ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS FASCIA

FAIRFAX, EDWARD FASCINATION

FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FERDINANDO FASCINE

FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, THOMAS FASHION

FAIRFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) FASHODA

FAIRFIELD (Iowa, U.S.A.) FAST AND LOOSE

FAIRHAVEN FASTI

FAIRHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM FASTING

FAIRMONT FASTOLF, SIR JOHN

FAIR OAKS FAT

FAIRUZABADI FATALISM

FAIRY FATE

FAIRY RING FATEHPUR

FAITHFULL, EMILY FATEHPUR SIKRI

FAITH HEALING FATHER

FAITHORNE, WILLIAM FATHERS OF THE CHURCH

FAIZABAD FATHOM

FAJARDO FATIMITES

FAKHR UD-DIN RAZI FAUBOURG

FAKIR FAUCES

FALAISE FAUCHER, LEONARD JOSEPH

FALASHAS FAUCHET, CLAUDE

FALCAO, CHRISTOVAO DE SOUSA FAUCHET, CLAUDE

FALCK, ANTON REINHARD FAUCIT, HELENA SAVILLE

FALCON FAUJAS DE SAINT-FOND, BARTHELEMY

FALCON FAULT

FALCONE, ANIELLO FAUNA

FALCONER, HUGH FAUNTLEROY, HENRY

FALCONER, WILLIAM FAUNUS

FALCONET, ETIENNE MAURICE FAURE, FRANCOIS FELIX

FALCONRY FAURE, GABRIEL

FALDSTOOL FAURIEL, CLAUDE CHARLES

FALERII FAUST

FALERIO FAUSTINA, ANNIA GALERIA

FALGUIERE, JEAN ALEXANDRE JOSEPH FAVARA

FALIERO, MARINO FAVART, CHARLES SIMON

FALISCI FAVERSHAM

FALK, JOHANN DANIEL FAVORINUS

FALK, PAUL LUDWIG ADALBERT FAVRAS, THOMAS DE MAHY

FALKE, JOHANN FRIEDRICH GOTTLIEB FAVRE, JEAN ALPHONSE

FALKIRK FAVRE, JULES CLAUDE GABRIEL

FALKLAND, LUCIUS CARY FAVUS

FALKLAND (burgh of Scotland) FAWCETT, HENRY

FALKLAND ISLANDS FAWCETT, JOHN

FALLACY FAWKES, FRANCIS

FALLIERES, CLEMENT ARMAND FAWKES, GUY

FALL-LINE FAY, ANDRAS

FALLMERAYER, JAKOB PHILIPP FAYAL

FALLOPIUS, GABRIELLO FAYETTEVILLE (Arkansas, U.S.A.)

FALLOUX, FREDERIC ALFRED PIERRE FAYETTEVILLE (North Carolina, U.S.A.)

FALLOW FAYRER, SIR JOSEPH

FALLOW-DEER FAYUM

FALL RIVER FAZOGLI

FALMOUTH FEA, CARLO

FALSE POINT FEARNE, CHARLES

FALSE PRETENCES FEASTS AND FESTIVALS

FALTICHENI FEATHER

FALUN FEATHERSTONE

FAMA FEATLEY DANIEL

FAMAGUSTA FEBRONIANISM

FAMILIAR FEBRUARY

FAMILISTS FEBVRE, ALEXANDRE FREDERIC

FAMILY FECAMP

FAMINE FECHNER, GUSTAV THEODOR

FAN FECHTER, CHARLES ALBERT

FANCY FECKENHAM, JOHN

FANG FEDCHENKO, ALEXIS PAVLOVICH

FANO FEDERAL GOVERNMENT

FANSHAWE, SIR RICHARD FEDERALIST PARTY

FANTAN FEDERICI, CAMILLO

FANTASIA FEE

FANTI, MANFREDO FEHLING, HERMANN VON

FANTI FEHMARN

FANTIN-LATOUR, JEAN THEODORE FEHMIC COURTS

FANUM FORTUNAE FEHRBELLIN

FAN VAULT FEIJOO Y MONTENEGRO, BENITO JERONIMO

FARADAY, MICHAEL FEITH, RHIJNVIS

FARAH (river of Afghanistan) FEJER, GYORGY

FARAH (town of Afghanistan) FELANITX

FARAZDAQ FELDKIRCH

FARCE FELIBIEN, ANDRE

FAREHAM FELIX (five popes)

FAREL, GUILLAUME FELIX (bishop from Burgundy)

FAREY, JOHN FELIX (Spanish bishop)

FARGO, WILLIAM GEORGE FELIX (of Valois)

FARGO FELIX, ANTONIUS

FARIA Y SOUSA, MANUEL DE FELIX, LIA

FARIBAULT FELIXSTOWE

FARIDKOT FELL, JOHN

FARIDPUR FELL

FARID UD-DIN 'ATTAR FELLAH

FARINA, SALVATORE FELLENBERG, PHILIPP EMANUEL VON

FARINATO, PAOLO FELLER, FRANCOIS XAVIER DE

FARINELLI FELLING

FARINGDON FELLOE

FARINI, LUIGI CARLO FELLOW

FARM FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES

FARM BUILDINGS FELO DE SE

FARMER, RICHARD FELONY

FARMERS' MOVEMENT FELSITE

FARNABY, THOMAS FELSPAR

FARNBOROUGH, THOMAS ERSKINE MAY FELSTED

FARNBOROUGH FELT

FARNE ISLANDS FELTHAM, OWEN

FARNESE FELTON, CORNELIUS CONWAY

FARNESE, ALEXANDER FELTON, JOHN

FARNESE, ELIZABETH FELTRE, MORTO DA

FARNHAM FELTRE

FARNWORTH FELUCCA

FARO (town of Portugal) FEMALE

FARO (game of cards) FEMERELL

FARQUHAR, GEORGE FENCING

FARR, WILLIAM FENDER

FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW FENELON, BERTRAND DE SALIGNAC

FARRANT, RICHARD FENELON, FRANCOIS DE LA MOTHE

FARRAR, FREDERIC WILLIAM FENESTELLA

FARREN, ELIZABETH FENESTRATION

FARREN, WILLIAM FENIANS

FARRER, THOMAS HENRY FARRER FENNEL

FARRIER, and FARRIERY FENNER, DUDLEY

FARS FENNY STRATFORD

FARTHING FENRIR

FARTHINGALE FENS

FASCES

FAIRBANKS, ERASTUS (1792-1864), American manufacturer, was born in

Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 28th of October 1792. He studied law

but abandoned it for mercantile pursuits, finally settling in St

Johnsbury, Vermont, where in 1824 he formed a partnership with his

brother Thaddeus for the manufacture of stoves and ploughs. Subsequently

the scales invented by Thaddeus were manufactured extensively. Erastus

was a member of the state legislature in 1836-1838, and governor of

Vermont in 1852-1853 and 1860-1861, during his second term rendering

valuable aid in the equipment and despatch of troops in the early days

of the Civil War. His son HORACE (1820-1888) became president of E. & T.

Fairbanks & Co. in 1874, and was governor of Vermont from 1876 to 1878.

His brother, THADDEUS FAIRBANKS (1796-1886), inventor, was born at

Brimfield, Massachusetts, on the 17th of January 1796. He early

manifested a genius for mechanics and designed the models from which he

and his brother manufactured stoves and ploughs at St Johnsbury. In 1826

he patented a cast-iron plough which was extensively used. The growing

of hemp was an important industry in the vicinity of St Johnsbury, and

in 1831 Fairbanks invented a hemp-dressing machine. By the old

contrivances then in use, the weighing of loads of hemp-straw was

tedious and difficult, and in 1831 Fairbanks invented his famous

compound-lever platform scale, which marked a great advance in the

construction of machines for weighing bulky and heavy objects. He

subsequently obtained more than fifty patents for improvements or

innovations in scales and in machinery used in their manufacture, the

last being granted on his ninetieth birthday. His firm, eventually known

as E. & T. Fairbanks & Co., went into the manufacture of scales of all

sizes, in which these inventions were utilized. He, with his brothers,

Erastus and Joseph P., founded the St Johnsbury Academy. He died at St

Johnsbury on the 12th of April 1886.

The latter's son HENRY, born in 1830 at St Johnsbury, Vermont, graduated

at Dartmouth College in 1853 and at Andover Theological Seminary in

1857, and was professor of natural philosophy at Dartmouth from 1859 to

1865 and of natural history from 1865 to 1868. In the following year he

patented a grain-scale and thenceforth devoted himself to the scale

manufacturing business of his family. Altogether he obtained more than

thirty patents for mechanical devices.

FAIRFAX, EDWARD (c. 1580-1635), English poet, translator of Tasso, was

born at Leeds, the second son of Sir Thomas Fairfax of Denton (father of

the 1st Baron Fairfax of Cameron). His legitimacy has been called in

question, and the date of his birth has not been ascertained. He is said

to have been only about twenty years of age when he published his

translation of the _Gerusalemme Liberala_, which would place his birth

about the year 1580. He preferred a life of study and retirement to the

military service in which his brothers were distinguished. He married a

sister of Walter Laycock, chief alnager of the northern counties, and

lived on a small estate at Fewston, Yorkshire. There his time was spent

in his literary pursuits, and in the education of his children and those

of his elder brother, Sir Thomas Fairfax, afterwards baron of Cameron.

His translation appeared in 1600,--_Godfrey of Bulloigne, or the

Recoverie of Jerusalem, done into English heroicall Verse by Edw.

Fairefax, Gent._, and was dedicated to the queen. It was

enthusiastically received. In the same year in which it was published

extracts from it were printed in _England's Parnassus_. Edward Phillips,

the nephew of Milton, in his _Theatrum Poetarum_, warmly eulogized the

translation. Edmund Waller said he was indebted to it for the harmony of

his numbers. It is said that it was King James's favourite English poem,

and that Charles I. entertained himself in prison with its pages.

Fairfax employed the same number of lines and stanzas as his original,

but within the limits of each stanza he allowed himself the greatest

liberty. Other translators may give a more literal version, but Fairfax

alone seizes upon the poetical and chivalrous character of the poem. He

presented, says Mr Courthope, "an idea of the chivalrous past of Europe,

as seen through the medium of Catholic orthodoxy and classical

humanism." The sweetness and melody of many passages are scarcely

excelled even by Spenser. Fairfax made no other appeal to the public. He

wrote, however, a series of eclogues, twelve in number, the fourth of

which was published, by permission of the family, in Mrs Cooper's

_Muses' Library_ (1737). Another of the eclogues and a _Discourse on

Witchcraft, as it was acted in the Family of Mr Edward Fairfax of

Fuystone in the county of York in 1621_, edited from the original copy

by Lord Houghton, appeared in the _Miscellanies_ of the Philobiblon

Society (1858-1859). Fairfax was a firm believer in witchcraft. He

fancied that two of his children had been bewitched, and he had the poor

wretches whom he accused brought to trial, but without obtaining a

conviction. Fairfax died at Fewston and was buried there on the 27th of

January 1635.

FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, FERDINANDO FAIRFAX, 2ND BARON (1584-1648), English

parliamentary general, was a son of Thomas Fairfax of Denton

(1560-1640), who in 1627 was created Baron Fairfax of Cameron in the

peerage of Scotland. Born on the 29th of March 1584, he obtained his

military education in the Netherlands, and was member of parliament for

Boroughbridge during the six parliaments which met between 1614 and 1629

and also during the Short Parliament of 1640. In May 1640 he succeeded

his father as Baron Fairfax, but being a Scottish peer he sat in the

English House of Commons as one of the representatives of Yorkshire

during the Long Parliament from 1640 until his death; he took the side

of the parliament, but held moderate views and desired to maintain the

peace. In the first Scottish war Fairfax had commanded a regiment in the

king's army; then on the outbreak of the Civil War in 1642 he was made

commander of the parliamentary forces in Yorkshire, with Newcastle as

his opponent. Hostilities began after the repudiation of a treaty of

neutrality entered into by Fairfax with the Royalists. At first he met

with no success. He was driven from York, where he was besieging the

Royalists, to Selby; then in 1643 to Leeds; and after beating off an

attack at that place he was totally defeated on the 30th of June at

Adwalton Moor. He escaped to Hull, which he successfully defended

against Newcastle from the 2nd of September till the 11th of October,

and by means of a brilliant sally caused the siege to be raised. Fairfax

was victorious at Selby on the 11th of April 1644, and joining the Scots

besieged York, after which he was present at Marston Moor, where he

commanded the infantry and was routed. He was subsequently, in July,

made governor of York and charged with the further reduction of the

county. In December he took the town of Pontefract, but failed to secure

the castle. He resigned his command on the passing of the Self-denying

Ordinance, but remained a member of the committee for the government of

Yorkshire, and was appointed, on the 24th of July 1645, steward of the

manor of Pontefract. He died from an accident on the 14th of March 1648

and was buried at Bolton Percy. He was twice married, and by his first

wife, Mary, daughter of Edmund Sheffield, 3rd Lord Sheffield (afterwards

1st earl of Mulgrave), he had six daughters and two sons, Thomas, who

succeeded him as 3rd baron, and Charles, a colonel of horse, who was

killed at Marston Moor. During his command in Yorkshire, Fairfax engaged

in a paper war with Newcastle, and wrote _The Answer of Ferdinando, Lord

Fairfax, to a Declaration of William, earl of Newcastle_ (1642; printed

in Rushworth, pt. iii. vol. ii. p. 139); he also published _A Letter

from ... Lord Fairfax to ... Robert, Earl of Essex_ (1643), describing

the victorious sally at Hull.

FAIRFAX OF CAMERON, THOMAS FAIRFAX, 3RD BARON (1612-1671), parliamentary

general and commander-in-chief during the English Civil War, the eldest

son of the 2nd lord, was born at Denton, near Otley, Yorkshire, on the

17th of January 1612. He studied at St John's College, Cambridge

(1626-1629), and then proceeded to Holland to serve as a volunteer with

the English army in the Low Countries under Sir Horace (Lord) Vere. This

connexion led to one still closer; in the summer of 1637 Fairfax married

Anne Vere, the daughter of the general.

The Fairfaxes, father and son, though serving at first under Charles I.

(Thomas commanded a troop of horse, and was knighted by the king in

1640), were opposed to the arbitrary prerogative of the crown, and Sir

Thomas declared that "his judgment was for the parliament as the king

and kingdom's great and safest council." When Charles endeavoured to

raise a guard for his own person at York, intending it, as the event

afterwards proved, to form the nucleus of an army, Fairfax was employed

to present a petition to his sovereign, entreating him to hearken to the

voice of his parliament, and to discontinue the raising of troops. This

was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire

convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving

the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and

placed the petition on the pommel of the king's saddle. The incident is

typical of the times and of the actors in the scene. War broke out, Lord

Fairfax was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north,

and his son, Sir Thomas, was made lieutenant-general of the horse under

him. Both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in

Yorkshire (see GREAT REBELLION). Sometimes severely defeated, more often

successful, and always energetic, prudent and resourceful, they

contrived to keep up the struggle until the crisis of 1644, when York

was held by the marquess of Newcastle against the combined forces of the

English Parliamentarians and the Scots, and Prince Rupert hastened with

all available forces to its relief. A gathering of eager national forces

within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle, and

Marston Moor (q.v.) was decisive of the struggle in the north. The

younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle,

and though severely wounded managed to join Cromwell and the victorious

cavalry on the other wing. One of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax,

was killed in the action. But the marquess of Newcastle fled the

kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their

affairs. The city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north

submitted to the parliament.

In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still

active. The war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain

of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were

committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the

military commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform, the

Self-denying Ordinance was passed. This involved the removal of the earl

of Essex from the supreme command, and the reconstruction of the armed

forces of the parliament. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new

lord general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general and cavalry

commander, and after a short preliminary campaign the "New Model"

justified its existence, and "the rebels' new brutish general," as the

king called him, his capacity as commander-in-chief in the decisive

victory of Naseby (q.v.). The king fled to Wales. Fairfax besieged

Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater and Bristol. The

whole west was soon reduced.

Fairfax arrived in London on the 12th of November 1645. In his progress

towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds.

Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses

of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, and

a sum of money. The king had returned from Wales and established himself

at Oxford, where there was a strong garrison, but, ever vacillating, he

withdrew secretly, and proceeded to Newark to throw himself into the

arms of the Scots. Oxford capitulated, and by the end of September 1646

Charles had neither army nor garrison in England. In January 1647 he was

delivered up by the Scots to the commissioners of parliament. Fairfax

met the king beyond Nottingham, and accompanied him during the journey

to Holmby, treating him with the utmost consideration in every way. "The

general," said Charles, "is a man of honour, and keeps his word which he

had pledged to me." With the collapse of the Royalist cause came a

confused period of negotiations between the parliament and the king,

between the king and the Scots, and between the Presbyterians and the

Independents in and out of parliament. In these negotiations the New

Model Army soon began to take a most active part. The lord general was

placed in the unpleasant position of intermediary between his own

officers and parliament. To the grievances, usual in armies of that

time, concerning arrears of pay and indemnity for acts committed on

duty, there was quickly added the political propaganda of the

Independents, and in July the person of the king was seized by Joyce, a

subaltern of cavalry--an act which sufficiently demonstrated the

hopelessness of controlling the army by its articles of war. It had, in

fact, become the most formidable political party in the realm, and

pressed straight on to the overthrow of parliament and the punishment of

Charles. Fairfax was more at home in the field than at the head of a

political committee, and, finding events too strong for him, he sought

to resign his commission as commander-in-chief. He was, however,

persuaded to retain it. He thus remained the titular chief of the army

party, and with the greater part of its objects he was in complete,

sometimes most active, sympathy. Shortly before the outbreak of the

second Civil War, Fairfax succeeded his father in the barony and in the

office of governor of Hull; In the field against the English Royalists

in 1648 he displayed his former energy and skill, and his operations

culminated in the successful siege of Colchester, after the surrender of

which place he approved the execution of the Royalist leaders Sir

Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle, holding that these officers had

broken their parole. At the same time Cromwell's great victory of

Preston crushed the Scots, and the Independents became practically

all-powerful.

Milton, in a sonnet written during the siege of Colchester, called upon

the lord general to settle the kingdom, but the crisis was now at hand.

Fairfax was in agreement with Cromwell and the army leaders in demanding

the punishment of Charles, and he was still the effective head of the

army. He approved, if he did not take an active part in, Pride's Purge

(December 6th, 1648), but on the last and gravest of the questions at

issue he set himself in deliberate and open opposition to the policy of

the officers. He was placed at the head of the judges who were to try

the king, and attended the preliminary sitting of the court. Then,

convinced at last that the king's death was intended, he refused to act.

In calling over the court, when the crier pronounced the name of

Fairfax, a lady in the gallery called out "that the Lord Fairfax was not

there in person, that he would never sit among them, and that they did

him wrong to name him as a commissioner." This was Lady Fairfax, who

could not forbear, as Whitelocke says, to exclaim aloud against the

proceedings of the High Court of Justice. His last service as

commander-in-chief was the suppression of the Leveller mutiny at Burford

in May 1649. He had given his adhesion to the new order of things, and

had been reappointed lord general. But he merely administered the

affairs of the army, and when in 1650 the Scots had declared for Charles

II., and the council of state resolved to send an army to Scotland in

order to prevent an invasion of England, Fairfax resigned his

commission. Cromwell was appointed his successor, "captain-general and

commander-in-chief of all the forces raised or to be raised by authority

of parliament within the commonwealth of England." Fairfax received a

pension of L5000 a year, and lived in retirement at his Yorkshire home

of Nunappleton till after the death of the Protector. The troubles of

the later Commonwealth recalled Lord Fairfax to political activity, and

for the last time his appearance in arms helped to shape the future of

the country, when Monk invited him to assist in the operations about to

be undertaken against Lambert's army. In December 1659 he appeared at

the head of a body of Yorkshire gentlemen, and such was the influence of

Fairfax's name and reputation that 1200 horse quitted Lambert's colours

and joined him. This was speedily followed by the breaking up of all

Lambert's forces, and that day secured the restoration of the monarchy.

A "free" parliament was called; Fairfax was elected member for

Yorkshire, and was put at the head of the commission appointed by the

House of Commons to wait upon Charles II. at the Hague and urge his

speedy return. Of course the "merry monarch, scandalous and poor," was

glad to obey the summons, and Fairfax provided the horse on which

Charles rode at his coronation. The remaining eleven years of the life

of Lord Fairfax were spent in retirement at his seat in Yorkshire. He

must, like Milton, have been sorely grieved and shocked by the scenes

that followed--the brutal indignities offered to the remains of his

companions in arms, Cromwell and Ireton, the sacrifice of Sir Harry

Vane, the neglect or desecration of all that was great, noble or

graceful in England, and the flood of immorality which, flowing from

Whitehall, sapped the foundations of the national strength and honour.

Lord Fairfax died at Nunappleton on the 12th of November 1671, and was

buried at Bilborough, near York. As a soldier he was exact and

methodical in planning, in the heat of battle "so highly transported

that scarce any one durst speak a word to him" (Whitelocke), chivalrous

and punctilious in his dealings with his own men and the enemy. Honour

and conscientiousness were equally the characteristics of his private

and public character. But his modesty and distrust of his powers made

him less effectual as a statesman than as a soldier, and above all he is

placed at a disadvantage by being both in war and peace overshadowed by

his associate Cromwell.

Lord Fairfax had a taste for literature. He translated some of the

Psalms, and wrote poems on solitude, the Christian warfare, the

shortness of life, &c. During the last year or two of his life he wrote

two _Memorials_ which have been published--one on the northern actions

in which he was engaged in 1642-1644, and the other on some events in

his tenure of the chief command. At York and at Oxford he endeavoured to

save the libraries from pillage, and he enriched the Bodleian with some

valuable MSS. His only daughter, Mary Fairfax, was married to George

Villiers, the profligate duke of Buckingham of Charles II.'s court.

His correspondence, edited by G.W. Johnson, was published in 1848-1849

in four volumes (see note thereon in _Dict. Nat. Biogr._, s.v.), and a

life of him by Clements R. Markham in 1870. See also S.R. Gardiner,

_History of the Great Civil War_ (1893).

His descendant Thomas, 6th baron (1692-1782), inherited from his mother,

the heiress of Thomas, 2nd Baron Culpepper, large estates in Virginia,

U.S.A., and having sold Denton Hall and his Yorkshire estates he retired

there about 1746, dying a bachelor. He was a friend of George

Washington. Thomas found his cousin William Fairfax settled in Virginia,

and made him his agent, and Bryan (1737-1802), the son of William

Fairfax, eventually inherited the title, becoming 8th baron in 1793. His

claim was admitted by the House of Lords in 1800. But it was practically

dropped by the American family, until, shortly before the coronation of

Edward VII., the successor in title was discovered in Albert Kirby

Fairfax (b. 1870), a descendant of the 8th baron, who was an American

citizen. In November 1908 Albert's claim to the title as 12th baron was

allowed by the House of Lords.

FAIRFIELD, a township in Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., near

Long Island Sound, adjoining Bridgeport on the E. and Westport on the W.

Pop. (1890) 3868; (1900) 4489 (1041 being foreign-born); (1910) 6134. It

is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway. The principal

villages of the township are Fairfield, Southport, Greenfield Hill and

Stratfield. The beautiful scenery and fine sea air attract to the

township a considerable number of summer visitors. The township has the

well-equipped Pequot and Fairfield memorial libraries (the former in the

village of Southport, the latter in the village of Fairfield), the

Fairfield fresh air home (which cares for between one and two hundred

poor children of New York during each summer season), and the Gould home

for self-supporting women. The Fairfield Historical Society has a museum

of antiquities and a collection of genealogical and historical works.

Among Fairfield's manufactures are chemicals, wire and rubber goods.

Truck-gardening is an important industry of the township. In the Pequot

Swamp within the present Fairfield a force of Pequot Indians was badly

defeated in 1637 by some whites, among whom was Roger Ludlow, who,

attracted by the country, founded the settlement in 1639 and gave it its

present name in 1645. Within its original limits were included what are

now the townships of Redding (separated, 1767), Weston (1787) and Easton

(formed from part of Weston in 1845), and parts of the present Westport

and Bridgeport. During the colonial period Fairfield was a place of

considerable importance, but subsequently it was greatly outstripped by

Bridgeport, to which, in 1870, a portion of it was annexed. On the 8th

of July 1779 Fairfield was burned by the British and Hessians under

Governor William Tryon. Among the prominent men who have lived in

Fairfield are Roger Sherman, the first President Dwight of Yale (who

described Fairfield in his _Travels_ and in his poem _Greenfield Hill_),

Chancellor James Kent, and Joseph Earle Sheffield.

See Frank S. Child, _An Old New England Town, Sketches of Life,

Scenery and Character_ (New York, 1895); and Mrs E.H. Schenck,

_History of Fairfield_ (2 vols., New York, 1889-1905).

FAIRFIELD, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Iowa, U.S.A.,

about 51 m. W. by N. of Burlington. Pop. (1890) 3391; (1900) 4689, of

whom 206 were foreign-born and 54 were negroes; (1905) 5009; (1910)

4970. Area, about 2.25 sq. m. Fairfield is served by the Chicago,

Burlington & Quincy, and the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railways.

The city is in a blue grass country, in which much live stock is bred;

and it is an important market for draft horses. It is the seat of

Parsons College (Presbyterian, coeducational, 1875), endowed by Lewis

Baldwin Parsons, Sr. (1798-1855), a merchant of Buffalo, N.Y. The

college offers classical, philosophical and scientific courses, and has

a school of music and an academic department; in 1907-1908 it had 19

instructors and 257 students, of whom 93 were in the college and 97 were

in the school of music. Fairfield has a Carnegie library (1892), and a

museum with a collection of laces. Immediately E. of the city is an

attractive Chautauqua Park, of 30 acres, with an auditorium capable of

seating about 4000 persons; and there is an annual Chautauqua assembly.

The principal manufactures of Fairfield are farm waggons, farming

implements, drain-tile, malleable iron, cotton gloves and mittens and

cotton garments. The municipality owns its waterworks and an

electric-lighting plant. Fairfield was settled in 1839; was incorporated

as a town in 1847; and was first chartered as a city in the same year.

See Charles H. Fletcher, _Jefferson County, Iowa: Centennial History_

(Fairfield, 1876).

FAIRHAVEN, a township in Bristol county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on New

Bedford Harbor, opposite New Bedford. Pop. (1890) 2919; (1900) 3567 (599

being foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4235; (1910) 5122. Area, about

13 sq. m. Fairhaven is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford

railway and by electric railway to Mattapoisett and Marion, and is

connected with New Bedford by two bridges, by electric railway, and by

the New York, New Haven & Hartford ferry line. The principal village is

Fairhaven; others are Oxford, Naskatucket and Sconticut Neck. As a

summer resort Fairhaven is widely known. Among the principal buildings

are the following, presented to the township by Henry H. Rogers

(1840-1909), a native of Fairhaven and a large stockholder and long

vice-president of the Standard Oil Co.; the town hall, a memorial of Mrs

Rogers, the Rogers public schools; the Millicent public library (17,500

vols. in 1908), a memorial to his daughter; and a fine granite memorial

church (Unitarian) with parish house, a memorial to his mother; and

there is also a public park, of 13 acres, the gift of Mr Rogers. From

1830 to 1857 the inhabitants of Fairhaven were chiefly engaged in

whaling, and the fishing interests are still important. Among

manufactures are tacks, nails, iron goods, loom-cranks, glass, yachts

and boats, and shoes.

Fairhaven, originally a part of New Bedford, was incorporated as a

separate township in 1812. On the 5th of September 1778 a fleet and

armed force under Earl Grey, sent to punish New Bedford and what is now

Fairhaven for their activity in privateering, burned the shipping and

destroyed much of New Bedford. The troops then marched to the head of

the Acushnet river, and down the east bank to Sconticut Neck, where they

camped till the 7th of September, when they re-embarked, having

meanwhile dismantled a small fort, built during the early days of the

war, on the east side of the river at the entrance to the harbour. On

the evening of the 8th of September a landing force from the fleet,

which had begun to set fire to Fairhaven, was driven off by a body of

about 150 minute-men commanded by Major Israel Fearing; and on the

following day the fleet departed. The fort was at once rebuilt and was

named Fort Fearing, but as early as 1784 it had become known as Fort

Phoenix; it was one of the strongest defences on the New England coast

during the war of 1812. The township of Acushnet was formed from the

northern part of Fairhaven in 1860.

See James L. Gillingham and others, _A Brief History of the Town of

Fairhaven, Massachusetts_ (Fairhaven, 1903).

FAIRHOLT, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1866), English antiquary and wood

engraver, was born in London in 1814. His father, who was of a German

family (the name was originally Fahrholz), was a tobacco manufacturer,

and for some years Fairholt himself was employed in the business. For a

time he was a drawing-master, afterwards a scene-painter, and in 1835 he

became assistant to S. Sly, the wood engraver. Some pen and ink copies

made by him of figures from Hogarth's plates led to his being employed

by Charles Knight on several of his illustrated publications. His first

published literary work was a contribution to Hone's _Year-Book_ in

1831. His life was one of almost uninterrupted quiet labour, carried on

until within a few days of death. Several works on civic pageantry and

some collections of ancient unpublished songs and dialogues were edited

by him for the Percy Society in 1842. In 1844 he was elected fellow of

the Society of Antiquaries. He published an edition of the dramatic

works of Lyly in 1856. His principal independent works are _Tobacco, its

History, and Association_ (1859); _Gog and Magog_ (1860); _Up the Nile

and Home Again_ (1862); many articles and serials contributed to the

_Art Journal_, some of which were afterwards separately published, as

_Costume in England_ (1846); _Dictionary of Terms in Art_ (1854). These

works are illustrated by numerous cuts, drawn on the wood by his own

hand. His pencil was also employed in illustrating Evans's _Coins of the

Ancient Britons_, Madden's _Jewish Coinage_, Halliwell's folio

_Shakespeare_ and his _Sir John Maundeville_, Roach Smith's

_Richborough_, the _Miscellanea Graphica_ of Lord Londesborough, and

many other works. He died on the 3rd of April 1866. His books relating

to Shakespeare were bequeathed to the library at Stratford-on-Avon;

those on civic pageantry (between 200 and 300 volumes) to the Society of

Antiquaries; his old prints and works on costume to the British Museum;

his general library he desired to be sold and the proceeds devoted to

the Literary Fund.

FAIRMONT, a city and the county-seat of Marion county, West Virginia,

U.S.A., on both sides of the Monongahela river, about 75 m. S.E. of

Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 1023; (1900) 5655, of whom 283 were negroes and

182 foreign-born; (1910) 9711. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio

railway. Among its manufactures are glass, machinery, flour and

furniture, and it is an important shipping point for coal mined in the

vicinity. The city is the seat of one of the West Virginia state normal

schools. Fairmont was laid out as Middletown in 1819, became the

county-seat of the newly established Marion county in 1842, received its

present name about 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1899.

FAIR OAKS, a station on a branch of the Southern railway, 6 m. E. of

Richmond, Virginia, U.S.A. It is noted as the site of one of the battles

of the Civil War, fought on the 31st of May and the 1st of June 1862,

between the Union (Army of the Potomac) under General G.B. McClellan and

the Confederate forces (Army of Northern Virginia) commanded by General

J.E. Johnston. The attack of the Confederates was made at a moment when

the river Chickahominy divided the Federal army into two unequal parts,

and was, moreover, swollen to such a degree as to endanger the bridges.

General Johnston stationed part of his troops along the river to prevent

the Federals sending aid to the smaller force south of it, upon which

the Confederate attack, commanded by General Longstreet, was directed.

Many accidents, due to the inexperience of the staff officers and to the

difficulty of the ground, hindered the development of Longstreet's

attack, but the Federals were gradually driven back with a loss of ten

guns, though at the last moment reinforcements managed to cross the

river and re-establish the line of defence. At the close of the day

Johnston was severely wounded, and General G.W. Smith succeeded to the

command. The battle was renewed on the 1st of June but not fought out.

At the close of the action General R.E. Lee took over the command of the

Confederates, which he held till the final surrender in April 1865. So

far as the victory lay with either side, it was with the Union army, for

the Confederates failed to achieve their purpose of destroying the

almost isolated left wing of McClellan's army, and after the battle they

withdrew into the lines of Richmond. The Union losses were 5031 in

killed, wounded and missing; those of the Confederates were 6134. The

battle is sometimes known as the battle of Seven Pines.

FAIRUZABADI [Abu-t-Tahir ibn Ibrahim Majd ud-Din ul-Fairuzabadi]

(1329-1414), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Karazin near Shiraz. His

student days were spent in Shiraz, Wasit, Bagdad and Damascus. He taught

for ten years in Jerusalem, and afterwards travelled in western Asia

and Egypt. In 1368 he settled in Mecca, where he remained for fifteen

years. He next visited India and spent some time in Delhi, then remained

in Mecca another ten years. The following three years were spent in

Bagdad, in Shiraz (where he was received by Timur), and in Ta'iz. In

1395 he was appointed chief cadi (qadi) of Yemen, married a daughter of

the sultan, and died at Zabid in 1414. During this last period of his

life he converted his house at Mecca into a school of Malikite law and

established three teachers in it. He wrote a huge lexicographical work

of 60 or 100 volumes uniting the dictionaries of Ibn Sida, a Spanish

philologist (d. 1066), and of Sajani (d. 1252). A digest of or an

extract from this last work is his famous dictionary _al-Qamus_ ("the

Ocean"), which has been published in Egypt, Constantinople and India,

has been translated into Turkish and Persian, and has itself been the

basis of several later dictionaries. (G. W. T.)

FAIRY (Fr. _fee_, _faerie_; Prov. _fada_; Sp. _hada_; Ital. _fata_; med.

Lat. _fatare_, to enchant, from Lat. _fatum_, fate, destiny), the common

term for a supposed race of supernatural beings who magically

intermeddle in human affairs. Of all the minor creatures of mythology

the fairies are the most beautiful, the most numerous, the most

memorable in literature. Like all organic growths, whether of nature or

of the fancy, they are not the immediate product of one country or of

one time; they have a pedigree, and the question of their ancestry and

affiliation is one of wide bearing. But mixture and connexion of races

have in this as in many other cases so changed the original folk-product

that it is difficult to disengage and separate the different strains

that have gone to the making or moulding of the result as we have it.

It is not in literature, however ancient, that we must look for the

early forms of the fairy belief. Many of Homer's heroes have fairy

lemans, called nymphs, fairies taken up into a higher region of poetry

and religion; and the fairy leman is notable in the story of Athamas and

his cloud bride Nephele, but this character is as familiar to the

unpoetical Eskimo, and to the Red Indians, with their bird-bride and

beaver-bride (see A. Lang's _Custom and Myth_, "The Story of Cupid and

Psyche"). The Gandharvas of Sanskrit poetry are also fairies.

One of the most interesting facts about fairies is the wide distribution

and long persistence of the belief in them. They are the chief factor in

surviving Irish superstition. Here they dwell in the "raths," old

earth-forts, or earthen bases of later palisaded dwellings of the Norman

period, and in the subterranean houses, common also in Scotland. They

are an organized people, often called "the army," and their life

corresponds to human life in all particulars. They carry off children,

leaving changeling substitutes, transport men and women into fairyland,

and are generally the causes of all mysterious phenomena. Whirls of dust

are caused by the fairy marching army, as by the being called Kutchi in

the Dieri tribe of Australia. In 1907, in northern Ireland, a farmer's

house was troubled with flying stones (see POLTERGEIST). The neighbours

said that the fairies caused the phenomenon, as the man had swept his

chimney with a bough of holly, and the holly is "a gentle tree," dear to

the fairies. The fairy changeling belief also exists in some districts

of Argyll, and a fairy boy dwelt long in a small farm-house in Glencoe,

now unoccupied.

In Ireland and the west Highlands neolithic arrow-heads and flint chips

are still fairy weapons. They are dipped in water, which is given to

ailing cattle and human beings as a sovereign remedy for diseases. The

writer knows of "a little lassie in green" who is a fairy and, according

to the percipients, haunts the banks of the Mukomar pool on the Lochy.

In Glencoe is a fairy hill where the fairy music, vocal and

instrumental, is heard in still weather. In the Highlands, however,

there is much more interest in second sight than in fairies, while in

Ireland the reverse is the case. The best book on Celtic fairy lore is

still that of the minister of Aberfoyle, the Rev. Mr Kirk (_ob._ 1692).

His work on _The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies_, left

in MS. and incomplete (the remainder is in the Laing MSS., Edinburgh

University library), was published (a hundred copies) in 1815 by Sir

Walter Scott, and in the Bibliotheque de Carabas (Lang) there is a

French translation. Mr Kirk is said (though his tomb exists) to have

been carried away by fairies. He appeared to a friend and said that he

would come again, when the friend must throw a dirk over his shoulder

and he would return to this world. The friend, however, lost his nerve

and did not throw the dirk. In the same way a woman reappeared to her

husband in Glencoe in the last generation, but he was wooing another

lass and did not make any effort to recover his wife. His character was

therefore lost in the glen.

It is clear that in many respects fairyland corresponds to the

pre-Christian abode of the dead. Like Persephone when carried to Hades,

or Wainamoinen in the Hades of the Finns (Manala), a living human being

must not eat in fairyland; if he does, he dwells there for ever. Tamlane

in the ballad, however, was "fat and fair of flesh," yet was rescued by

Janet: probably he had not abstained from fairy food. He was to be given

as the _kane_ to Hell, which shows a distinction between the beliefs in

hell and in the place of fairies.

It is a not uncommon theory that the fairies survive in legend from

prehistoric memories of a pigmy people dwelling in the subterranean

earth-houses, but the contents of these do not indicate an age prior to

the close of the Roman occupation of Britain; nor are pigmy bones common

in neolithic sepulchres. The "people of peace" (_Daoine Shie_) of

Ireland and Scotland are usually of ordinary stature, indeed not to be

recognized as varying from mankind except by their proceedings (see J.

Curtin, _Irish Folk-tales_).

The belief in a species of lady fairies, deathly to their human lovers,

was found by R.L. Stevenson to be as common in Samoa (see _Island

Nights' Entertainments_) as in Strathfinlas or on the banks of Loch Awe.

In New Caledonia a native friend of J.J. Atkinson (author of _Primal

Law_) told him that he had met and caressed the girl of his heart in the

forest, that she had vanished and must have been a fairy. He therefore

would die in three days, which (Mr Atkinson informs the writer) he

punctually did. The Greek sirens of Homer are clearly a form of these

deadly fairies, as the Nereids and Oreads and Naiads are fairies of

wells, mountains and the sea. The fairy women who come to the births of

children and foretell their fortunes (_Fata_, _Moerae_, ancient Egyptian

_Hathors_, _Fees_, _Dominae Fatales_), with their spindles, are

refractions of the human "spae-women" (in the Scots term) who attend at

birth and derive omens of the child's future from various signs. The

custom is common among several savage races, and these women,

represented in the spiritual world by _Fata_, bequeath to us the French

_fee_, in the sense of fairy. Perrault also uses _fee_ for anything that

has magical quality; "the key was _fee_," had _mana_, or _wakan_, savage

words for the supposed "power," or _ether_, which works magic or is the

vehicle of magical influences.

Though the fairy belief is universally human, the nearest analogy to the

shape which it takes in Scotland and Ireland--the "pixies" of

south-western England--is to be found in _Jan_ or _Jinnis_ of the Arabs,

Moors and people of Palestine. In stories which have passed through a

literary medium, like _The Arabian Nights_, the _geni_ or _Jan_ do not

so much resemble our fairies as they do in the popular superstitions of

the East, orally collected. The _Jan_ are now a subterranean

commonwealth, now they reside in ruinous places, like the fairies in the

Irish raths. Like the fairies they go about in whirls of dust, or the

dust-whirls themselves are _Jan_. They carry off men and women "to their

own herd," in the phrase of Mr Kirk, and are kind to mortals who are

kind to them. They chiefly differ from our fairies in their greater

tendency to wear animal forms; though, like the fairies, when they

choose to appear in human shape they are not to be distinguished from

men and women of mortal mould. Like the fairies everywhere they have

amours with mortals, such as that of the Queen of Faery with Thomas of

Ercildoune. The herb rue is potent against them, as in British

folk-lore, and a man long captive among the _Jan_ escaped from them by

observing their avoidance of rue, and by plucking two handfuls thereof.

They, like the British brownies (a kind of domesticated fairy), are the

causes of strange disappearances of things. To preserve houses from

their influences, rue, that "herb of grace," is kept in the apartments,

and the name of Allah is constantly invoked. If this is omitted, things

are stolen by the _Jan_.

They often bear animal names, and it is dangerous to call a cat or dog

without pointing at the animal, for a _Jinni_ of the same name may be

present and may take advantage of the invocation. A man, in fun, called

to a goat to escort his wife on a walk: he did not point at the goat,

and the wife disappeared. A _Jinni_ had carried her off, and her husband

had to seek her at the court of the _Jan_. Euphemistically they are

addressed as _mubarakin_, "blessed ones," as we say "the good folk" or

"the people of peace." As our fairies give gold which changes into

withered leaves, the _Jan_ give onion peels which turn into gold. Like

our fairies the _Jan_ can apply an ointment, kohl, to human eyes, after

which the person so favoured can see _Jan_, or fairies, which are

invisible to other mortals, and can see treasure wherever it may be

concealed (see _Folk-lore of the Holy Land_, by J.E. Hanauer, 1907).

It is plain that fairies and _Jan_ are practically identical, a curious

proof of the uniformity of the working of imagination in peoples widely

separated in race and religion. Fairies naturally won their way into the

poetry of the middle ages. They take lovers from among men, and are

often described as of delicate, unearthly, ravishing beauty. The

enjoyment of their charms is, however, generally qualified by some

restriction or compact, the breaking of which is the cause of calamity

to the lover and all his race, as in the notable tale of Melusine. This

fay by enchantment built the castle of Lusignan for her husband. It was

her nature to take every week the form of a serpent from the waist

below. The hebdomadal transformation being once, contrary to compact,

witnessed by her husband, she left him with much wailing, and was said

to return and give warning by her appearance and great shrieks whenever

one of the race of Lusignan was about to die. At the birth of Ogier le

Danois six fairies attend, five of whom give good gifts, which the sixth

overrides with a restriction. Gervaise of Tilbury, writing early in the

13th century, has in his _Otia Imperialia_ a chapter, _De lamiis et

nocturnis larvis_, where he gives it out, as proved by individuals

beyond all exception, that men have been lovers of beings of this kind

whom they call _Fadas_, and who did in case of infidelity or

infringement of secrecy inflict terrible punishment--the loss of goods

and even of life. There seems little in the characteristics of these

fairies of romance to distinguish them from human beings, except their

supernatural knowledge and power. They are not often represented as

diminutive in stature, and seem to be subject to such human passions as

love, jealousy, envy and revenge. To this class belong the fairies of

Boiardo, Ariosto and Spenser.

There is no good modern book on the fairy belief in general.

Keightley's _Fairy Mythology_ is full of interesting matter; Rhys's

_Celtic Mythology_ is especially copious about Welsh fairies, which

are practically identical with those of Ireland and Scotland. The

works of Mr Jeremiah Curtin and Dr Douglas Hyde are useful for

Ireland; for Scotland, Kirk's _Secret Commonwealth_ has already been

quoted. Scott's dissertation on fairies in _The Border Minstrelsy_ is

rich in lore, though necessarily Scott had not the wide field of

comparative study opened by more recent researches. There is a full

description of French fairies of the 15th century in the evidence of

Jeanne d'Arc at her trial (1431) in Quicherat's _Proces de Jeanne

d'Arc_, vol. i. pp. 67, 68, 187, 209, 212, vol. ii. pp. 390, 404, 450.

(A. L.)

FAIRY RING, the popular name for the circular patches of a dark green

colour that are to be seen occasionally on permanent grass-land, either

lawn or meadow, on which the fairies were supposed to hold their

midnight revels. They mark the area of growth of some fungus, starting

from a centre of one or more plants. The mycelium produced from the

spores dropped by the fungus or from the "spawn" in the soil, radiates

outwards, and each year's successive crop of fungi rises from the new

growth round the circle. The rich colour of the grass is due to the

fertilizing quality of the decaying fungi, which are peculiarly rich in

nitrogenous substances. The most complete and symmetrical grass rings

are formed by _Marasmius orcades_, the fairy ring champignon, but the

mushroom and many other species occasionally form rings, both on

grass-lands and in woods. Observations were made on a ring in a

pine-wood for a period of nine years, and it was calculated that it

increased from centre to circumference about 8-1/2 in. each year. The

fungus was never found growing within the circle during the time the

ring was under observation, the decaying vegetation necessary for its

growth having become exhausted.

FAITHFULL, EMILY (1835-1895), English philanthropist, was the youngest

daughter of the Rev. Ferdinand Faithfull, and was born at Headley

Rectory, Surrey, in 1835. She took a great interest in the conditions of

working-women, and with the object of extending their sphere of labour,

which was then painfully limited, in 1860 she set up in London a

printing establishment for women. The "Victoria Press," as it was

called, soon obtained quite a reputation for its excellent work, and

Miss Faithfull was shortly afterwards appointed printer and publisher in

ordinary to Queen Victoria. In 1863 she began the publication of a

monthly organ, _The Victoria Magazine_, in which for eighteen years she

continuously and earnestly advocated the claims of women to remunerative

employment. In 1868 she published a novel, _Change upon Change_. She

also appeared as a lecturer, and with the object of furthering the

interests of her sex, lectured widely and successfully both in England

and the United States, which latter she visited in 1872 and 1882. In

1888 she was awarded a civil list pension of L50. She died in Manchester

on the 31st of May 1895.

FAITH HEALING, a form of "mind cure," characterized by the doctrine that

while pain and disease really exist, they may be neutralized and

dispelled by faith in Divine power; the doctrine known as Christian

Science (q.v.) holds, however, that pain is only an illusion and seeks to

cure the patient by instilling into him this belief. In the Christian

Church the tradition of faith healing dates from the earliest days of

Christianity; upon the miracles of the New Testament follow cases of

healing, first by the Apostles, then by their successors; but faith

healing proper is gradually, from the 3rd century onwards, transformed

into trust in relics, though faith cures still occur sporadically in

later times. Catherine of Siena is said to have saved Father Matthew from

dying of the plague, but in this case it is rather the healer than the

healed who was strong in faith. With the Reformation faith healing proper

reappears among the Moravians and Waldenses, who, like the Peculiar

People of our own day, put their trust in prayer and anointing with oil.

In the 16th century we find faith cures recorded of Luther and other

reformers, in the next century of the Baptists, Quakers and other Puritan

sects, and in the 18th century the faith healing of the Methodists in

this country was paralleled by Pietism in Germany, which drew into its

ranks so distinguished a man of science as Stahl (1660-1734). In the 19th

century Prince Hohenlohe-Waldenburg-Schillingsfurst, canon of

Grosswardein, was a famous healer on the continent; the Mormons and

Irvingites were prominent among English-speaking peoples; in the last

quarter of the 19th century faith healing became popular in London, and

Bethshan homes were opened in 1881, and since then it has found many

adherents in England.

Under faith healing in a wider sense may be included (1) the cures in

the temples of Aesculapius and other deities in the ancient world; (2)

the practice of touching for the king's evil, in vogue from the 11th to

the 18th century; (3) the cures of Valentine Greatrakes, the "Stroker"

(1629-1683); and (4) the miracles of Lourdes, and other resorts of

pilgrims, among which may be mentioned St Winifred's Well in Flintshire,

Treves with its Holy Coat, the grave of the Jansenist F. de Paris in the

18th century, the little town of Kevelaer from 1641 onwards, the tombs

of St Louis, Francis of Assisi, Catherine of Siena and others.

An animistic theory of disease was held by Pastor J. Ch. Blumhardt,

Dorothea Trudel, Boltzius and other European faith healers. Used in this

sense faith healing is indistinguishable from much of savage

leech-craft, which seeks to cure disease by expelling the evil spirit in

some portion of the body. Although it is usually present, faith in the

medicine man is not essential for the efficacy of the method. The same

may be said of the lineal descendant of savage medicine--the magical

leech-craft of European folk-lore; cures for toothache, warts, &c., act

in spite of the disbelief of the sufferer; how far incredulity on the

part of the healer would result in failure is an open question.

From the psychological point of view all these different kinds of faith

healing, as indeed all kinds of mind cure, including those of Christian

Science and hypnotism, depend on suggestion (q.v.). In faith healing

proper not only are powerful direct suggestions used, but the religious

atmosphere and the auto-suggestions of the patient co-operate,

especially where the cures take place during a period of religious

revival or at other times when large assemblies and strong emotions are

found. The suggestibility of large crowds is markedly greater than that

of individuals, and to this and the greater faith must be attributed the

greater success of the fashionable places of pilgrimage.

See A.T. Myers and F.W.H. Myers in _Proc. Soc. Psychical Research_,

ix. 160-209, on the miracles of Lourdes, with bibliography; A.

Feilding, _Faith Healing and Christian Science_; O. Stoll, _Suggestion

und Hypnotismus in der Volkerpsychologie_; article "Greatrakes" in

_Dict. Nat. Biog._ (N. W. T.)

FAITHORNE, WILLIAM (1626 or 1627-1691), English painter and engraver,

was born in London and was apprenticed to Robert Peake, a painter and

printseller, who received the honour of knighthood from Charles I. On

the outbreak of the Civil War he accompanied his master into the king's

service, and being made prisoner at Basinghouse, he was confined for

some time to Aldersgate, where, however, he was permitted to follow his

profession of engraver, and among other portraits did a small one of the

first Villiers, duke of Buckingham. At the earnest solicitation of his

friends he very soon regained his liberty, but only on condition of

retiring to France. There he was so fortunate as to receive instruction

from Robert Nanteuil. He was permitted to return to England about 1650,

and took up a shop near Temple Bar, where, besides his work as an

engraver, he carried on a large business as a printseller. In 1680 he

gave up his shop and retired to a house in Blackfriars, occupying

himself chiefly in painting portraits from the life in crayons, although

still occasionally engaged in engraving. It is said that his life was

shortened by the misfortunes, dissipation, and early death of his son

William. Faithorne is especially famous as a portrait engraver, and

among those on whom he exercised his art were a large number of eminent

persons, including Sir Henry Spelman, Oliver Cromwell, Henry Somerset,

the marquis of Worcester, John Milton, Queen Catherine, Prince Rupert,

Cardinal Richelieu, Sir Thomas Fairfax, Thomas Hobbes, Richard Hooker,

Robert second earl of Essex, and Charles I. All his works are remarkable

for their combination of freedom and strength with softness and

delicacy, and his crayon paintings unite to these the additional quality

of clear and brilliant colouring. He is the author of a work on

engraving (1622).

His son WILLIAM (1656-1686), mezzotint engraver, at an early age gave

promise of attaining great excellence, but became idle and dissipated,

and involved his father in money difficulties. Among persons of note

whose portraits he engraved are Charles II., Mary princess of Orange,

Queen Anne when princess of Denmark, and Charles XII. of Sweden.

The best account of the Faithornes is that contained in Walpole's

_Anecdotes of Painting_. A life of Faithorne the elder is preserved in

the British Museum among the papers of Mr Bayford, librarian to Lord

Oxford, and an intimate friend of Faithorne.

FAIZABAD, a town of Afghanistan, capital of the province of Badakshan,

situated on the Kokcha river. In 1821 it was destroyed by Murad Beg of

Kunduz, and the inhabitants removed to Kunduz. But since Badakshan was

annexed by Abdur Rahman, the town has recovered its former importance,

and is now a considerable place of trade. It is the chief cantonment for

eastern Afghanistan and the Pamir region, and is protected by a fort

built in 1904.

FAJARDO, a district and town on the E. coast of Porto Rico, belonging to

the department of Humacao. Pop. (1899) of the district, 16,782; and of

the town, 3414. The district is highly fertile and is well watered,

owing in great measure to its abundant rainfall. Sugar production is its

principal industry, but some attention is also given to the growing of

oranges and pineapples. The town, which was founded in 1774, is a busy

commercial centre standing 1-1/4 m. from a large and well-sheltered bay,

at the entrance to which is the cape called Cabeza de San Juan. It is

the market town for a number of small islands off the E. coast, some of

which produce cattle for export.

FAKHR UD-DIN RAZI (1149-1209), Arabian historian and theologian, was the

son of a preacher, himself a writer, and was born at Rai (Rei, Rhagae),

near Tehran, where he received his earliest training. Here and at

Maragha, whither he followed his teacher Majd ud-Din ul-Jili, he studied

philosophy and theology. He was a Shaf'ite in law and a follower of

Ash'ari (q.v.) in theology, and became renowned as a defender of

orthodoxy. During a journey in Khwarizm and Mawara'l-nahr he preached

both in Persian and Arabic against the sects of Islam. After this tour

he returned to his native city, but settled later in Herat, where he

died. His dogmatic positions may be seen from his work _Kitab

ul-Muhassal_, which is analysed by Schmolders in his _Essai sur les

ecoles philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842). Extracts from his

_History of the Dynasties_ were published by Jourdain in the _Fundgruben

des Orients_ (vol. v.), and by D.R. Heinzius (St Petersburg, 1828). His

greatest work is the _Mafatih ul-Ghaib_ ("The Keys of Mystery"), an

extensive commentary on the Koran published at Cairo (8 vols., 1890) and

elsewhere; it is specially full in its exposition of Ash'arite theology

and its use of early and late Mu'tazilite writings.

For an account of his life see F. Wustenfeld's _Geschichte der

arabischen Arzte_, No. 200 (Gottingen, 1840); for a list of his works

cf. C. Brockelmann's _Gesch. der arabischen Literatur_, vol. 1

(Weimar, 1898), pp. 506 ff. An account of his teaching is given by M.

Schreiner in the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen

Gesellschaft_ (vol. 52, pp. 505 ff.). (G. W. T.)

FAKIR (from Arabic _faqir_, "poor"), a term equivalent to _Dervish_

(q.v.) or Mahommedan religious mendicant, but which has come to be

specially applied to the Hindu devotees and ascetics of India. There are

two classes of these Indian Fakirs, (1) the religious orders, and (2)

the nomad rogues who infest the country. The ascetic orders resemble the

Franciscans of Christianity. The bulk lead really excellent lives in

monasteries, which are centres of education and poor-relief; while

others go out to visit the poor as Gurus or teachers. Strict celibacy is

not enforced among them. These orders are of very ancient date, owing

their establishment to the ancient Hindu rule, followed by the

Buddhists, that each "twice-born" man should lead in the woods the life

of an ascetic. The second class of Fakirs are simply disreputable

beggars who wander round extorting, under the guise of religion, alms

from the charitable and practising on the superstitions of the

villagers. As a rule they make no real pretence of leading a religious

life. They are said to number nearly a million. Many of them are known

as "Jogi," and lay claim to miraculous powers which they declare have

become theirs by the practice of abstinence and extreme austerities. The

tortures which some of these wretches will inflict upon themselves are

almost incredible. They will hold their arms over their heads until the

muscles atrophy, will keep their fists clenched till the nails grow

through the palms, will lie on beds of nails, cut and stab themselves,

drag, week after week, enormous chains loaded with masses of iron, or

hang themselves before a fire near enough to scorch. Most of them are

inexpressibly filthy and verminous. Among the filthiest are the Aghoris,

who preserve the ancient cannibal ritual of the followers of Siva, eat

filth, and use a human skull as a drinking-vessel. Formerly the fakirs

were always nude and smeared with ashes; but now they are compelled to

wear some pretence of clothing. The natives do not really respect these

wandering friars, but they dread their curses.

See John Campbell Oman, _The Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_

(1903), and Indian Census Reports.

FALAISE, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in

the department of Calvados, on the right bank of the Ante, 19 m. S. by

E. of Caen by road. Pop. (1906) 6215. The principal object of interest

is the castle, now partly in ruins, but formerly the seat of the dukes

of Normandy and the birthplace of William the Conqueror. It is situated

on a lofty crag overlooking the town, and consists of a square mass

defended by towers and flanked by a small donjon and a lofty tower added

by the English in the 15th century; the rest of the castle dates chiefly

from the 12th century. Near the castle, in the Place de la Trinite, is

an equestrian statue in bronze of William the Conqueror, to whom the

town owed its prosperity. The churches of La Trinite and St Gervais

combine the Gothic and Renaissance styles of architecture, and St

Gervais also includes Romanesque workmanship. A street passes by way of

a tunnel beneath the choir of La Trinite. Falaise has populous suburbs,

one of which, Guibray, is celebrated for its annual fair for horses,

cattle and wool, which has been held in August since the 11th century.

The town is the seat of a subprefecture and has tribunals of first

instance and commerce, a chamber of arts and manufacture, a board of

trade-arbitrators and a communal college. Tanning and important

manufactures of hosiery are carried on.

From 1417, when after a siege of forty-seven days it succumbed to Henry

V., king of England, till 1450, when it was retaken by the French,

Falaise was in the hands of the English.

FALASHAS (i.e. exiles; Ethiopic _falas_, a stranger), or "Jews of

Abyssinia," a tribe of Hamitic stock, akin to Galla, Somali and Beja,

though they profess the Jewish religion. They claim to be descended from

the ten tribes banished from the Holy Land. Another tradition assigns

them as ancestor Menelek, Solomon's alleged son by the queen of Sheba.

There is little or no physical difference between them and the typical

Abyssinians, except perhaps that their eyes are a little more oblique;

and they may certainly be regarded as Hamitic. It is uncertain when they

became Jews: one account suggests in Solomon's time; another, at the

Babylonian captivity; a third, during the 1st century of the Christian

era. That one of the earlier dates is correct seems probable from the

fact that the Falashas know nothing of either the Babylonian or

Jerusalem Talmud, make no use of phylacteries (_tefillin_), and observe

neither the feast of Purim nor the dedication of the temple. They

possess--not in Hebrew, of which they are altogether ignorant, but in

Ethiopic (or Geez)--the canonical and apocryphal books of the Old

Testament; a volume of extracts from the Pentateuch, with comments given

to Moses by God on Mount Sinai; the Te-e-sa-sa Sanbat, or laws of the

Sabbath; the Ardit, a book of secrets revealed to twelve saints, which

is used as a charm against disease; lives of Abraham, Moses, &c.; and a

translation of Josephus called Sana Aihud. A copy of the Orit or Mosaic

law is kept in the holy of holies in every synagogue. Various pagan

observances are mingled in their ritual: every newly-built house is

considered uninhabitable till the blood of a sheep or fowl has been

spilt in it; a woman guilty of a breach of chastity has to undergo

purification by leaping into a flaming fire; the Sabbath has been

deified, and, as the goddess Sanbat, receives adoration and sacrifice

and is said to have ten thousand times ten thousand angels to wait on

her commands. There is a monastic system, introduced it is said in the

4th century A.D. by Aba Zebra, a pious man who retired from the world

and lived in the cave of Hoharewa, in the province of Armatshoho. The

monks must prepare all their food with their own hands, and no lay

person, male or female, may enter their houses. Celibacy is not

practised by the priests, but they are not allowed to marry a second

time, and no one is admitted into the order who has eaten bread with a

Christian, or is the son or grandson of a man thus contaminated. Belief

in the evil eye or shadow is universal, and spirit-raisers, soothsayers

and rain-doctors are in repute. Education is in the hands of the monks

and priests, and is confined to boys. Fasts, obligatory on all above

seven years of age, are held on every Monday and Thursday, on every new

moon, and at the passover (the 21st or 22nd of April). The annual

festivals are the passover, the harvest feast, the Baala Mazalat or

feast of tabernacles (during which, however, no booths are built), the

day of covenant or assembly and Abraham's day. It is believed that after

death the soul remains in a place of darkness till the third day, when

the first sacrifice for the dead is offered; prayers are read in the

synagogue for the repose of the departed, and for seven days a formal

lament takes place every morning in his house. No coffins are used, and

a stone vault is built over the corpse so that it may not come into

direct contact with the earth.

The Falashas are an industrious people, living for the most part in

villages of their own, or, if they settle in a Christian or Mahommedan

town, occupying a separate quarter. They had their own kings, who, they

pretend, were descended from David, from the 10th century until 1800,

when the royal race became extinct, and they then became subject to the

Abyssinian kingdom of Tigre. They do not mix with the Abyssinians, and

never marry women of alien religions. They are even forbidden to enter

the houses of Christians, and from such a pollution have to be purified

before entering their own houses. Polygamy is not practised; early

marriages are rare, and their morals are generally better than those of

their Christian masters. Unlike most Jews, they have no liking for

trade, but are skilled in agriculture, in the manufacture of pottery,

ironware and cloth, and are good masons. Their numbers are variously

estimated at from one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand.

Bibliography.--M. Flad, _Zwolf Jahre in Abyssinia_ (Basel, 1869), and

his _Falashas of Abyssinia_, translated from the German by S.P.

Goodhart (London, 1869); H.A. Stern, _Wanderings among the Falashas in

Abyssinia_ (London, 1862); Joseph Halevy, _Travels in Abyssinia_

(trans. London, 1878); Morais, "The Falashas" in _Penn Monthly_

(Philadelphia, 1880); Cyrus Adler, "Bibliography of the Falashas" in

_American Hebrew_ (16th of March 1894); Lewin, "Ein verlassener

Bruderstamm," in Bloch's _Wochenschrift_ (7th February 1902), p. 85;

J. Faitlovitch, _Notes d'un voyage chez les Falachas_ (Paris, 1905).

FALCAO, CHRISTOVAO DE SOUSA (? 1512-1557), Portuguese poet, came of a

noble family settled at Portalegre in the Alemtejo, which had originated

with John Falcon or Falconet, one of the Englishmen who went to Portugal

in 1386 in the suite of Philippa of Lancaster. His father, Joao Vaz de

Almada Falcao, was an upright public servant who had held the captaincy

of Elmina on the West African coast, but died, as he had lived, a poor

man. There is a tradition that in boyhood Christovao fell in love with a

beautiful child and rich heiress, D. Maria Brandao, and in 1526 married

her clandestinely, but parental opposition prevented the ratification of

the marriage. Family pride, it is said, drove the father of Christovao

to keep his son under strict surveillance in his own house for five

years, while the lady's parents, objecting to the youth's small means,

put her into the Cistercian convent of Lorvao, and there endeavoured to

wean her heart from him by the accusation that he coveted her fortune

more than her person. Their arguments and the promise of a good match

ultimately prevailed, and in 1534 D. Maria left the convent to marry D.

Luis de Silva, captain of Tangier, while the broken-hearted Christovao

told his sad story in some beautiful lyrics and particularly in the

eclogue _Chrisfal_. He had been the disciple and friend of the poets

Bernardim Ribeiro and Sa de Miranda, and when his great disappointment

came, Falcao laid aside poetry and entered on a diplomatic career. There

is documentary evidence that he was employed at the Portuguese embassy

in Rome in 1542, but he soon returned to Portugal, and we find him at

court again in 1548 and 1551. The date of his death, as of his birth, is

uncertain. Such is the story accepted by Dr Theophilo Braga, the

historian of Portuguese literature, but Senhor Guimaraes shows that the

first part is doubtful, and, putting aside the testimony of a

contemporary and grave writer, Diogo do Couto, he even denies the title

of poet to Christovao Falcao, arguing from internal and other evidence

that _Chrisfal_ is the work of Bernardim Ribeiro; his destructive

criticism is, however, stronger than his constructive work. The eclogue,

with its 104 verses, is the very poem of _saudade_, and its simple,

direct language and chaste and tender feeling, enshrined in exquisitely

sounding verses, has won for its author lasting fame and a unique

position in Portuguese literature. Its influence on later poets has been

very considerable, and Camoens used several of the verses as proverbs.

The poetical works of Christovao Falcao were published anonymously,

owing, it is supposed, to their personal nature and allusions, and,

in part or in whole, they have been often reprinted. There is a modern

critical edition of _Chrisfal_ and a _Carta_ (letter) by A. Epiphanio

da Silva Dias under the title _Obras de Christovao Falcao_ (Oporto,

1893), and one of the _Cantigas_ and _Esparsas_ by the same scholar

appeared in the _Revista Lusitana_, vol. 4, pp. 142-179 (Lisbon,

1896), under the name _Fragmento de um Cancioneiro do Seculo XVI_. See

_Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo_, by Dr T. Braga (Oporto, 1897), and

_Bernardim Ribeiro_ (_O Poeta Crisfal_), by Delfim Guimaraes (Lisbon,

1908). (E. Pr.)

FALCK, ANTON REINHARD (1777-1843), Dutch statesman, was born at Utrecht

on the 19th of March 1777. He studied at the university of Leiden, and

entered the Dutch diplomatic service, being appointed to the legation at

Madrid. Under King Louis Napoleon he was secretary-general for foreign

affairs, but resigned office on the annexation of the Batavian republic

to France. He took a leading part in the revolt of 1813 against French

domination, and had a considerable share in the organization of the new

kingdom of the Netherlands. As minister of education under William I. he

reorganized the universities of Ghent, Louvain and Liege and the Royal

Academy of Brussels. Side by side with his activities in education he

directed the departments of trade and the colonies. Falck was called in

Holland the king's good genius, but William I. presently tired of his

counsels and he was superseded by Van Maanen. He was ambassador in

London when the disturbances of 1830 convinced him of the necessity of

the separation of Belgium from Holland. He consequently resigned his

post and lived in close retirement until 1839, when he became the first

Dutch minister at the Belgian court. He died at Brussels on the 16th of

March 1843. Besides some historical works he left a correspondence of

considerable political interest, printed in _Brieven van A.R. Falck_,

1795-1843 (2nd ed. The Hague, 1861), and _Ambtsbrieven van A.R. Falck_

(ibid. 1878).

FALCON, the most northern state of Venezuela, with an extensive coast

line on the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Venezuela. Pop. (1905 est.)

173,968. It lies between the Caribbean on the N. and the state of Lara

on the S., with Zulia and the Gulf of Venezuela on the W. Its surface is

much broken by irregular ranges of low mountains, and extensive areas on

the coast are sandy plains and tropical swamps. The climate is hot, but,

being tempered by the trade winds, is not considered unhealthy except in

the swampy districts. The state is sparsely settled and has no large

towns, its capital, Coro, being important chiefly because of its

history, and as the entrepot for an extensive inland district. The only

port in the state is La Vela de Coro, on a small bay of the same name, 7

m. E. of the capital, with which it is connected by railway.

FALCON (Lat. _Falco_;[1] Fr. _Faucon_; Teutonic, _Falk_ or _Valken_), a

word now restricted to the high-couraged and long-winged birds of prey

which take their quarry as it moves; but formerly it had a very

different meaning, being by the naturalists of the 18th and even of the

19th century extended to a great number of birds comprised in the genus

_Falco_ of Linnaeus and writers of his day,[2] while, on the other hand,

by falconers, it was, and still is, technically limited to the _female_

of the birds employed by them in their vocation (see FALCONRY), whether

"long-winged" and therefore "noble," or "short-winged" and "ignoble."

According to modern usage, the majority of the falcons, in the sense

first given, may be separated into _five_ very distinct groups: (1) the

falcons pure and simple (_Falco_ proper); (2) the large northern falcons

(_Hierofalco_, Cuvier); (3) the "desert falcons" (_Gennaea_, Kaup); (4)

the merlins (_Aesalon_, Kaup); and (5) the hobbies (_Hypotriorchis_,

Boie). A sixth group, the kestrels (_Tinnunculus_, Vieillot), is often

added. This, however, appears to have been justifiably reckoned a

distinct genus.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Peregrine Falcon.]

The typical falcon is by common consent allowed to be that almost

cosmopolitan species to which unfortunately the English epithet

"peregrine" (i.e. strange or wandering) has been attached. It is the

_Falco peregrinus_ of Tunstall (1771) and of most recent ornithologists,

though some prefer the specific name _communis_ applied by J.F. Gmelin a

few years later (1788) to a bird which, if his diagnosis be correct,

could not have been a true falcon at all, since it had yellow irides--a

colour never met with in the eyes of any bird now called by naturalists

a "falcon." This species inhabits suitable localities throughout the

greater part of the globe, though examples from North America have by

some received specific recognition as _F. anatum_ (the "duck-hawk"), and

those from Australia have been described as distinct under the name of

_F. melanogenys_. Here, as in so many other cases, it is almost

impossible to decide as to which forms should, and which should not, be

accounted merely local races. In size not surpassing a raven, this

falcon (fig. 1) is perhaps the most powerful bird of prey for its bulk

that flies, and its courage is not less than its power. It is the

species, in Europe, most commonly trained for the sport of hawking (see

FALCONRY). Volumes have been written upon it, and to attempt a complete

account of it is, within the limits now available, impossible. The

plumage of the adult is generally blackish-blue above, and white, with a

more or less deep cream-coloured tinge, beneath--the lower parts, except

the chin and throat, being barred transversely with black, while a black

patch extends from the bill to the ear-coverts, and descends on either

side beneath the mandible. The young have the upper parts deep

blackish-brown, and the lower white, more or less strongly tinged with

ochraceous-brown, and striped longitudinally with blackish-brown. From

Port Kennedy, the most northern part of the American continent, to

Tasmania, and from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk to Mendoza in the

Argentine territory, there is scarcely a country in which this falcon

has not been found. Specimens have been received from the Cape of Good

Hope, and it is only a question of the technical differentiation of

species whether it does not extend to Cape Horn. Fearless as it is, and

adapting itself to almost every circumstance, it will form its eyry

equally on the sea-washed cliffs, the craggy mountains, or (though more

rarely) the drier spots of a marsh in the northern hemisphere, as on

trees (says H. Schlegel) in the forests of Java or the waterless ravines

of Australia. In the United Kingdom it was formerly very common, and

hardly a high rock from the Shetlands to the Isle of Wight but had a

pair as its tenants. But the British gamekeeper has long held the

mistaken faith that it is his worst foe, and the number of pairs now

allowed to rear their brood unmolested in the British Islands is very

small. Yet its utility to the game-preserver, by destroying every one of

his most precious wards that shows any sign of infirmity, can hardly be

questioned by reason, and G.E. Freeman (_Falconry_) has earnestly urged

its claims to protection.[3] Nearly allied to this falcon are several

species, such as _F. barbarus_ of Mauretania, _F. minor_ of South

Africa, the Asiatic _F. babylonicus_, _F. peregrinator_ of India (the

shaheen), and perhaps _F. cassini_ of South America, with some others.

Next to the typical falcons comes a group known as the "great northern"

falcons (_Hierofalco_). Of these the most remarkable is the gyrfalcon

(_F. gyrfalco_), whose home is in the Scandinavian mountains, though the

young are yearly visitants to the plains of Holland and Germany. In

plumage it very much resembles _F. peregrinus_, but its flanks have

generally a bluer tinge, and its superiority in size is at once

manifest. Nearly allied to it is the Icelander (_F. islandus_), which

externally differs in its paler colouring and in almost entirely wanting

the black mandibular patch. Its proportions, however, differ a good

deal, its body being elongated. Its country is shown by its name, but it

also inhabits south Greenland, and not unfrequently makes its way to the

British Islands. Very close to this comes the Greenland falcon (_F.

candicans_), a native of north Greenland, and perhaps of other countries

within the Arctic Circle. Like the last, the Greenland falcon from time

to time occurs in the United Kingdom, but it is always to be

distinguished by wearing a plumage in which at every age the prevailing

colour is pure white. In north-eastern America these birds are replaced

by a kindred form (_F. labradorus_), first detected by Audubon and

subsequently recognized by Dresser (_Orn. Miscell._ i. 135). It is at

once distinguished by its very dark colouring, the lower parts being

occasionally almost as deeply tinted at all ages as the upper.

All the birds hitherto named possess one character in common. The darker

markings of their plumage are longitudinal before the first real moult

takes place, and for ever afterwards are transverse. In other words,

when young the markings are in the form of stripes, when old in the form

of bars. The variation of tint is very great, especially in _F.

peregrinus_; but the experience of falconers, whose business it is to

keep their birds in the very highest condition, shows that a falcon of

either of these groups if light-coloured in youth is light-coloured when

adult, and if dark when young is also dark when old-age, _after the

first moult_, making no difference in the complexion of the bird. The

next group is that of the so-called "desert falcons" (_Gennaea_),

wherein the difference just indicated does not obtain, for long as the

bird may live and often as it may moult, the original style of markings

never gives way to any other. Foremost among these are to be considered

the lanner and the saker (commonly termed _F. lanarius_ and _F. sacer_),

both well known in the palmy days of falconry, but only since about 1845

readmitted to full recognition. Both of these birds belong properly to

south-eastern Europe, North Africa and south-western Asia. They are, for

their bulk, less powerful than the members of the preceding group, and

though they may be trained to high flights are naturally captors of

humbler game. The precise number of species is very doubtful, but among

the many candidates for recognition are especially to be named the

lugger (_F. jugger_) of India, and the prairie falcon (_F. mexicanus_)

of the western plains of North America.

The systematist finds it hard to decide in what group he should place

two somewhat large Australian species (_F. hypoleucus_ and F.

_subniger_), both of which are rare in collections--the latter

especially.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Merlin.]

A small but very beautiful group comes next--the merlins[4] (_Aesalon_

of some writers, _Lithofalco_ of others). The European merlin (_F.

aesalon_) is perhaps the boldest of the _Accipitres_, not hesitating to

attack birds of twice its own size, and even on occasion threatening

human beings. Yet it readily becomes tame, if not affectionate, when

reclaimed, and its ordinary prey consists of the smaller _Passeres_. Its

"pinion of glossy blue" has become almost proverbial, and a deep ruddy

blush suffuses its lower parts; but these are characteristic only of the

male--the female maintaining very nearly the sober brown plumage she

wore when as a nestling she left her lowly cradle in the heather. Very

close to this bird comes the pigeon-hawk (_F. columbarius_) of North

America--so close, indeed, that none but an expert ornithologist can

detect the difference. The turumti of Anglo-Indians (_F. chicquera_),

and its representative from southern Africa (_F. ruficollis_), also

belong to this group, but they are considerably larger than either of

the former.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hobby.]

Lastly, the Hobbies (_Hypotriorchis_) comprise a greater number of

forms--though how many seems to be doubtful. They are in life at once

recognizable by their bold upstanding position, and at any time by their

long wings. The type of this group is the English hobby (_F. subbuteo_),

a bird of great power of flight, chiefly shown in the capture of

insects, which form its ordinary food. It is a summer visitant to most

parts of Europe, including the British Islands, and is most wantonly and

needlessly destroyed by gamekeepers. A second European species of the

group is the beautiful _F. eleonorae_, which hardly comes farther north

than the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and, though in some

places abundant, is an extremely local bird. The largest species of this

section seems to be the Neotropical _F. femoralis_, for _F. diroleucus_

though often ranked here, is now supposed to belong to the group of

typical falcons. (A. N.)