2. The representation of an initial Ind.-Eur. _gh_ by, f (_foied_,
contrast Latin _hodie_);
3. The palatalization of d+consonant i into some sound denoted merely
by i-the central sound of _foied_,.from _fo-died_;
4. The loss of final s, at all events before certain following sounds
(cra beside Latin _cras_);
Other characteristics, appearing elsewhere, are:
5. The retention of the velars (Fal. _cuando_ = Latin _quando_;
contrast Umbrian _pan(n)u_);
6. The assimilation of some final consonants to the initial letter of
the next word: "pretod de zenatuo sententiad" (Conway, lib. cit. 321),
i.e. "praetor de senatus sententia" (_zenatuo_ for _senaiuos_., an
archaic genitive). For further details see Conway, ib. pp. 370 if.,
especially pp. 384-385, where the relation of the names _Falisci_,
_Falerii_ to the local hero _Halaesus_ (e.g. Ovid, _Fasti_, iv. 73) is
discussed, and where reason is given for thinking that the change of
initial f (from an original bh or dh) into an initial h was a genuine
mark of Faliscan dialect.
It seems probable that the dialect lasted on, though being gradually
permeated with Latin, till at least 150 B.C.
In addition to the remains found in the graves (see FALERII), which
belong mainly to the period of Etruscan domination and give ample
evidence of material prosperity and refinement, the earlier strata have
yielded more primitive remains from the Italic epoch. A large number of
inscriptions consisting mainly of proper names may be regarded as
Etruscan rather than Faliscan, and they have been disregarded in the
account of the dialect just given. It should perhaps be mentioned that
there was a town Feronia in Sardinia, named probably after their native
goddess by Faliscan settlers, from some of whom we have a votive
inscription found at S. Maria di Falleri(Conway, ib. p. 335).
Further information may be sought from W. Deecke, _Die Falisker_ (a
useful but somewhat uncritical collection of the evidence accessible
in 1888); E. Bormann, in C.I.L. xi. pp. 465 ff., and Conway, op. cit.
(R. S. C.)
FALK, JOHANN DANIEL (1768-1826), German author and philanthropist, was
born at Danzig on the 28th of October 1768, After attending the
gymnasium of his native town, he entered the university of Halle with
the view of studying theology, but preferring a non-professional life,
gave up his theological studies and went to live at Weimar. There he
published a volume of satires which procured him the notice and
friendship of Wieland, and admission into literary circles. After the
battle of Jena, Falk, on the recommendation of Wieland, was appointed to
a civil post under the French official authorities and rendered his
townsmen such good service that the duke of Weimar created him a
counsellor of legation. In 1813 he established a society for friends in
necessity (_Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not_), and about the same
time founded an institute for the care and education of neglected and
orphan children, which, in 1820, was taken over by the state and still
exists as the _Falksches Institut_. The first literary efforts of Falk
took the form chiefly of satirical poetry, and gave promise of greater
future excellence than was ever completely fulfilled; his later pieces,
directed more against individuals than the general vices and defects of
society, gradually degenerated in quality. In 1806 Falk founded a
critical journal under the title of _Elysium und Tartarus_. He also
contributed largely to contemporary journals. He enjoyed the
acquaintance and intimate friendship of Goethe, and his account of their
intercourse was posthumously published under the title _Goethe aus
naherem personlichen Umgange dargestellt_ (1832) (English by S. Austin).
Falk died on the 14th of February 1826.
Falk's _Satirische Werke_ appeared in 7 vols. (1817 and 1826); his
_Auserlesene Schriften_ (3 vols., 1819). See _Johannes Falk:
Erinnerungsblatter aus Briefen und Tagebuchern, gesammelt von dessen
Tochter Rosalie Falk_ (1868); Heinzelmann, _Johannes Falk und die
Gesellschaft der Freunde in der Not_ (1879); A. Stein, _J. Falk_
(1881); S. Schultze, _Falk und Goethe_ (1900).
FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT (1827-1900), German politician, was born at
Matschkau, Silesia, on the 10th of August 1827. In 1847 he entered the
Prussian state service, and in 1853 became public prosecutor at Lyck. In
1858 he was elected a deputy, joining the Old Liberal party. In 1868 he
became a privy-councillor in the ministry of justice. In 1872 he was
made minister of education, and in connexion with Bismarck's policy of
the Kultur-kampf he was responsible for the famous May Laws against the
Catholics (see GERMANY: HISTORY). In 1879 his position became untenable,
owing to the death of Pius IX. and the change of German policy with
regard to the Vatican, and he resigned his office, but retained his seat
in the Reichstag till 1882. He was then made president of the supreme
court of justice at Hamm, where he died in 1900.
FALKE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB (1823-1876), German historian, was born
at Ratzeburg on the 20th of April 1823. Entering the university of
Erlangen in 1843, he soon began to devote his attention to the history
of the German language and literature, and in 1848 went to Munich, where
he remained five years, and diligently availed himself of the use of the
government library for the purpose of prosecuting his historical
studies. In 1856 he was appointed secretary of the German museum at
Nuremberg, and in 1859 keeper of the manuscripts. With the aid of the
manuscript collections in the museum he now turned his attention chiefly
to political history, and, with Johann H. Muller, established an
historical journal under the name of _Zeitschrift fur deutsche
Kulturgeschichte_ (4 vols., Nuremberg, 1856-1859). To this journal he
contributed a history of German taxation and commerce. On the latter
subject he published separately _Geschichte des deutschen Handels_ (2
vols., Leipzig, 1850-1860) and _Die Hansa als deutsche See- und
Handelsmacht_ (Berlin, 1862). In 1862 he was appointed secretary of the
state archives at Dresden, and, a little later, keeper. He there began
the study of Saxon history, still devoting his attention chiefly to the
history of commerce and economy, and published _Die Geschichte des
Kurfursten August von Sachsen in volkswirthschaftlicher Beziehung_
(Leipzig, 1868) and _Geschichte des deutschen Zollwesens_ (Leipzig,
1869). He died at Dresden on the 2nd of March 1876.
FALKIRK, a municipal and police burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1891) 19,769; (1901) 29,280. It is situated on high ground overlooking
the fertile Carse of Falkirk, 11 m. S.E. of Stirling, and about midway
between Edinburgh and Glasgow. Grangemouth, its port, lies 3 m. to the
N.E., and the Forth & Clyde Canal passes to the north, and the Union
Canal to the south of the town. Falkirk now comprises the suburbs of
Laurieston (E.), Grahamston and Bainsford (N.), and Camelon (W.). The
principal structures include the burgh and county buildings, town hall,
the Dollar free library and Camelon fever hospital. The present church,
with a steeple 146 ft. high, dates only from 1811. In the churchyard are
buried Sir John Graham, Sir John Stewart who fell in the battle of 1298,
and Sir Robert Munro and his brother, Dr Duncan Munro, killed in the
battle of 1746. The town is under the control of a council with provost
and bailies, and combines with Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark and Linlithgow
(the Falkirk group of burghs) to return a member to parliament. The
district is rich in coal and iron, which supply the predominant
industries, Falkirk being the chief seat of the light casting trade in
Scotland; but tanning, flour-milling, brewing, distilling and the
manufacture of explosives (Nobel's) and chemicals are also carried on.
Trysts or sales of cattle, sheep and horses are held thrice a year
(August, September and October) on Stenhousemuir, 3 m. N.W. They were
transferred hither from Crieff in 1770, and were formerly the most
important in the kingdom, but have to a great extent been replaced by
the local weekly auction marts. Carron, 2 m. N.N.W., is famous for the
iron-works established in 1760 by Dr John Roebuck (1718-1794), whose
advising engineers were successively John Smeaton and James Watt. The
short iron guns of large calibre designed by General Robert Melville,
and first cast in 1779, were called carronades from this their place of
manufacture.
Falkirk is a town of considerable antiquity. Its original name was the
Gaelic _Eaglais breac_, "church of speckled or mottled stone," which
Simeon of Durham (fl. 1130) transliterated as Egglesbreth. By the end of
the 13th century appears the form Faukirke (the present local
pronunciation), which is merely a translation of the Gaelic _fau_ or
_faw_, meaning "dun," "pale red." The first church was built by Malcolm
Canmore (d. 1093). Falkirk was made a burgh of barony in 1600 and a
burgh of regality in 1646, but on the forfeiture of the earl of
Linlithgow in 1715, its superiority was vested in the crown. Callender
House, immediately to the S., was the seat of the earl and his
ancestors. The mansion was visited by Queen Mary, captured by Cromwell,
and occupied by Generals Monk and Hawley. The wall of Antoninus ran
through, the grounds, and the district is rich in Roman remains,
Camelon, about 2 m. W., being the site of a Roman settlement; Merchiston
Hall, to the N.W., was the birthplace of Admiral Sir Charles Napier. The
eastern suburb of Laurieston was first called Langtoune, then
Merchistown, and received its present name after Sir Lawrence Dundas of
Kerse, who had promoted its welfare. At Polmont, farther east, which
gives the title of baron to the duke of Hamilton, is the school of Blair
Lodge, besides coal-mines and other industries.
_Batttles of Falkirk._--The battle of the 22nd of July 1298 was fought
between the forces of King Edward I. of England and those of the
Scottish national party under Sir William Wallace. The latter, after
long baffling the king's attempts to bring him to battle, had taken up a
strong position south of the town behind a morass. They were formed in
four deep and close masses ("schiltrons") of pikemen, the light troops
screening the front and flanks and a body of men-at-arms standing in
reserve. It was perhaps hoped that the English cavalry would plunge into
the morass, for no serious precautions were taken as to the flanks, but
in any case Wallace desired no more than to receive an attack at the
halt, trusting wholly to his massed pikes. The English right wing first
appeared, tried the morass in vain, and then set out to turn it by a
long detour; the main battle under the king halted in front of it, while
the left wing under Antony Bec, bishop of Durham, was able to reach the
head of the marsh without much delay. Once on the enemy's side of the
obstacle the bishop halted to wait for Edward, who was now following
him, but his undisciplined barons, shouting "'Tis not for thee, bishop,
to teach us war. Go say mass!" drove off the Scottish archers and
men-at-arms and charged the nearest square of pikes, which repulsed them
with heavy losses. On the other flank the right wing, its flank march
completed, charged with the same result. But Edward, who had now joined
the bishop with the centre or "main battle," peremptorily ordered the
cavalry to stand fast, and, taught by his experience in the Welsh wars,
brought up his archers. The longbow here scored its first victory in a
pitched battle. Before long gaps appeared in the close ranks of pike
heads, and after sufficient preparation Edward again launched his
men-at-arms to the charge. The shaken masses then gave way one after the
other, and the Scots fled in all directions.
The second battle of Falkirk, fought on the 17th of January 1746 between
the Highlanders under Prince Charles and the British forces under
General Hawley, resulted in the defeat of the latter. It is remarkable
only for the bad conduct of the British dragoons and the steadiness of
the infantry. Hawley retreated to Linlithgow, leaving all his baggage,
700 prisoners and seven guns in the enemy's hands.
FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY, 2ND VISCOUNT (c. 1610-1643), son of Sir Henry
Cary, afterwards 1st Viscount Falkland (d. 1633), a member of an ancient
Devonshire family, who was lord deputy of Ireland from 1622 to 1629, and
of Elizabeth (1585-1639), only daughter of Sir Lawrence Tanfield, chief
baron of the exchequer, was born either in 1609 or 1610, and was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin. In 1625 he inherited from his
grandfather the manors of Great Tew and Burford in Oxfordshire, and,
about the age of 21, married Lettice, daughter of Sir Richard Morrison,
of Tooley Park in Leicestershire. Involved in a quarrel with his father,
whom he failed to propitiate by offering to hand over to him his
estate, he left England to take service in the Dutch army, but soon
returned. In 1633, by the death of his father, he became Viscount
Falkland. His mother had embraced the Roman Catholic faith, to which it
was now sought to attract Falkland himself, but his studies and
reflections led him, under the influence of Chillingworth, to the
interpretation of religious problems rather by reason than by tradition
or authority. At Great Tew he enjoyed a short but happy period of study,
and he assembled round him many gifted and learned men, whom the near
neighbourhood of the university and his own brilliant qualities
attracted to his house. He was the friend of Hales and Chillingworth,
was celebrated by Jonson, Suckling, Cowley and Waller in verse, and in
prose by Clarendon, who is eloquent in describing the virtues and genius
of the "incomparable" Falkland, and draws a delightful picture of his
society and hospitality.
Falkland's intellectual pleasures, however, were soon interrupted by war
and politics. He felt it his duty to take part on the king's side as a
volunteer under Essex in the campaign of 1639 against the Scots. In 1640
he was returned for Newport in the Isle of Wight to the Short and Long
Parliaments, and took an active part on the side of the opposition. He
spoke against the exaction of shipmoney on the 7th of December 1640,
denouncing the servile conduct of Lord Keeper Finch and the judges.[1]
He supported the prosecution of Strafford, at the same time endeavouring
on more than one occasion to moderate the measures of the Commons in the
interests of justice, and voted for the third reading of the attainder
on the 21st of April 1641. On the great question of the church he urged,
in the debate of the 8th of February 1641, that the interference of the
clergy in secular matters, the encroachments in jurisdiction of the
spiritual courts, and the imposition by authority of unnecessary
ceremonies, should be prohibited. On the other hand, though he denied
that episcopacy existed _jure divino_, he was opposed to its abolition;
fearing the establishment of the Presbyterian system, which in Scotland
had proved equally tyrannical. Triennial parliaments would be sufficient
to control the bishops, if they meditated any further attacks upon the
national liberties, and he urged that "where it is not necessary to
change, it is necessary not to change." Even Hampden still believed that
a compromise with the episcopal principle was possible, and assured
Falkland that if the bill taken up to the Lords on the 1st of May 1641,
excluding the bishops from the Lords and the clergy from secular
offices, were passed, "there would be nothing more attempted to the
prejudice of the church." Accordingly the bill was supported by
Falkland. The times, however, were not favourable to compromise. The
bill was lost in the Lords, and on the 27th of May the Root and Branch
Bill, for the total abolition of episcopacy, was introduced in the House
of Commons. This measure Falkland opposed, as well as the second bill
for excluding the bishops, introduced on the 21st of October. In the
discussion on the Grand Remonstrance he took the part of the bishops and
the Arminians. He was now opposed to the whole policy of the opposition,
and, being reproached by Hampden with his change of attitude, replied
"that he had formerly been persuaded by that worthy gentleman to believe
many things which he had since found to be untrue, and therefore he had
changed his opinion in many particulars as well as to things as to
persons."[2]
On the 1st of January 1642, immediately before the attempted arrest of
the five members, of which, however, he was not cognizant, he was
offered by the king the secretaryship of state, and was persuaded by
Hyde to accept it, thus becoming involved directly in the king's policy,
though evidently possessing little influence in his counsels. He was one
of the peers who signed the protestation against making war, at York on
the 15th of June 1642. On the 5th of September he carried Charles's
overtures for peace to the parliament, when he informed the leaders of
the opposition that the king consented to a thorough reformation of
religion. The secret correspondence connected with the Waller plot
passed through his hands. He was present with the king at Edgehill and
at the siege of Gloucester. By this time the hopelessness of the
situation had completely overwhelmed him. The aims and principles of
neither party in the conflict could satisfy a man of Falkland's high
ideals and intellectual vision. His royalism could not suffer the
substitution, as the controlling power in the state, of a parliament for
the monarchy, nor his conservatism the revolutionary changes in church
and state now insisted upon by the opposite faction. The fatal character
and policy of the king, the most incapable of men and yet the man upon
whom all depended, must have been by now thoroughly understood by
Falkland. Compromise had long been out of the question. The victory of
either side could only bring misery; and the prolongation of the war was
a prospect equally unhappy. Nor could Falkland find any support or
consolation in his own inward convictions or principles. His ideals and
hopes were now destroyed, and he had no definite political convictions
such as inspired and strengthened Stratford and Pym. In fact his
sensitive nature shrank from contact with the practical politics of the
day and prevented his rise to the place of a leader or a statesman.
Clarendon has recorded his final relapse into despair. "Sitting amongst
his friends, often, after a deep silence and frequent sighs (he) would
with a shrill and sad accent ingeminate the word _Peace_, _Peace_, and
would passionately profess that the very agony of the war, and the view
of the calamities and desolation the kingdom did and must endure, took
his sleep from him and would shortly break his heart." At Gloucester he
had in vain exposed himself to risks. On the morning of the battle of
Newbury, on the 20th of September 1643, he declared to his friends, who
would have dissuaded him from taking part in the fight, that "he was
weary of the times and foresaw much misery to his own Country and did
believe he should be out of it ere night."[3] He served during the
engagement as a volunteer under Sir John Byron, and, riding alone at a
gap in a hedge commanded by the enemy's fire, was immediately killed.
His death took place at the early age of 33, which should be borne in
mind in every estimate of his career and character. He was succeeded in
the title by his eldest son Lucius, 3rd Viscount Falkland, his male
descent becoming extinct in the person of Anthony, 5th viscount, in
1694, when the viscounty passed to Lucius Henry (1687-1730), a
descendant of the first viscount, and the present peer is his direct
descendant.
Falkland wrote a _Discourse of Infallibility_, published in 1646
(_Thomason Tracts_, E 361 [1]), reprinted in 1650, in 1651 (E 634 [1])
ed. by Triplet with replies, and in 1660 with the addition of two
discourses on episcopacy by Falkland. This is a work of some importance
in theological controversy, the general argument being that "to those
who follow their reason in the interpretation of the Scriptures God will
either give his grace for assistance to find the truth or his pardon if
they miss it. And then this supposed necessity of an infallible guide
(with the supposed damnation for the want of it) fall together to the
ground." Also _A Letter ... 30 Sept. 1642 concerning the late conflict
before Worcester_ (1642); and _Poems_, in which he shows himself a
follower of Ben Jonson, edited by A.B. Grosart in _Miscellanies of the
Fuller Worthies Library_, vol. iii. (1871).
The chief interest in Falkland does not lie in his writings or in the
incidents of his career, but in his character and the distinction of his
intellectual position, in his isolation from his contemporaries seeking
reformation in the inward and spiritual life of the church and state and
not in its outward and material form, and as the leader and chief of
rationalism in an age dominated by violent intolerance and narrow
dogmatism. His personal appearance, according to Clarendon, was
insignificant, "in no degree attractive or promising. His stature was
low and smaller than most men; his motion not graceful ... but that
little person and small stature was quickly found to contain a great
heart ... all mankind could not but admire and love him."[4]
AUTHORITIES.--There is a _Life and Times_ by J.A.R. Marriott (1907);
see also S.R. Gardiner's _Hist, of England_; _Hist. of the Civil War_;
the same author's article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and
references there given; Clarendon's _Hist. of the Rebellion_, _passim_
and esp. vii. 217-234; Clarendon's _Life; Rational Theology ... in the
17th Century_, by John Tulloch (1874), i. 76; _Life of Lady Falkland
from a MS. in the imperial library at Lille_ (1861); _Life_ of the
same by Lady Georgiana Fullerton (1883); Jonson's _Ode Pindaric to the
memory and friendship of ... Sir Lucius Cary and Sir Henry Morrison_;
W.J. Courthope, _History of English Poetry_ (1903), iii. 291; _Life of
Falkland_, by W.H. Trale in the _Englishman's Library_, vol. 22
(1842); D. Lloyd, _Memoires_ (1668), 331; and the _Life of Falkland_,
by Lady M.T. Lewis in _Lives of the Friends ... of Lord Chancellor
Clarendon_, vol. i. p. 3. John Duncan's account of Lettice, Lady
Falkland, was edited in 1908 by M.F. Howard. (P. C. Y.)