[1] See B Stechele, in _Munchener geographische Studien_, xx.(1906),
and _Geographical Journal_ (December 1907).
FALLACY (Lat. _fall-ax_, apt to mislead), the term given generally to
any mistaken statement used in argument; in Logic, technically, an
argument which violates the laws of correct demonstration. An argument
may be fallacious in _matter_ (i.e. misstatement of facts), in _wording_
(i.e. wrong use of words), or in the _process of inference_. Fallacies
have, therefore, been classified as: I. Material, II. Verbal, III.
Logical Of Formal; II. and III. are often included under the general
description _Logical_, and in scholastic phraseology, following
Aristotle, are called fallacies _in dictione_ or _in voce_, as opposed
to material fallacies _in re_ or _extra dictionem_.
I. _Material._--The classification widely adopted by modern logicians
and based on that of Aristotle, _Organon_ (_Sophistici elenchi_), is as
follows:--(1) _Fallacy of Accident_, i.e. arguing erroneously from a
general rule to a particular case, without proper regard to particular
conditions which vitiate the application of the general rule; e.g. if
manhood suffrage be the law, arguing that a criminal or a lunatic must,
therefore, have a vote; (2) _Converse Fallacy of Accident_, i.e. arguing
from a special case to a general rule; (3) _Irrelevant Conclusion_, or
_Ignoratio Elenchi_, wherein, instead of proving the fact in dispute,
the arguer seeks to gain his point by diverting attention to some
extraneous fact (as in the legal story of "No case. Abuse the
plaintiff's attorney"). Under this head come the so-called argumentum
(a) _ad hominem_, (b) _ad populum_, (c) _ad baculum_, (d) _ad
verecundiam_, common in platform oratory, in which the speaker obscures
the real issue by appealing to his audience on the grounds of (a) purely
personal considerations, (b) popular sentiment, (c) fear, (d)
conventional propriety. This fallacy has been illustrated by ethical or
theological arguments wherein the fear of punishment is subtly
substituted for abstract right as the sanction of moral obligation. (4)
_Petitio principii_ (begging the question) or _Circulus in probando_
(arguing in a circle), which consists in demonstrating a conclusion by
means of premises which presuppose that conclusion. Jeremy Bentham
points out that this fallacy may lurk in a single word, especially in an
epithet, e.g. if a measure were condemned simply on the ground that it
is alleged to be "un-English"; (5) _Fallacy of the Consequent_, really a
species of (3), wherein a conclusion is drawn from premises which do not
really support it; (6) _Fallacy of False Cause_, or Non Sequitur ("it
does not follow"), wherein one thing is incorrectly assumed as the cause
of another, as when the ancients attributed a public calamity to a
meteorological phenomenon; (7) _Fallacy of Many Questions_ (_Plurium
Interrogationum_), wherein several questions are improperly grouped in
the form of one, and a direct categorical answer is demanded, e.g. if a
prosecuting counsel asked the prisoner "What time was it when you met
this man?" with the intention of eliciting the tacit admission that such
a meeting had taken place.
II. _Verbal Fallacies_ are those in which a false conclusion is obtained
by improper or ambiguous use of words. They are generally classified as
follows. (1) _Equivocation_ consists in employing the same word in two
or more senses, e.g. in a syllogism, the middle term being used in one
sense in the major and another in the minor premise, so that in fact
there are _four_ not _three_ terms ("All fair things are honourable;
This woman is fair; therefore this woman is honourable," the second
"fair" being in reference to complexion). (2) _Amphibology_ is the
result of ambiguity of grammatical structure, e.g. of the position of
the adverb "only" in careless writers ("He only said that," in which
sentence, as experience shows, the adverb has been intended to qualify
any one of the other three words). (3) _Composition_, a species of (1),
which results from the confused use of collective terms ("The angles of
a triangle are less than two right angles" might refer to the angles
separately or added together). (4) _Division_, the converse of the
preceding, which consists in employing the middle term distributively in
the minor and collectively in the major premise. (5) _Accent_, which
occurs only in speaking and consists of emphasizing the wrong word in a
sentence ("He is a fairly good pianist," according to the emphasis on
the words, may imply praise of a beginner's progress, or an expert's
depreciation of a popular hero, or it may imply that the person in
question is a deplorable violinist). (6) _Figure of Speech_, the
confusion between the metaphorical and ordinary uses of a word or
phrase.
III. The purely _Logical_ or Formal _fallacies_ consist in the violation
of the formal rules of the Syllogism (q.v.). They are (a) fallacy of
Four Terms (_Quaternio terminorum_); (b) of Undistributed Middle; (c) of
Illicit process of the major or the minor term; (d) of Negative
Premises.
Of other classifications of Fallacies in general the most famous are
those of Francis Bacon and J.S. Mill. Bacon (_Novum organum_, Aph. i.
33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four _Idola_ (Idols, i.e. False
Appearances), which summarize the various kinds of mistakes to which the
human intellect is prone (see BACON, FRANCIS). With these should be
compared the _Offendicula_ of Roger Bacon, contained in the _Opus
maius_, pt. i. (see BACON, ROGER). J.S. Mill discussed the subject in
book v. of his _Logic_, and Jeremy Bentham's _Book of Fallacies_ (1824)
contains valuable remarks.
See Rd. Whateley's _Logic_, bk. v.; A. de Morgan, _Formal Logic_
(1847); A. Sidgwick, _Fallacies_ (1883) and other text-books. See also
article LOGIC, and for fallacies of Induction, see INDUCTION.
FALLIERES, CLEMENT ARMAND (1841- ), president of the French republic,
was born at Mezin in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, where his father
was clerk of the peace. He studied law and became an advocate at Nerac,
beginning his public career there as municipal councillor (1868),
afterwards mayor (1871), and as councillor-general of the department of
Lot-et-Garonne (1871). Being an ardent Republican, he lost this position
in May 1873 upon the fall of Thiers, but in February 1876 was elected
deputy for Nerac. In the chamber he sat with the Republican Left, signed
the protestation of the 18th of May 1877, and was re-elected in October
by his constituency. In 1880 he became under-secretary of state in the
department of the interior in the Jules Ferry ministry (May 1880 to
November 1881). From the 7th of August 1882 to the 20th of February 1883
he was minister of the interior, and for a month (from the 29th of
January 1883) was premier. His ministry had to face the question of the
expulsion of the pretenders to the throne of France, owing to the
proclamation by Prince Jerome Napoleon (January 1883), and M. Fallieres,
who was ill at the time, was not able to face the storm of opposition,
and resigned when the senate rejected his project. In the following
November, however, he was chosen as minister of public instruction by
Jules Ferry, and carried out various reforms in the school system. He
resigned with the ministry in March 1885. Again becoming minister of the
interior in the Rouvier cabinet in May 1887, he exchanged his portfolio
in December for that of justice. He returned to the ministry of the
interior in February 1889, and finally took the department of justice
from March 1890 to February 1892. In June 1890 his department
(Lot-et-Garonne) elected him to the senate by 417 votes to 23. There M.
Fallieres remained somewhat apart from party struggles, although
maintaining his influence among the Republicans. In March 1899 he was
elected president of the senate, and retained that position until
January 1906, when he was chosen by a union of the groups of the Left in
both chambers as candidate for the presidency of the republic. He was
elected on the first ballot by 449 votes against 371 for his opponent,
Paul Doumer.
FALL-LINE, in American geology, a line marking the junction between the
hard rocks of the Appalachian Mountains and the softer deposits of the
coastal plain. The pre-Cambrian and metamorphic rocks of the mountain
mass form a continuous ledge parallel to the east coast, where they are
subject to denudation and form a series of "falls" and rapids in the
river courses all along this line. The relief of the land below the
falls is very slight, and this low country rarely rises to a height of
200 ft., so that the rivers are navigable up to the falls, while the
falls themselves are a valuable source of power. A line of cities may be
traced upon the map whose position will thus be readily understood in
relation to the economic importance of the fall-line. They are Trenton
on the Delaware, Philadelphia on the Schuylkill, Georgetown on the
Potomac, Richmond on the James, and Augusta on the Savannah. It will be
readily understood that the softer and more recent rocks of the coastal
plain have been more easily washed away, while the harder rocks of the
mountains, owing to differential denudation, are left standing high
above them, and that the trend of the edge of this great lenticular
mass of ancient rock is roughly parallel to that of the Appalachian
system.
FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP (1790-1861), German traveller and historical
investigator, best known for his opinions in regard to the ethnology of
the modern Greeks, was born, the son of a poor peasant, at Tschotsch,
near Brixen in Tirol, on the 10th of December 1790. In 1809 he absconded
from the cathedral choir school at Brixen and made his way to Salzburg,
where he supported himself by private teaching while he studied
theology, the Semitic languages, and history. After a year's study he
sought to assure to himself the peace and quiet necessary for a
student's life by entering the abbey of Kremsmunster, but difficulties
put in his way by the Bavarian officials prevented the accomplishment of
this intention. At the university of Landshut, to which he removed in
1812, he first applied himself to jurisprudence, but soon devoted his
attention exclusively to history and philology. His immediate
necessities were provided for by a rich patron. During the Napoleonic
wars he joined the Bavarian infantry as a subaltern in 1813, fought at
Hanau (30th October 1813), and served throughout the campaign in France.
He remained in the army of occupation on the banks of the Rhine until
Waterloo, when he spent six months at Orleans as adjutant to General von
Spreti. Two years of garrison life at Lindau on Lake Constance after the
peace were spent in the study of modern Greek, Persian and Turkish.
Resigning his commission in 1818, he was successively engaged as teacher
in the gymnasium at Augsburg and in the progymnasium and lyceum at
Landshut. In 1827 he won the gold medal offered by the university of
Copenhagen with his _Geschichte des Kaisertums von Trapezunt_, based on
patient investigation of Greek and oriental MSS. at Venice and Vienna.
The strictures on priestcraft contained in the preface to this book gave
offence to the authorities, and his position was not improved by the
liberal views expressed in his _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea wahrend
des Mittelalters_ (Stuttgart, 1830-1836, 2 pts.). The three years from
1831 to 1834 he spent in travel with the Russian count Ostermann
Tolstoy, visiting Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Rhodes,
Constantinople, Greece and Naples. On his return he was elected in 1835
a member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences, but he soon after
left the country again on account of political troubles, and spent the
greater part of the next four years in travel, spending the winter of
1839-1840 with Count Tolstoy at Geneva. Constantinople, Trebizond,
Athos, Macedonia, Thessaly and Greece were visited by him during
1840-1841; and after some years' residence in Munich he returned in 1847
to the East, and travelled in Palestine, Syria and Asia Minor. The
authorities continued to regard him with suspicion, and university
students were forbidden to attend the lectures he delivered at Munich.
He entered, however, into friendly relations with the crown prince
Maximilian, but this intimacy was destroyed by the events following on
1848. At that period he was appointed professor of history in the Munich
University, and made a member of the national congress at
Frankfort-on-Main. He there joined the left or opposition party, and in
the following year he accompanied the rump-parliament to Stuttgart, a
course of action which led to his expulsion from his professorate.
During the winter of 1849-1850 he was an exile in Switzerland, but the
amnesty of April 1850 enabled him to return to Munich. He died on the
26th of April 1861.
His contributions to the medieval history of Greece are of great value,
and though his theory that the Greeks of the present day are of Albanian
and Slav descent, with hardly a drop of true Greek blood in their veins,
has not been accepted in its entirety by other investigators, it has
served to modify the opinions of even his greatest opponents. A
criticism of his views will be found in Hopf's _Geschichte
Griechenlands_ (reprinted from Ersch and Gruber's _Encykl._) and in
Finlay's _History of Greece in the Middle Ages_. Another theory which he
propounded and defended with great vigour was that the capture of
Constantinople by Russia was inevitable, and would lead to the
absorption by the Russian empire of the whole of the Balkan and Grecian
peninsula; and that this extended empire would constitute a standing
menace to the western Germanic nations. These views he expressed in a
series of brilliant articles in German journals. His most important
contribution to learning remains his history of the empire of Trebizond.
Prior to his discovery of the chronicle of Michael Panaretos, covering
the dominion of Alexus Comnenus and his successors from 1204 to 1426,
the history of this medieval empire was practically unknown.
His works are--_Geschichte des Kaiserthums Trapezunt_ (Munich,
1827-1848); _Geschichte der Halbinsel Morea im Mittelalter_
(Stuttgart, 1830-1836); _Uber die Entstehung der Neugriechen_
(Stuttgart, 1835); "Originalfragmente, Chroniken, u.s.w., zur
Geschichte des K. Trapezunts" (Munich, 1843), in _Abhandl. der hist.
Classe der K. Bayerisch. Akad. v. Wiss.; Fragmente aus dem Orient_
(Stuttgart, 1845); _Denkschrift uber Golgotha und das heilige Grab_
(Munich, 1852), and _Das Todte Meer_ (1853)--both of which had
appeared in the _Abhandlungen_ of the Academy; _Das albanesische
Element in Griechenland_, iii. parts, in the _Abhandl._ for 1860-1866.
After his death there appeared at Leipzig in 1861, under the
editorship of G.M. Thomas, three volumes of _Gesammelte Werke_,
containing _Neue Fragmente aus dem Orient, Kritische Versuche_, and
_Studien und Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben_. A sketch of his life will
also be found in L. Steub, _Herbsttage in Tyrol_ (Munich, 1867).
FALLOPIUS (or FALLOPIO), GABRIELLO (1523-1562), Italian anatomist, was
born about 1523 at Modena, where he became a canon of the cathedral. He
studied medicine at Ferrara, and, after a European tour, became teacher
of anatomy in that city. He thence removed to Pisa, and from Pisa, at
the instance of Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tuscany, to Padua, where,
besides the chairs of anatomy and surgery and of botany, he held the
office of superintendent of the new botanical garden. He died at Padua
on the 9th of October 1562. Only one treatise by Fallopius appeared
during his lifetime, namely the _Observationes anatomicae_ (Venice,
1561). His collected works, _Opera genuina omnia_, were published at
Venice in 1584. (See ANATOMY.)
FALLOUX, FREDERIC ALFRED PIERRE, COMTE DE (1811-1886), French politician
and author, was born at Angers on the 11th of May 1811. His father had
been ennobled by Charles X., and Falloux began his career as a
Legitimist and clerical journalist under the influence of Mme Swetchine.
In 1846 he entered the legislature as deputy for Maine-et-Loire, and
with many other ultra-Catholics he gave real or pretended support to the
revolution of 1848. Louis Napoleon made him minister of education in
1849, but disagreements with the president led to his resignation within
a year. He had nevertheless secured the passage of the Loi Falloux
(March 15, 1850) for the organization of primary and secondary
education. This law provided that the clergy and members of
ecclesiastical orders, male and female, might exercise the profession of
teaching without producing any further qualification. This exemption was
extended even to priests who taught in secondary schools, where a
university degree was exacted from lay teachers. The primary schools
were put under the management of the cures. Falloux was elected to the
French Academy in 1856. His failure to secure re-election to the
legislature in 1866, 1869, 1870 and 1871 was due to the opposition of
the stricter Legitimists, who viewed with suspicion his attempts to
reconcile the Orleans princes with Henri, comte de Chambord. In spite of
his failure to enter the National Assembly his influence was very great,
and was increased by the intimacy of his personal relations with Thiers.
But in 1872 he offended both sections of the monarchical party at a
conference arranged in the hope of effecting a fusion between the
partisans of the comte de Chambord and of the Orleans princes, divided
on the vexed question of the flag. He suggested that the comte de
Chambord might recede from his position with dignity at the desire of
the National Assembly, and not content with this encroachment on
royalist principles, he insinuated the possibility of a transitional
stage with the duc d'Aumale as president of the republic. His disgrace
was so complete that he was excommunicated by the bishop of Angers in
1876. He died on the 16th of January 1886.
Of his numerous works the best known are his _Histoire de Louis XVI_
(1840); _Histoire de Saint Pie_ (1845); _De la contre-revolution_
(1876); and the posthumous _Memoires d'un royaliste_ (2 vols., 1888).
FALLOW, land ploughed and tilled, but left unsown, usually for a year,
in order, on the one hand, to disintegrate, aerate and free it from
weeds, and, on the other, to allow it to recuperate. The word was
probably early confused with "fallow" (from O. Eng. _fealu_, probably
cognate with Gr. [Greek: polios], grey), of a pale-brown or yellow
colour, often applied to soil left unfilled and unsown, but chiefly seen
in the name of the "fallow deer." The true derivation is from the O.
Eng. _fealga_, only found in the plural, a harrow, and the ultimate
origin is a Teutonic root meaning "to plough," cf. the German _falgen_.
The recognition that continuous growing of wheat on the same area of
land robs the soil of its fertility was universal among ancient peoples,
and the practice of "fallowing" or resting the soil is as old as
agriculture itself. The "Sabbath rest" ordered to be given every seventh
year to the land by the Mosaic law is a classical instance of the
"fallow." Improvements in crop rotations and manuring have diminished
the necessity of the "bare fallow," which is uneconomical because the
land is left unproductive, and because the nitrates in the soil
unintercepted by the roots of plants are washed away in the drainage
waters. At the present time bare fallowing is, in general, only
advisable on stiff soils and in dry climates. A "green fallow" is land
planted with turnips, potatoes or some similar crop in rows, the space
between which may be cleared of weeds by hoeing. The "bastard fallow" is
a modification of the bare fallow, effected by the growth of rye,
vetches, or some other rapidly growing crop, sown in autumn and fed off
in spring, the land then undergoing the processes of ploughing, grubbing
and harrowing usual in the bare fallow.
FALLOW-DEER (that is, DUN DEER, in contradistinction to the red deer,
_Cervus [Dama] dama_), a medium-sized representative of the family
_Cervidae_, characterized by its expanded or palmated antlers, which
generally have no bez-tine, rather long tail (black above and white
below), and a coat spotted with white in summer but uniformly coloured
in winter. The shoulder height is about 3 ft. The species is
semi-domesticated in British parks, and occurs wild in western Asia,
North Africa, the south of Europe and Sardinia. In prehistoric times it
occurred throughout northern and central Europe. One park-breed has no
spots. Bucks and does live apart except during the pairing-season; and
the doe produces one or two, and sometimes three fawns at a birth. These
deer are particularly fond of horse-chestnuts, which the stags are said
to endeavour to procure by striking at the branches with their antlers.
The Persian fallow-deer (C. [D.] _mesopotamicus_), a native of the
mountains of Luristan, is larger than the typical species, and has a
brighter coat, differing in some details of colouring. The antlers have
the trez-tine near the small brow-tine, and the palmation beginning near
the former. Here may be mentioned the gigantic fossil deer commonly
known as the Irish elk, which is perhaps a giant type of fallow-deer,
and if so should be known as _Cervus (Dama) giganteus_. If a distinct
type, its title should be _C. (Megaceros) giganteus_. This deer
inhabited Ireland, Great Britain, central and northern Europe, and
western Asia in Pleistocene and prehistoric times; and must have stood 6
ft. high at the shoulder. The antlers are greatly palmated and of
enormous size, fine specimens measuring as much as 11 ft. between the
tips.
FALL RIVER, a city of Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., situated on
Mount Hope Bay, at the mouth of the Taunton river, 49 m. S. of Boston.
Pop. (1890) 74,398; (1900) 104,863; (estimated, 1906) 105,942;[1] (1910
census) 119,295. It is the third city in size of the commonwealth. Of
the population in 1900, 50,042, or 47.7%, were foreign-born, 90,244 were
of foreign parentage (i.e. either one or both parents were foreign), and
of these 81,721 had both foreign father and foreign mother. Of the
foreign-born, 20,172 were French Canadians, 2329 were English Canadians,
12,268 were from England, 1045 were from Scotland, 7317 were from
Ireland, 2805 were from Portugal, and 1095 were from Russia, various
other countries being represented by smaller numbers. Fall River is
served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and has good
steamer connexions with Providence, Newport and New York, notably by the
"Fall River Line," which is much used, in connexion with the N.Y., N.H.
& H. railway, by travellers between New York and Boston. The harbour is
large, deep and easy of access. The city lies on a plateau and on slopes
that rise rather steeply from the river, and is irregularly laid out.
Granite underlying the city furnishes excellent building material; among
the principal buildings are the state armoury, the county court house,
the B.M.C. Durfee high school, the custom house, Notre Dame College, the
church of Notre Dame, the church of St Anne, the Central Congregational
church and the public library. The commonwealth aids in maintaining a
textile school (the Bradford Durfee textile school), opened in 1904. The
city library contained in 1908 about 78,500 volumes. There is
considerable commerce, but it is as a manufacturing centre that Fall
River is best known. Above the city, on the plateau, about 2 m. from the
bay, are the Watuppa Lakes, 7 m. long and on an average three-fourths of
a mile wide, and from them runs the Fall (Quequechan) river, with a
constant flow and descending near its mouth through 127 ft. in less than
half a mile. The conjunction of water transportation and water power is
thus remarkable, and accounts in great part for the city's rapid growth.
The waters of the North Watuppa Lake (which is fed by springs and drains
out a very small area) are also exceptionally pure and furnish an
excellent water-supply. The Fall river runs directly through the city
(passing beneath the city hall), and along its banks are long rows of
cotton mills; formerly many of these were run by water power, and their
wheels were placed directly in the stream bed, but steam power is now
used almost exclusively. According to the special census of manufactures
of 1905, the value of all factory products for the calendar year 1904
was $43,473,105, of which amount $35,442,581, or 81.5%, consisted of
cotton goods and dyeing and finishing, making Fall River the largest
producer of cotton goods among American cities.[2] A large hat
manufactory (the Marshall Brothers' factory) furnishes the United States
army with hats. Until forced by the competition of mills in the Southern
states to direct attention to finer products, the cotton manufacturers
of Fall River devoted themselves almost exclusively to the making of
print cloth, in which respect the city was long distinguished from
Lawrence and Lowell, whose products were more varied and of higher
grade. The number of spindles increased from 265,328 in 1865 to
1,269,043 in 1875, 3,000,000 in 1900, and to about 3,500,000 in 1906.
Excellent drainage and sewerage systems contribute to the city's health.
The birth-rate was in 1900 the highest (38.75) of any city in the
country of above 30,000 inhabitants (three of the four next highest
being Massachusetts towns). The social conditions and labour problems of
Fall River have long been exceptional. The mills supplement the public
schools in the mingling of races and the work for Americanization, and
labour disturbances, for which Fall River was once conspicuous, have
become less frequent and less bitter, the great strike of
1904-1905--perhaps the greatest in the history of the textile industry
in the United States--being marked by little or no violence. Fall River
has become a "city of homes," and tenements are giving way to dwellings
for one or two families. The lists of the city's corporation
stockholders show more than 10,000 names. The municipal police is
controlled (as nowhere else in the state save in Boston) by a state
board; this arrangement is generally regarded as having worked for
better order. Lowell was about three times as large as Fall River in
1850, and Lawrence was larger until after 1870. Fall River was
originally a part of Freetown; it was incorporated as a township in 1803
(being known as "Troy" in 1804-1834), and was chartered as a city in
1854. In 1861 it was increased by certain territory secured from Rhode
Island, the city having spread across the state boundary and become
subject to a divided jurisdiction. In 1902 the city received a new
charter. Its manufactures amounted to little before the War of 1812. A
disastrous fire occurred in 1843 (loss above $500,000). In 1904 Fall
River became the see of the Roman Catholic diocese of that name.
See H.H. Earl, _Centennial History of Fall River ... 1656-1876_ (New
York, 1877); and the report of Carroll D. Wright on _Fall River,
Lowell and Lawrence_, in 13th annual report of the Massachusetts
Bureau of Statistics of Labor (1882), which, however, was regarded as
unjust and partial by the manufacturers of Fall River.