main street and bazaar,

and one of two arches over which is built the Kait Bey mosque. Mounds

north of the town mark the site of Arsinoe, earlier Crocodilopolis,

where was worshipped the sacred crocodile kept in the Lake of Moeris.

Besides Medina there are several other towns in the province, among them

Senuris and Tomia to the north of Medina and Senaru and Abuksa on the

road to the lake, all served by railways. There are also, especially in

the neighbourhood of the lake, many ruins of ancient villages and

cities. The Fayum is the site of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) of the

ancient Egyptians--a lake of which Birket el Kerun is the shrunken

remnant.

See _The Fayum and Lake Moeris_, by Major (Sir) R.H. Brown, R.E.

(London, 1892), a valuable contribution as to the condition of the

province at that date, its connexion with Lake Moeris and its

possibilities in the future; _The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Moeris_

(London, 1904), by Sir William Willcocks--with text in English, French

and Arabic--a consideration of irrigation possibilities; _The

Topography and Geology of the Fayum Province of Egypt_, by H.J.L.

Beadnell (Cairo, 1905).

FAZOGLI, or FAZOKL, a district of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, cut by 11

deg. N. and bounded E. and S. by Abyssinia. It forms part of the

foot-hills of the Abyssinian plateau and is traversed by the Blue Nile

and its affluent the Tumat. Immediately south is the auriferous Beni

Shangul country. The chief gold-washings lie (in Abyssinian territory)

on the west slope of the hills draining to the White Nile. Here is the

steep Jebel-Dul, which appears to contain rich gold-bearing reefs, as

gold is found in all the ravines on its flanks. The auriferous region

extends into Sudanese territory, gold dust being found in all the khors

coming from Jebel Faronge on the S.E. frontier. The inhabitants of

Fazogli, who are governed, under the Sudan administration, by their own

meks or kings, are Berta and other Shangalla tribes with an admixture of

Funj blood, the country having been conquered by the Funj rulers of

Sennar at the close of the 15th century. There are also Arab

settlements. Fazogli, the residence of the principal mek, is a

straggling town built some 800 yds. from the left bank of the Blue Nile

near the Tumat confluence, 434 m. by river above Khartum and opposite

Famaka, the headquarters of the Egyptians in this region between 1839

and 1883. Above Famaka and near the Abyssinian frontier is the

prosperous town of Kiri, while Abu Shaneina on the Nile below Fazogli is

the spot where the trade route from Beni Shangul strikes the river. The

chief imports from Abyssinia are coffee, cattle, transport animals and

gold. Durra and tobacco are the principal crops. The local currency

includes rings of gold, specially made as a circulating medium.

FEA, CARLO (1753-1836), Italian archaeologist, was born at Pigna in

Piedmont on the 2nd of February 1753, and studied law in Rome. He

received the degree of doctor of laws from the university of La

Sapienza, but archaeology gradually absorbed his attention, and with the

view of obtaining better opportunities for his researches in 1798 he

took orders. For political reasons he was obliged to take refuge in

Florence; on his return in 1799 he was imprisoned by the Neapolitans, at

that time in occupation of Rome, as a Jacobin, but shortly afterwards

liberated and appointed Commissario delle Antichita and librarian to

Prince Chigi. He died at Rome on the 18th of March 1836.

Fea revised, with notes, an Italian translation of J.J. Winckelmann's

Geschichte der Kunst, and also added notes to some of G.L. Bianconi's

works. Among his original writings the principal are:--_Miscellanea

filologica, critica, e antiquaria_; _L'Integrita del Panteone

rivendicata a M. Agrippa_; _Frammenti di fasti consolari_; _Iscrizioni

di monumenti pubblichi_; and _Descrizione di Roma_.

FEARNE, CHARLES (1742-1794), English jurist, son of Charles Fearne,

judge-advocate of the admiralty, was born in London in 1742, and was

educated at Westminster school. He adopted the legal profession, but,

though well fitted by his talents to succeed as a barrister, he

neglected his profession and devoted most of his attention and his

patrimony to the prosecution of scientific experiments, with the vain

hope of achieving discoveries which would reward him for his pains and

expense. He died in 1794, leaving his widow and family in necessitous

circumstances. His _Essay on the Learning of Contingent Remainders and

Executory Devises_, the work which has made his reputation as a legal

authority, and which has passed through numerous editions, was called

forth by a decision of Lord Mansfield in the case of _Perrin v. Blake_,

and had the effect of reversing that decision.

A volume entitled _Fearne's Posthumous Works_ was published by

subscription in 1797 for the benefit of his widow.

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. A festival or feast[1] is a day or series of days

specially and publicly set apart for religious observances. Whether its

occurrence be casual or periodic, whether its ritual be grave or gay,

carnal as the orgies of Baal and Astarte, or spiritual as the worship of

a Puritan Sabbath, it is to be regarded as a festival or "holy day" as

long as it is professedly held in the name of religion.

To trace the festivals of the world through all their variations would

be to trace the entire history of human religion and human civilization.

Where no religion is, there can of course be no feasts; and without

civilization any attempt at festival-keeping must necessarily be fitful

and comparatively futile. But as religion develops, festivals develop

with it, and assume their distinctive character; and an advancing

civilization, at least in its earlier stages, will generally be found to

increase their number, enrich their ritual, fix more precisely the time

and order of their recurrence, and widen the area of their observance.

Some uncivilized tribes, such as the Juangs of Bengal, the Fuegians and

the Andamanese, have been described as having no word for God, no idea

of a future state, and consequently no religious ceremonies of any kind

whatever. But such cases, doubtful at the best, are confessedly

exceptional. In the vast majority of instances observed and recorded,

the religiosity of the savage is conspicuous. Even when incapable of

higher manifestations, it can at least take the form of reverence for

the dead; the grave-heap can become an altar on which offerings of food

for the departed may be placed, and where in acts of public and private

worship the gifts of survivors may be accompanied with praises and with

prayers. That the custom of ghost-propitiation by some sort of sacrifice

is even now very widely diffused among the lower races at least, and

that there are also many curious "survivals" of such a habit to be

traced among highly civilized modern nations, has been abundantly shown

of late by numerous collectors of folk-lore and students of sociology;

and indications of the same phenomena can be readily pointed out in the

Rig-Veda, the Zend-Avesta and the Pentateuch, as well as in the known

usages of the ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.[2] In many cases the

ceremonial observed is of the simplest; but it ever tends to become more

elaborate; and above all it calls for repetition, and repetition, too,

at regular intervals. Whenever this last demand has made itself felt, a

calendar begins to take shape. The simplest calendar is obviously the

lunar. "The Naga tribes of Assam celebrate their funeral feasts month by

month, laying food and drink on the graves of the departed." But it soon

comes to be combined with the solar. Thus the Karens, "while habitually

making oblations, have also annual feasts for the dead, at which they

ask the spirits to eat and drink." The natives of the Mexican valley in

November lay animals, edibles and flowers on the graves of their dead

relatives and friends. The common people in China have a similar custom

on the arrival of the winter solstice. The ancient Peruvians had the

custom of periodically assembling the embalmed bodies of their dead

emperors in the great square of the capital to be feasted in company

with the people. The Athenians had their annual [Greek: Nekusia] or

[Greek: Nemeseia] and the Romans their _Feralia_ and _Lemuralia_. The

Egyptians observed their three "festivals of the seasons," twelve

"festivals of the month," and twelve "festivals of the half month," in

honour of their dead. The Parsees, too, were required to render their

afringans (blessings which were to be recited over a meal to which an

angel or the spirit of a deceased person was invited) at each of the six

seasons of the year, and also on certain other days.[3]

In the majority of recorded instances, the religious feeling of the

savage has been found to express itself in other forms besides that of

reverence towards the dead. The oldest literatures of the world, at all

events, whether Aryan or Semitic, embody a religion of a much higher

type than ancestor worship. The hymns of the Rig-Veda, for example,

while not without traces of the other, yet indicate chiefly a worship of

the powers of nature, connected with the regular recurrence of the

seasons. Thus in iv. 57 we have a hymn designed for use at the

commencement of the ploughing time;[4] and in the _Aitareya-Brahmana_,

the earliest treatise on Hindu ceremonial, we already find a complete

series of sattras or sacrificial sessions exactly following the course

of the solar year. They are divided into two distinct sections, each

consisting of six months of thirty days each. The sacrifices are allowed

to commence only at certain lucky constellations and in certain months.

So, for instance, as a rule, no great sacrifice can commence during the

sun's southern progress. The great sacrifices generally take place in

spring, in the months of April and May.[5] In the Parsee Scriptures[6]

the year is divided into six seasons or gahanbars of two months each,

concluding with February, the season at which "great expiatory

sacrifices were offered for the growth of the whole creation in the last

two months of the year." We have no means of knowing precisely what were

the arrangements of the Phoenician calendar, but it is generally

admitted that the worship was solar, the principal festivals taking

place in spring and in autumn. Among the most characteristic

celebrations of the Egyptians were those which took place at the [Greek:

aphanismos] or disappearance of Osiris in October or November, at the

search for his remains, and their discovery about the winter solstice,

and at the date of his supposed entrance into the moon at the beginning

of spring. The Phrygian festivals were also arranged on the theory that

the deity was asleep during the winter and awake during the summer; in

the autumn they celebrated his retiring to rest, and in spring with

mirth and revelry they roused him from his slumbers.[7] The seasonal

character of the Teutonic Ostern, the Celtic Beltein and the

Scandinavian Yule is obvious. Nor was the habit of observing such

festivals peculiar to the Aryan or the Semitic race. The Mexicans, who

were remarkable for the perfection of their calendar, in addition to

this had an elaborate system of movable and immovable feasts distributed

over the entire year; the principal festivals, however, in honour of

their chief gods, Tezcatlipoca, Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, were held in

May, June and December. Still more plainly connected with the

revolutions of the seasons was the public worship of the ancient

Peruvians, who, besides the ordinary feast at each new moon, observed

four solar festivals annually. Of these the most important was the

Yntip-Raymi (Sun-feast), which, preceded by a three days' fast, began

with the summer solstice, and lasted for nine days. Its ceremonies have

been often described. A similar but less important festival was held at

the winter solstice. The Cusqui-Raymi, held after seedtime, as the maize

began to appear, was celebrated with sacrifices and banquets, music and

dancing. A fourth great festival, called Citua, held on the first new

moon after the autumnal equinox, was preceded by a strict fast and

special observances intended for purposes of purification and expiation,

after which the festivities lasted until the moon entered her second

quarter.

_Greek Festivals._--Perhaps the annual Attic festival in honour of

Erechtheus alluded to in the _Iliad_ (ii. 550) ought to be regarded as

an instance of ancestor-worship; but the seasonal character of the

[Greek: heorte] or new-moon feast in _Od._ xx. 156, and of the [Greek:

thalusia] or harvest-festival in _Il._ ix. 533, is generally

acknowledged. The older Homeric poems, however, give no such express

indications of a fully-developed system of festivals as are to be met

with in the so-called "Homeric" hymns, in the _Works and Days_ of

Hesiod, in the pages of Herodotus, and so abundantly in most authors of

the subsequent period; and it is manifest that the calendar of Homer or

even of Herodotus must have been a much simpler matter than that of the

Tarentines, for example, came to be, of whom we are told by Strabo that

their holidays were in excess of their working days. Each demos of

ancient Greece during the historical period had its own local festivals

([Greek: heortai demotikai]), often largely attended and splendidly

solemnized, the usages of which, though essentially alike, differed very

considerably in details. These details have in many cases been wholly

lost, and in others have reached us only in a very fragmentary state.

But with regard to the Athenian calendar, the most interesting of all,

our means of information are fortunately very copious. It included some

50 or 60 days on which all business, and especially the administration

of justice, was by order of the magistrates suspended. Among these

[Greek: hieromeniai] were included--in Gamelion (January), the _Lenaea_

or festival of vats in honour of Dionysus; in Anthesterion (February),

the _Anthesteria_, also in honour of Dionysus, lasting three days

(Pithoigia, Choes and Chytri); the _Diasia_ in honour of Zeus, and the

lesser _Eleusinia_; in Elaphebolion (March), the _Pandia_ (? of Zeus),

the _Elaphebolia_ of Artemis, and the greater _Dionysia_; in Munychion,

the _Munychia_ of Artemis as the moon goddess ([Greek: Mounuchia]) and

the _Delphinia_ of Apollo; in Thargelion (May), the _Thargelia_ of

Apollo and the _Plynteria_ and _Callynteria_ of Athena; in Scirophorion

(June), the _Diipolia_ of Zeus and the _Scirophoria_ of Athena; in

Hekatombaion, hecatombs were offered to Apollo the summer-god, and the

_Cronia_ of Cronus and the _Panathenaea_ of Athena were held; in

Metageitnion, the _Metageitnia_ of Apollo; in Boedromion, the

_Boedromia_ of Apollo the helper,[8] the _Nekusia_ or _Nemeseia_ (the

festival of the dead), and the greater _Eleusinia_; in Pyanepsion, the

_Pyanepsia_ of Apollo, the _Oschophoria_ of Dionysus (probably), the

_Chalkeia_ or _Athenaea_ of Athena, the _Thesmophoria_ of Demeter, and

the _Apaturia_; in Maimacterion, the _Maimacteria_ of Zeus; and in

Poseideon (December), the lesser _Dionysia_.

Of these some are commemorative of historical events, and one at least

may perhaps be regarded as a relic of ancestor-worship; but the great

majority are nature-festivals, associating themselves in the manner that

has already been indicated with the phenomena of the seasons, the

equinoxes and the solstices.[9] In addition to their numerous public

festivals, the Greeks held various family celebrations, also called

[Greek: heortai], in connexion with weddings, births and similar domestic

occurrences. For the great national [Greek: panegureis]--Olympian,

Pythian, Nemean and Isthmian--see the article GAMES, CLASSICAL.

_Roman Festivals._--For the purpose of holding _comitia_ and

administering justice, the days of the Roman year were regarded as being

either _dies fasti_ or _dies nefasti_--the _dies fasti_ being the days

on which it was lawful for the praetors to administer justice in the

public courts, while on the _dies nefasti_ neither courts of justice nor

meetings of _comitia_ were allowed to be held. Some days were _fasti_

during one portion and _nefasti_ during another; these were called _dies

intercisi_. For the purposes of religion a different division of the

year was made; the days were treated as _festi_ or as _profesti_,--the

former being consecrated to acts of public worship, such as sacrifices,

banquets and games, while the latter (whether _fasti_ or _nefasti_) were

not specially claimed for religious purposes. The _dies festi_ or

_feriae publicae_[10] were either _stativae_, _conceptivae_ or

_imperativae_. The _stativae_ were such as were observed regularly, each

on a definite day; the _conceptivae_ were observed annually on days

fixed by the authorities for the time being; the _imperativae_ were

publicly appointed as occasion called for them. In the Augustan age the

_feriae stativae_ were very numerous, as may be seen from what we

possess of the _Fasti_ of Ovid. The number was somewhat fluctuating.

Festivals frequently fell into desuetude or were revived, were increased

or diminished, were shortened or prolonged at the will of the emperor,

or under the caprice of the popular taste. Thus Augustus restored the

Compitalia and Lupercalia; while Marcus Antoninus in his turn found it

expedient to diminish the number of holidays.

The following is an enumeration of the stated festivals as given by Ovid

and contemporary writers. The first day of January was observed somewhat

as is the modern New Year's day: clients sent presents to their patrons,

slaves to their masters, friends and relatives to one another. On the

9th the _Agonalia_ were held, apparently in honour of Janus. On the 11th

the _Carmentalia_ were kept as a half-holiday, but principally by women;

so also on the 15th. On the 13th of February were the _Faunalia_, on the

15th the _Lupercalia_, on the 17th the _Quirinalia_, on the 18th the

_Feralia_, on the 23rd (at one time the last day of the Roman year) the

_Terminalia_, on the 24th the _Regifugium_ or _Fugalia_, and on the 27th

the _Equiria_ (of Mars). On the 1st of March were the _Matronalia_, on

the 14th a repetition of the _Equiria_, on the 15th the festival of Anna

Perenna, on the 17th the _Liberalia_ or _Agonalia_, and from the 19th to

the 23rd the _Quinquatria_ (of Minerva). On the 4th of April were the

_Megalesia_ (of Cybele), on the 12th the _Cerealia_, on the 21st the

_Palilia_, on the 23rd the _Vinalia_, on the 25th the _Robigalia_, and

on the 28th the _Floralia_. The 1st of May was the festival of the

_Lares Praestites_; on the 9th, 11th and 13th the _Lemuria_ were

celebrated; on the 12th the _Ludi Martiales_, and on the 15th those of

Mercury. June 5 was sacred to _Semo Sancus_; the _Vestalia_ occurred on

the 9th, the _Matralia_ on the 11th, and the _Quinquatrus Minusculae_

on the 13th. The _Ludi Apollinares_ were on the 5th, and the

_Neptunalia_ on the 23rd of July. On the 13th of August were the

_Nemoralia_, in honour of Diana; on the 18th the _Consualia_, on the

19th the _Vinalia Rustica_, and on the 23rd the _Vulcanalia_. The _Ludi

Magni_, in honour of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva, began on September 4.

The _Meditrinalia_ (new wine) were on the 11th of October, the

_Faunalia_ on the 13th, and the _Equiria_ on the 15th. The _Epulum

Jovis_ was on 13th November. The December festivals were--on the 5th

_Faunalia_, and towards the close _Opalia_, _Saturnalia_, _Larentalia_.

The calendar as it stood at the Augustan age was known to contain many

comparatively recent accessions, brought in under the influence of two

"closely allied powers, the foreign priest and the foreign cook"

(Mommsen). The _Megalesia_, for example, had been introduced 204 B.C.

The _Ludi Apollinares_ could not be traced farther back than 208 B.C.

The _Floralia_ and _Cerealia_ had not come in much earlier. Among the

oldest feasts were undoubtedly the _Lupercalia_, in honour of Lupercus,

the god of fertility; the _Equiria_, in honour of Mars; the _Palilia_;

the great September festival; and the _Saturnalia_.

Among the feriae conceptivae were the very ancient _feriae Latinae_,

held in honour of Jupiter on the Alban Mount, and attended by all the

higher magistrates and the whole body of the senate. The time of their

celebration greatly depended on the state of affairs at Rome, as the

consuls were not allowed to take the field until they had held the

_Latinae_, which were regarded as days of a sacred truce. The _feriae

sementivae_ were held in the spring, and the _Ambarvalia_ in autumn,

both in honour of Ceres. The _Paganalia_ of each _pagus_, and the

_Compitalia_ of each _vicus_ were also _conceptivae_. Of _feriae

imperativae_,--that is to say, festivals appointed by the senate, or

magistrates, or higher priests to commemorate some great event or avert

some threatened disaster,--the best known is the _Novendiale_, which

used to be celebrated as often as stones fell from heaven (Livy xxi. 62,

xxv. 7, &c.). In addition to all those already mentioned, there

occasionally occurred _ludi votivi_, which were celebrated in fulfilment

of a vow; _ludi funebres_, sometimes given by private persons; and _ludi

seculares_, to celebrate certain periods marked off in the Etrusco-Roman

religion.

_Feasts of the Jews_.--By Old Testament writers a festival or feast is

generally called either [Hebrew: hag] (compare the Arabic Hadj), from

[Hebrew: hagag] to rejoice, or [Hebrew: moed], from [Hebrew: yaad], to

appoint. The words [Hebrew: shabat] and [Hebrew: mikra kodesh] are also

occasionally used. In the Talmud the three principal feasts are called

[Hebrew: regalim], after Exod. xxiii. 14. Of the Jewish feasts which are

usually traced to a pre-Mosaic origin the most important and

characteristic was the weekly Sabbath, but special importance was also

attached from a very early date to the lunar periods. It is probable

that other festivals also, of a seasonal character, were observed (see

Exod. v. 1). In common with most others, the Mosaic system of annual

feasts groups itself readily around the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.

In Lev. xxiii., where the list is most fully given, they seem to be

arranged with a conscious reference to the sacred number seven (compare

Numb. xxviii.). Those belonging to the vernal equinox are three in

number; a preparatory day, that of the Passover, leads up to the

principal festival, that of unleavened bread, which again is followed by

an after-feast, that of Pentecost (see PASSOVER, PENTECOST). Those of

the autumnal equinox are four; a preparatory day on the new moon of the

seventh month (the Feast of Trumpets) is followed by a great day of

rest, the day of Atonement (which, however, was hardly a _festival_ in

the stricter sense of the word), by the Feast of Tabernacles, and by a

great concluding day (Lev. xxiii. 36; John vii. 37). If the feast of the

Passover be excepted, it will be seen that all these celebrations or

commemorations associate themselves more readily with natural than with

historical events.[11] There was also a considerable number of

post-Mosaic festivals, of which the principal were that of the

Dedication (described in 1 Macc. iv. 52-59; comp. John x. 22) and that

of Purim, the origin of which is given in the book of Esther (ix. 20

seq.). It has probably no connexion with the Persian festival Furdigan

(see ESTHER).[12]

_Earlier Christian Festivals._--While making it abundantly manifest that

Christ and his disciples observed the appointed Jewish feasts, the New

Testament nowhere records the formal institution of any distinctively

Christian festival. But we have unambiguous evidence of the actual

observance, from a very early period, of the first day of the week as a

holy day (John xx. 19, 26; 1 Cor. xvi. 2; Acts xx. 7; Rev. i. 10). Pliny

in his letter to Trajan describes the Christians of Bithynia as meeting

for religious purposes on a set day; that this day was Sunday is put

beyond all reasonable doubt by such a passage as that in the _Apology_

of Justin Martyr, where he says that "on Sunday ([Greek: te tou heliou

legomene hemera]) all the Christians living either in the city or the

country met together." The Jewish element, in some churches at least,

and especially in the East, was strong enough to secure that, along with

the _dies dominica_, the seventh day should continue to be kept holy.

Thus in the _Apostolic Constitutions_ (ii. 59) we find the Saturday

specially mentioned along with the Sunday as a day for the assembling of

the church; in v. 15 it is ordained that there shall be no fasting on

Saturday, while in viii. 33 it is added that both on Saturday and Sunday

slaves are to have rest from their labours. The 16th canon of the

council of Laodicea almost certainly means that solemn public service

was to be held on Saturday as well as on Sunday. In other quarters,

however, the tendency to regard both days as equally sacred met with

considerable resistance. The 36th canon of the council of Illiberis, for

example, deciding that Saturday should be observed as a fast-day, was

doubtless intended to enforce the distinction between Saturday and

Sunday. At Milan in Ambrose's time Saturday was observed as a festival;

but Pope Innocent is found writing to the bishop of Eugubium to urge

that it should be kept as a fast. Ultimately the Christian church came

to recognize but one weekly festival.

The numerous yearly festivals of the later Christian church, when

historically investigated, can be traced to very small beginnings.

Indeed, while it appears to be tolerably certain that Jewish Christians

for the most part retained all the festivals which had been instituted

under the old dispensation, it is not at all probable that either they

or their Gentile brethren recognized any yearly feasts as of

distinctively Christian origin or obligation. It cannot be doubted,

however, that gradually, in the course of the 2nd century, the universal

church came to observe the anniversaries of the death and resurrection

of Christ--the [Greek: pascha staurosimon] and the [Greek: pascha

hanastasimon], as they were respectively called (see EASTER and GOOD

FRIDAY). Not long afterwards Whitsunday also came to be fixed in the

usage of Christendom as a great annual festival. Even Origen (in the 8th

book _Against Celsus_) enumerates as Christian festivals the Sunday, the

[Greek: paraskeue], the Passover with the feast of the Resurrection, and

Pentecost; under which latter term, however, he includes the whole

period between Easter and Whitsuntide. About Cyprian's time we find

individual Christians commemorating their departed friends, and whole

churches commemorating their martyrs; in particular, there are traces of

a local and partial observance of the feast of the Innocents. Christmas

day and Epiphany were among the later introductions, the feast of the

Epiphany being somewhat the earlier of the two. Both are alluded to

indeed by Clemens Alexandrinus (i. 340), but only in a way which

indicates that even in his time the precise date of Christ's birth was

unknown, that its anniversary was not usually observed, and that the day

of his baptism was kept as a festival only by the followers of Basilides

(see EPIPHANY).

When we come down to the 4th century we find that, among the 50 days

between Easter and Pentecost, Ascension Day has come into new

prominence. Augustine, for example, enumerates as anniversaries

celebrated by the whole church those of Christ's passion, resurrection

and ascension, along with that of the outpouring of the Holy Ghost,

while he is silent with regard to Christmas and Epiphany. The general

tendency of this and the following centuries was largely to increase the

festivals of the Church, and by legislation to make them more fixed and

uniform. Many passages, indeed, could be quoted from Chrysostom, Jerome

and Augustine to show that these fathers had not by any means forgotten

that comparative freedom with regard to outward observances was one of

the distinctive excellences of Christianity as contrasted with Judaism

and the various heathen systems (compare Socrates, _H.E._ v. 22). But

there were many special circumstances which seemed to the leaders of the

Church at that time to necessitate the permission and even legislative

sanction of a large number of new feasts. The innovations of heretics

sometimes seemed to call for rectification by the institution of more

orthodox observances; in other instances the propensity of rude and

uneducated converts from paganism to cling to the festal rites of their

forefathers proved to be invincible, so that it was seen to be necessary

to seek to adapt the old usages to the new worship rather than to

abolish them altogether;[13] moreover, although the empire had become

Christian, it was manifestly expedient that the old holidays should be

recognized as much as possible in the new arrangements of the calendar.

Constantine soon after his conversion enacted that on the _dies

dominica_ there should be no suits or trials in law; Theodosius the

Great added a prohibition of all public shows on that day, and

Theodosius the younger extended the prohibition to Epiphany and the

anniversaries of martyrdoms, which at that time included the festivals

of St Stephen, and of St Peter and St Paul, as also that of the

Maccabees. In the 21st canon of the council of Agde (506), besides

Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, Ascension and Pentecost, we find the

Nativity of John the Baptist already mentioned as one of the more

important festivals on which attendance at church was regarded as

obligatory. To these were added, in the centuries immediately following,

the feasts of the Annunciation, the Purification, and the Assumption of

the Virgin; as well as those of the Circumcision, of St Michael and of

All Saints.

Festivals were in practice distinguished from ordinary days in the

following ways: all public and judicial business was suspended,[14] as

well as every kind of game or amusement which might interfere with

devotion; the churches were specially decorated; Christians were

expected to attend public worship, attired in their best dress; love

feasts were celebrated, and the rich were accustomed to show special

kindness to the poor; fasting was strictly forbidden, and public prayers

were said in a standing posture.

_Later Practice._--In the present calendar of the Roman Catholic Church

the number of feast days is very large. Each is celebrated by an

appropriate office, which, according to its character, is either duplex,

semi-duplex or simplex. A duplex again may be either of the first class

or of the second, or a major or a minor. The distinctions of ritual for

each of these are given with great minuteness in the general rubrics of

the breviary; they turn chiefly on the number of Psalms to be sung and

of lessons to be read, on the manner in which the antiphons are to be

given and on similar details. The duplicia of the first class are the

Nativity, the Epiphany, Easter with the three preceding and two

following days, the Ascension, Whitsunday and the two following days,

Corpus Christi, the Nativity of John Baptist, Saints Peter and Paul, the

Assumption of the Virgin, All Saints, and, for each church, the feast

proper to its patron or title and the feast of its dedication. The

duplicia of the second class are the Circumcision, the feast of the Holy

Name of Jesus, of the Holy Trinity, and of the Most Precious Blood of

Christ, the feasts of the Purification, Annunciation, Visitation,

Nativity and Conception of the Virgin, the Natalitia of the Twelve

Apostles, the feasts of the Evangelists, of St Stephen, of the Holy

Innocents, of St Joseph and of the Patrocinium of Joseph, of St

Lawrence, of the Invention of the Cross and of the Dedication of St

Michael. The Dominicae majores of the first class are the first Sunday

in Advent, the first in Lent, Passion Sunday, Palm Sunday, Easter

Sunday, Dominica in Albis, Whitsunday and Trinity Sunday; the Dominicae

majores of the second class are the second, third and fourth in Advent,

Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays, and the second,

third and fourth Sundays in Lent.

In the canons and decrees of the council of Trent repeated allusions are

made to the feast days, and their fitness, when properly observed, to

promote piety. Those entrusted with the cure of souls are urged to see

that the feasts of the Church be devoutly and religiously observed, the

faithful are enjoined to attend public worship on Sundays and on the

greater festivals at least, and parish priests are bidden to expound to

the people on such days some of the things which have been read in the

office for the day. Since the council of Trent the practice of the

Church with respect to the prohibition of servile work on holidays has

varied considerably in different Catholic countries, and even in the

same country at different times. Thus in 1577, in the diocese of Lyons,

there were almost forty annual festivals of a compulsory character. By

the concordat of 1802 the number of such festivals was for France

reduced to four, namely, Christmas day, Ascension day, the Assumption of

the Virgin, and All Saints day.

The calendar of the Greek Church is even fuller than that of the Latin,

especially as regards the [Greek: heortai ton hagion]. Thus on the last

Sunday in Advent the feast of All Saints of the Old Covenant is

celebrated; while Adam and Eve, Job, Elijah, Isaiah, &c., have separate

days. The distinctions of ritual are analogous to those in the Western

Church. In the Coptic Church there are seven great festivals, Christmas,

Epiphany, the Annunciation, Palm Sunday, Easter Sunday, Ascension and

Whitsunday, on all of which the Copts "wear new clothes (or the best

they have), feast and give alms" (Lane). They also observe, as minor

festivals, Maundy Thursday, Holy Saturday, the feast of the Apostles

(11th July), and that of the Discovery of the Cross.

In common with most of the churches of the Reformation, the Church of

England retained a certain number of feasts besides all Sundays in the

year. They are, besides Monday and Tuesday both in Easter-week and

Whitsun-week, as follows: the Circumcision, the Epiphany, the Conversion

of St Paul, the Purification of the Blessed Virgin, St Matthias the

Apostle, the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin, St Mark the Evangelist,

St Philip and St James (Apostles), the Ascension, St Barnabas, the

Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter the Apostle, St James the Apostle,

St Bartholomew, St Matthew, St Michael and all Angels, St Luke the

Evangelist, St Simon and St Jude, All Saints, St Andrew, St Thomas,

Christmas, St Stephen, St John the Evangelist, the Holy Innocents. The

13th canon enjoins that all manner of persons within the Church of

England shall from henceforth celebrate and keep the Lord's day,

commonly called Sunday, and other holy days, according to God's holy

will and pleasure, and the orders of the Church of England prescribed in

that behalf, that is, in hearing the Word of God read and taught, in

private and public prayers, in acknowledging their offences to God and

amendment of the same, in reconciling themselves charitably to their

neighbours where displeasure hath been, in oftentimes receiving the

communion of the body and blood of Christ, in visiting of the poor and

sick, using all godly and sober conversation. (Compare Hooker, _E.P._ v.

70.) In the _Directory for the Public Worship of God_ which was drawn up

by the Westminster Assembly, and accepted by the Church of Scotland in

1645, there is an appendix which declares that there is no day commanded

in Scripture to be kept holy under the gospel but the Lord's day, which

is the Christian Sabbath; festival days, vulgarly called holy-days,

having no warrant in the Word of God, are not to be continued;

nevertheless it is lawful and necessary, upon special emergent

occasions, to separate a day or days for public fasting or thanksgiving,

as the several eminent and extraordinary dispensations of God's

providence shall administer cause and opportunity to his people.

Several attempts have been made at various times in western Europe to

reorganize the festival system on some other scheme than the Christian.

Thus at the time of the French Revolution, during the period of

Robespierre's ascendancy, it was proposed to substitute a tenth day

(Decadi) for the weekly rest, and to introduce the following new

festivals: that of the Supreme Being and of Nature, of the Human Race,

of the French people, of the Benefactors of Mankind, of Freedom and

Equality, of the Martyrs of Freedom, of the Republic, of the Freedom of

the World, of Patriotism, of Hatred of Tyrants and Traitors, of Truth,

of Justice, of Modesty, of Fame and Immortality, of Friendship, of

Temperance, of Heroism, of Fidelity, of Unselfishness, of Stoicism, of

Love, of Conjugal Fidelity, of Filial Affection, of Childhood, of Youth,

of Manhood, of Old Age, of Misfortune, of Agriculture, of Industry, of

our Forefathers, of Posterity and Felicity. The proposal, however, was

never fully carried out, and soon fell into oblivion.

_Mahommedan Festivals._--These are chiefly two--the 'Eed es-Sagheer (or

minor festival) and the 'Eed el-Kebeer (or great festival), sometimes

called 'Eed el-Kurban. The former, which lasts for three days,

immediately follows the month Ramadan, and is generally the more joyful

of the two; the latter begins on the tenth of Zu-l-Heggeh (the last

month of the Mahommedan year), and lasts for three or four days. Besides

these festivals they usually keep holy the first ten days of Moharram

(the first month of the year), especially the tenth day, called Yom

Ashoora; the birthday of the prophet, on the twelfth day of the third

month; the birthday of El-Hoseyn, in the fourth month; the anniversary

of the prophet's miraculous ascension into heaven, in the seventh month;

and one or two other anniversaries. Friday, called the day of El-Gumah

(the assembly), is a day of public worship; but it is not usual to

abstain from public business on that day except during the time of

prayer.

_Hindu and Buddhist Festivals._--In modern India the leading popular

festivals are the Holi, which is held in March or April and lasts for

five days, and the Dasahara, which occurs in October. Although in its

origin Buddhism was a deliberate reaction against all ceremonial, it

does not now refuse to observe festivals. By Buddhists in China, for

example, three days in the year are especially observed in honour of the

Buddha,--the eighth day of the second month, when he left his home; the

eighth day of the fourth month, the anniversary of his birthday; and the

eighth of the twelfth, when he attained to perfection and entered

Nirvana. In Siam the eighth and fifteenth days of every month are

considered holy, and are observed as days for rest and worship. At Trut,

the festival of the close of the year, visiting and play-going are

universal. The new year (January) is celebrated for three days; in

February is another holiday; in April is a sort of Lent, ushering in the

rainy season; on the last day of June presents are made of cakes of the

new rice; in August is the festival of the angel of the river, "whose

forgiveness is then asked for every act by which the waters of the

Meinam have been rendered impure." See Bowring's _Siam_ and Carne's

_Travels in Indo-China and the Chinese Empire_. Copious details of the

elaborate festival-system of the Chinese may be found in Doolittle's

_Social Life of the Chinese_.

LITERATURE.--For Christian feasts see K.A. H. Kellner, _Heortologie_

(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906); Hippolyte Delehaye, _Les Legendes

hagiographiques_ (Brussels, 1905); J. Rendel Harris, _The Cult of the

Heavenly Twins_ (Cambridge, 1906); de Rossi-Duchesne, _Martyrologium

Hieronymianum_.