CHEVROTAIN, a name taken from the French to designate the various

representatives of the mammalian ungulate family _Tragulidae_. These

tiny animals, commonly known as mouse-deer, are in no wise nearly

related to the true deer, but constitute by themselves a special section

of artiodactyle ungulates known as Tragulina, for the characteristics of

which see ARTIODACTYLA. The typical genus _Tragulus_, which is Asiatic,

contains the smallest representatives of the family, the animals having

more of the general aspects and habits of some rodents, such as the

agoutis, than of other ruminants. The longest-known species are _T.

javanicus_, _T. napu_, _T. kanchil_, _T. stanleyanus_ and _T. memmina_;

but a number of other forms, best regarded for the most part as races,

have been named. Of those mentioned, the first four are from the Malay

Peninsula or the islands of the Indo-Malay Archipelago, the last from

Ceylon and India. _Kanchil_ and _napu_ (or _napoh_) are the Malay names

of the species with those specific titles. The second genus,

_Dorcatherium_ (or _Hyomoschus_), is African, and distinguished chiefly

by the feet being stouter and shorter, the outer toes better developed,

and the two middle metacarpals not welded together. Its dental formula

(as that of _Tragulus_) is i.0/3, c.1/1, p.8/3, m.3/3=34. Vertebrae: C.

7, D. 13, L. 6, S. 5, Ca. 12-13. The only existing species, _D.

aquaticum_ (fig.), in type is rather larger than any of the Asiatic

chevrotains, which it otherwise much resembles, but is said to frequent

the banks of streams, and have much the habits of pigs. It is of a rich

brown colour, with back and sides spotted and striped with white; and it

is evidently the survivor of an ancient form, as remains of a species

only differing in size (_D. crassum_) have been found in the Miocene

deposits of France. For long this species was supposed to be restricted

to West Africa, but it has recently been obtained in East Central

Africa, where it is represented by a local race. (R. L.*)

[Illustration: African Water Chevrotain (_Dorcatherium aquaticum_).]

CHEYENNE (Sioux for "of alien speech"), a tribe of North American

Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly lived on the Cheyenne river,

North Dakota. Driven west by the Dakotas, they were found by early

explorers at the eastern base of the Black Hills, South Dakota. Part of

them later moved south and allied themselves with the Arapahoes. Their

whole history has been one of war with their red and white neighbours.

They are a powerful athletic race, mentally superior to the average

American Indian. They are divided into eleven subdivisions and formerly

had a council of chiefs. They number some 3000, and are divided into

northern and southern Cheyennes; the former being on a reservation in

Montana, the latter in Oklahoma. In 1878-79 a band of the former

revolted, and some seventy-five of them were killed.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907); also INDIANS,

NORTH AMERICAN.

CHEYENNE, the chief city and capital of Wyoming, U.S.A., and county-seat

of Laramie county, on Crow Creek, about 106 m. N. of Denver. Pop. (1890)

11,690; (1900) 14,087, of whom 1691 were foreign-born; (1905) 13,656;

(1910) 11,320. It is served by the Union Pacific, the Chicago,

Burlington & Quincy, and the Colorado & Southern railways. It is

situated near the southern boundary of the state, on the high plains

near the E. foot of the Laramie range, at an altitude of 6050 ft.; the

surrounding country is given up to mining (lignite and iron), grazing

and dry-farming. Among the principal buildings are the capitol, modelled

after the National Capitol at Washington; the United States government

building, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, the Union Pacific depot, the

high school, the Carnegie library, St Mary's cathedral (Roman Catholic),

the Convent of the Holy Child Jesus, the Masonic Temple and the Elks'

clubhouse. The city has two parks, and is connected by a boulevard with

Fort D.A. Russell, an important United States military post, 4 m. north

of the city, established in 1867 and named in honour of Major-General

David Allen Russell (1820-1864) of the Union army, who was killed at

Opequan, Virginia. The industrial prosperity of Cheyenne is largely due

to the extensive railway shops of the Union Pacific situated here; but

the city is also an important cattle market and has stock-yards. In 1905

the value of the city's factory products ($924,697) was almost

one-fourth the total value of the factory products of the state.

Cheyenne, settled in 1867, when the Union Pacific reached here, was

named from the Cheyenne Indians. It was chosen as the site for the

capital of the territory in 1869, and was incorporated in the same year.

CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841- ), English divine and Biblical critic, was

born in London, and educated at Merchant Taylors' School and Oxford.

Subsequently he studied German theological methods at Gottingen. He was

ordained in 1864, and held a fellowship at Balliol College, Oxford,

1868-1882. During the earlier part of this period he stood alone in the

university as a teacher of the main conclusions of modern Old Testament

criticism. In 1881 he was presented to the rectory of Tendring, in

Essex, and in 1884 he was made a member of the Old Testament revision

company. He resigned the living of Tendring in 1885 on his appointment

to the Oriel professorship, which carried with it a canonry at

Rochester. In 1889 he delivered the Bampton lectures at Oxford. In 1908

he resigned his professorship. He consistently urged in his writings the

necessity of a broad and comprehensive study of the Scriptures in the

light of literary, historical and scientific considerations. His

publications include commentaries on the Prophets and Hagiographa, and

lectures and addresses on theological subjects. He was a joint editor of

the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ (London, 1899-1903), a work embodying the

more advanced conclusions of English biblical criticism. In the

introduction to his _Origin of the Psalter_ (London, 1891) he gave an

account of his development as a critical scholar.

CHEZY, ANTOINE LEONARD DE (1773-1832), French orientalist, was born at

Neuilly on the 15th of January 1773. His father, Antoine de Chezy

(1718-1798), was an engineer who finally became director of the Ecole

des Fonts et Chaussees. The son was intended for his father's

profession; but in 1799 he obtained a post in the oriental department of

the national library. About 1803 he began the study of Sanskrit, though

he possessed neither grammar nor dictionary, and by great labour he

obtained sufficient knowledge of the language to be able to compose in

it verses said to possess great elegance. He was the first professor of

Sanskrit appointed in the College de France (1815), a chevalier of the

Legion of Honour, and a member of the Academie des Inscriptions. He died

in 1832. Among his works were _Medjouin_ _et Leila_ (1807), from the

Persian; _Yadjanadatta Badha_ (1814) and _La Reconnaissance de

Sacountala_ (1830), from the Sanskrit; _L'Anthologie erotique d'Amrou_

(1831), published under the pseudonym d'Apudy.

See the _Memoires_ of the Academie des Inscriptions (new series, vol.

xii.), where there is a notice of Chezy by Silvestre de Sacy.

CHHATARPUR, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of Central India.

Area, 1118 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 156,139; estimated revenue, L16,000. The

chief, whose hereditary title is raja, is a Rajput of the Ponwar clan,

whose ancestor dispossessed the descendant of Chhatar Sal, the founder

of Bundelkhand independence, towards the end of the 18th century. The

state was guaranteed to Kunwar Suni Singh Ponwar in 1806. In 1854 it

would have lapsed to the British government for want of direct heirs,

but was conferred on Jagat Raj as a special act of grace. The town of

CHHATARPUR, which is named after Chhatar Sal, and contains his cenotaph,

is 70 m. by road S.W. of Banda. Pop. (1901) 10,029. There are

manufactures of paper and coarse cutlery, and a high school. The state

also contains the British cantonment of Nowgong.

CHHATTISGARH, a division of the Central Provinces of India, comprising a

British division (21,240 sq. m.) and two small feudatory states, Raigarh

(1486 sq. m.) and Sarangarh (540 sq. m.). In 1905 the five Oriya states

of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from

the Central Provinces to Bengal. Chhattisgarh, or "the thirty-six

forts," is a low-lying plain, enclosed on every side by hills and

forests, while a rocky barrier shuts it off from the Nagpur plain on the

west. Two great rivers, the Nerbudda and Sone, take their rise at the

side of the Amarkantak hill in the north-west corner of the division,

the Nerbudda flowing nearly due west to the Bombay coast, the Sone

ultimately falling into the Ganges in Lower Bengal. Protected on both

sides by ranges of hills, the district was, until late years, the least

known portion of the most obscure division of India, but recently it has

been opened up by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, and has developed into a

great grain-producing country. Its population is almost pure Hindu,

except in the two great tracts of hill and forest, where the aboriginal

tribes retired before the Aryan invasion. It remained comparatively

unaffected either by the Oriya immigration on the east, or by the later

influx of Mahrattas on the west. For though the Mahrattas conquered and

governed the country for a period, they did not take possession of the

land. In 1901 the population of the two remaining feudatory states was

125,281, Raigarh having 86,543 and Sarangarh 38,738. Much of the soil is

still covered with forest, but it includes fertile rice land.

The British division of Chhattisgarh comprises the three districts of

Drug (created in 1906), Raipur and Bilaspur. In 1905 the district of

Sambalpur, together with the five feudatory states, was transferred to

Bengal. In 1901 the population of the reduced area was 2,642,983.

CHHINDWARA, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda

division of the Central Provinces. The site of the town is 2200 ft.

above sea-level, and is surrounded by ranges of low hills. The European

station extends for nearly 2 m. and is well wooded. It is considered

very healthy, and forms a resort for European visitors from Nagpur and

Kampti during the hot weather.

The area of the DISTRICT OF CHHINDWARA is 4631 sq. m. It has two natural

subdivisions--the hill country above the slopes of the Satpura

mountains, called the Balaghat, and a tract of low land to the south

called the Zerghat. The high tableland of the Balaghat lies for the most

part upon the great basaltic formation which stretches across the

Satpuras as far east as Jubbulpore. The country consists of a regular

succession of hills and fertile valleys, formed by the small ranges

which cross its surface east and west. The average height of the uplands

is 2500 ft., but there are many points of greater elevation. The

appearance of the Zerghat below the hills is generally open and

undulating. The country is intersected by several streams, of which the

Kanhan is the most considerable. Near the hills and along the streams

are strips and patches of jungle; the villages are usually surrounded

with picturesque groves of tamarind, mango and other shade-giving

trees. In the hill-country the climate is temperate and healthy. In the

cold season ice is frequently seen in the small tanks at an elevation of

about 2000 ft. Until May the hot wind is little felt, while during the

rains the weather is cool and agreeable. The average annual rainfall

amounts to 36 in. Pop. (1901) 407,927. There are manufactures of cotton

cloth and brassware. Coal in this neighbourhood began to be worked after

the opening of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway to Chhindwara and

the coalfields to the north in 1905.

Chhindwara formed part of the dominions of the ancient Gond dynasty of

Chhindwara and Nagpur, whose seat was at Deogarh until, in the 18th

century, it was removed by Chand Sultan, son of Bakht Buland (founder of

the short-lived greatness of the dynasty, and of the city of Nagpur) to

Nagpur (see GONDWANA and NAGPUR).

CHIABRERA, GABRIELLO (1552-1637), Italian poet, sometimes called the

Italian Pindar, was of patrician descent, and was born at Savona, a

little town in the domain of the Genoese republic, twenty-eight years

after the birth of Ronsard, with whom he has far more in common than

with the great Greek whose echo he sought to make himself. As he has

told in the pleasant fragment of autobiography prefixed to his works, in

which, like Caesar, he speaks of himself in the third person, he was a

posthumous child; he went to Rome at the age of nine years, under the

care of his uncle Giovanni. There he read with a private tutor, suffered

severely from two fevers in succession, and was sent at last, for the

sake of society, to the Jesuits' College, where he remained till his

twentieth year, studying philosophy, as he says, "piu per trattenimento

che per apprendere,"--rather for occupation than for learning's sake.

Losing his uncle about this time, Chiabrera returned to Savona, "again

to see his own and be seen by them." In a little while, however, he

returned to Rome, and entered the household of a cardinal, where he

remained for several years, frequenting the society of Paulus Manutius

and of Sperone Speroni, the dramatist and critic of Tasso, and attending

the lectures and hearing the conversation of Mureto. His revenge of an

insult offered him obliged him to betake himself once more to Savona,

where, to amuse himself, he read poetry, and particularly Greek. The

poets of his choice were Pindar and Anacreon, and these he studied till

it grew to be his ambition to reproduce in his own tongue their rhythms

and structures, and so to enrich his country with a new form of

verse--in his own words, "like his countryman, Columbus, to find a new

world or drown." His reputation was made at once; but he seldom quitted

Savona, though often invited to do so, saving for journeys of pleasure,

in which he greatly delighted, and for occasional visits to the courts

of princes whither he was often summoned, for his verse's sake, and in

his capacity as a dramatist. At the ripe age of fifty he took to himself

a wife, one Lelia Pavese, by whom he had no children. After a simple and

blameless life, during which he produced a vast quantity of verse--epic,

tragic, pastoral, lyrical and satirical--he died in 1637, at the

patriarchal age of eighty-five. An epitaph was written for him in

elegant Latin by Urban VIII.; but on his tombstone are graven two quaint

Italian hexameters of his own, in which the gazer is warned from the

poet's own example not to prefer Parnassus to Calvary.

A maker of odes in all their elaborate pomp of strophe and antistrophe,

a master of new and complex rhythms, a coiner of ambitious words and

composite epithets, an employer of audacious transpositions and

inversions, and the inventor of a new system of poetic diction,--it is

not surprising that Chiabrera should have been compared with Ronsard.

Both were destined to suffer eclipse as great and sudden as had been

their glory. Ronsard was succeeded by Malherbe and by French literature,

properly so-called; Chiabrera was the last of the great Italians, and

after him literature languished till the second renaissance under

Manzoni. Chiabrera, however, was a man of merit, apart from that of the

mere innovator. Setting aside his epics and dramas (one of the latter

received the honours of translation at the hands of Nicolas Chretien, a

sort of scenic du Bartas), much of his work remains yet readable and

pleasant. His grand Pindarics are dull, it is true, but some of his

_Canzonette_, like the anacreontics of Ronsard, are exceedingly elegant

and graceful. His autobiographical sketch is also extremely interesting.

The simple old poet, with his adoration of Greek (when a thing pleased

him greatly he was wont to talk of it as "Greek Verse"), his delight in

journeys and sight-seeing, his dislike for literary talk save with

intimates and equals, his vanities and vengeances, his pride in the

memory of favours bestowed on him by popes and princes, his "_infinita

maraviglia_" over Virgil's versification and metaphor, his fondness for

masculine rhymes and blank verse, his quiet Christianity, is a figure

deserving perhaps of more study than is likely to be bestowed on that

"new world" of art which it was his glory to fancy his own, by discovery

and by conquest.

The best editions of Chiabrera are those of Rome (1718, 3 vols. 8vo);

of Venice (1731, 4 vols. 8vo); of Leghorn (1781, 5 vols. 12mo); and of

Milan (1807, 3 vols. 8vo). These only contain his lyric work; all the

rest he wrote has been long forgotten.

CHIANA (anc. _Clanis_), a river of Tuscany, which rises in the Apennines

S. of Arezzo, runs through the valley of Chiusi, and after receiving the

Paglia just below Orvieto, falls into the Tiber after a course of 60 m.

In Roman times its waters ran entirely into the Tiber. It often caused

considerable floods in the valley of Clusium (Chiusi) which were

noticeable even in Rome itself, and in A.D. 15 it was proposed to divert

part of its waters into the Arnus, a project which was abandoned owing

to the opposition of the Florentines (Tac. _Ann._ i. 76, 79). In the

middle ages the whole of its valley from Arezzo to Chiusi was an

uninhabitable swamp; but at the end of the 18th century the engineer

Count Fossombroni took the matter in hand, and moved the watershed some

25 m. farther south, so that its waters now flow partly into the Arno

and partly into the Tiber.

CHIAPAS, a Pacific coast state of southern Mexico on the Guatemalan

frontier, bounded by the states of Tabasco on the N. and Vera Cruz and

Oaxaca on the W. Pop. (1895) 318,730; (1900) 360,799, a large proportion

of which are Indians; area, 27,222 sq.m. largely forested. The Sierra

Madre crosses the southern part of the state parallel with the coast,

separating the low, humid, forested districts on the frontier of Tabasco

from the hot, drier, coastal plain on the Pacific. The mountain region

includes a plateau of great fertility and temperate climate, which is

one of the best parts of Mexico and contains the larger part of the

population of the state. But isolation and lack of transportation

facilities have retarded its development. The extension of the

Pan-American railway across the state, from San Gerommo, on the

Tehuantepec National line, to the Guatemalan frontier, is calculated to

improve the industrial and social conditions of the people. The

principal industries are agriculture, which is very backward,

stock-raising, timber-cutting, fruit-farming and salt-making.

Coffee-planting is a new industry on the Pacific slope of the Sierra

Madre at elevations of 2000 to 4000 ft., and has met with considerable

success. Rubber plantations have also been laid out, principally by

American companies, the _Castilloa elastica_ doing well. The exports

include cattle, hides, coffee, rubber, fruit and salt. The mineral

resources include gold, silver, copper and petroleum, but no mines were

in operation in 1906. The capital, Tuxtla Gutierrez (pop. 9395 in 1900),

is on the plateau, 3-1/2 m. from the Rio Sabinas, and 138 m. N.E. of the

Pacific port of Tonala. The former capital, San Cristobal (pop. about

5000 in 1895), about 40 m. E. of Tuxtla, is an interesting old town and

the seat of the bishopric of Chiapas, founded in 1525 and made famous

through its associations with Las Casas. Tapachula (pop. in 1895, 6775),

the capital of the department of Soconusco, 18 m. from the Guatemalan

frontier, is a rising commercial town of the new coffee district. It is

24 m. inland from the small port of San Benito, is 559 ft. above

sea-level, and has a healthy climate. Other prominent towns with their

populations in 1895, are Comitan, or Comitlan (9316), on the Rio

Grijalva about 40 m. S.E. of San Cristobal, and chiefly distinguished

for its fine church and convent dedicated to San Domingo; Pichucalco

(8549), Tenejapa (7036), San Antonio (6715), Cintalape (6455), La

Concordia (6291), San Carlos (5977), and Ococingo (5667).

CHIAROSCURO (from the Ital. _chiaro_, light or brightness, and _oscuro_,

darkness or shade), the disposition of light and shade in a painting;

the term is applied to an early method of printing wood-engravings from

several blocks, and also to a picture in black and white, or brown and

white only.

CHIAVARI, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 24 m. S.E.

by rail from the town of Genoa. Pop. (1901) 10,397 (town), 12,689

(commune). It is situated near the mouth of the Entella, in the centre

of a fertile plain surrounded by mountains except on the S.W., where it

comes down to the sea. Its buildings are mostly modern, but it has a

ruined castle of 1147. It has an active trade in agricultural products,

and manufactures lace, light wicker-seated bentwood chairs, silk, &c.

CHIAVENNA (anc. _Clavenna_), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province

of Sondrio, 17 m. by rail N. of Colico which lies at the N. end of the

lake of Como. Pop. (1901) town 3140, commune 4732. It is well situated

on the right bank of the Mera, at the mouth of the Val Bregaglia,

through which the road to the Maloja Pass and the Engadine runs to the

east. This line was partly followed by a Roman road, which at Casaccia,

just below the last ascent to the Maloja Pass, diverged to the N. by the

Septimer Pass, joining the Julier route to Coire (anc. _Curia_) at

Stalla. The Splugen route, which was also used by the Romans, runs N.

from Chiavenna to Coire: the modern road was constructed by the

Austrians in 1819-1821. Chiavenna is crowned by a ruined castle, once an

important strategic point, and the seat of the counts who ruled the

valley from the time of the Goths till 1194, when the district was

handed over to the bishops of Coire. In the 14th century the Visconti,

having become masters of the Valtellina, bought the "county" (_contado_

or _contea_) of Chiavenna from the bishop of Coire; but it was taken by

the canton of the Grisons in 1525, and the castle dismantled. In 1797

Chiavenna became part of the Cisalpine republic, and thenceforward

followed the fortunes of Lombardy. The church of S. Lorenzo is baroque

in style, but its baptistery contains a font of 1206 with reliefs.

Chiavenna has cotton factories and breweries, and is a depot for the

wine of the district.

CHIBOUQUE, or CHIBOUK (the Fr. form of the Turk, _chibuk_, literally

a stick), a long pipe, often ornamented with precious stones, smoked by

the Turks.

CHIC (a French word, either a shortened form of _chicane_, or derived

from the Ger. _Schick_, tact or skill), a term properly used, in French

artistic slang, of a work of art possessing brilliant but superficial

technical ability, or of one executed without reference to a model or

study of nature. The use of the word in French dates from the reign of

Louis XIV. and then denoted a lawyer who was master of "chicane."

"Chic," in general use, now connotes "smartness," in dress, speech, &c.

CHICACOLE, a town of British India in the Ganjam district of Madras,

situated on the right bank of the river Languliya, here crossed by a

bridge, 4 m. from the sea. Pop. (1901) 18,196. Under Mahommedan rule it

was the capital of one of the Northern Circars, and afterwards of a

British district. Several old mosques remain. The town was famous for

its muslins, but the industry is now decayed. The roadstead and

lighthouse of Calingapatam are about 16 m. to the north, and the East

Coast railway has a station 9 m. inland.

CHICAGO, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat of Cook county,

Illinois, U.S.A., the second city of the United States in population,

commerce and manufactures; pop. (1900) 1,698,575; and (1910) 2,185,283.

It is situated at the south-west corner of Lake Michigan (lat. 41 deg.

50', long. 87 deg. 38' W.), about 913 m. distant by railway from New

York, 912 m. from New Orleans, 2265 m. from Los Angeles, and 2330 m.

from Seattle. The climate is very changeable and is much affected by the

lake; changes of more than thirty degrees in temperature within 24 hours

are not at all rare, and changes of twenty are common. The city is the

greatest railway centre of the United States, and was for several

decades practically the only commercial outlet of the great agricultural

region of the northern Mississippi Valley. Trunk lines reach E. to

Montreal, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore (the nearest point

on the Atlantic coast, 854 m.); S. to Charleston, Savannah, Florida,

Mobile, New Orleans, Port Arthur and Galveston; W. to the Pacific at Los

Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle and Vancouver, and to most of these by a

variety of routes. In 1905 about 14% of the world's railway mileage

centred in Chicago.

With its suburbs Chicago stretches along the shore of Lake Michigan

about 40 m. (the city proper 26.5), and the city in 1910 had a total

area of 191.4 sq.m.[1] It spreads loosely and irregularly backward from

the lake over a shallow alluvial basin, which is rimmed to the W. by a

low moraine water-parting[2] that separates the drainage of the lake

from that of the Mississippi Valley. The city site has been built up out

of the "Lake Chicago" of glacial times, which exceeded in size Lake

Michigan. Three lakes--Calumet, 3122 acres; Hyde; and part of Wolf--with

a water-surface of some 4100 acres, lie within the municipal limits. The

original elevation of what is now the business heart of the city was

only about 7 ft. above the lake, but the level was greatly raised--in

some places more than 10 ft.--over a large area, between 1855 and 1860.

The West Side, especially in the north-west near Humboldt Park, is much

higher (extreme 75 ft.). A narrow inlet from the lake, the Chicago

river, runs W. from its shore about a mile, dividing then into a north

and a south branch, which run respectively to the N.W. and the S.W.,

thus cutting the city into three divisions known as the North, the West

and the South "Sides," which are united by three car-tunnels beneath the

river as well as by the bridges across it.[3] The river no longer

empties into Lake Michigan since the completion of the drainage canal.

Its commercial importance is very great: indeed it is probably the most

important non-tidal stream of its length in the world, or if it be

regarded as a harbour, one of the greatest; the tonnage of its yearly

commerce far exceeds that of the Suez Canal and almost equals the

tonnage of the foreign trade (the domestic excluded) of the Thames or

the Mersey. The increase in size of the newer freighters that ply on the

Great Lakes[4] has proved one serious difficulty, and the bridges and

the river tunnels, which hinder the deeper cutting of the channel, are

others. The improvement of the outer harbour by the national government

was begun in 1833. Great breakwaters protect the river mouth from the

silting shore currents of the lake and afford secure shelter in an outer

roadstead from its storms, and there is a smaller inner-basin (about 450

acres, 16 ft. depth) as well. But the river itself which has about 15 m.

of navigable channel, in part lined with docks, is the most important

part of the harbour. Its channel has been repeatedly deepened, and in

rectnt years--especially since 1896, after its control as a navigable

stream passed (1890) to the federal government--widened and straightened

by the removal of jutting building constructions along its shores. Grain

elevators of enormous size, coal yards, lumber yards and grimy

warehouses or factories crowd close upon it. The shipping facilities on

the river are not so good in some ways, however, as on the Calumet in

southeastern (or South) Chicago, whither there has been a strong

movement of manufactures and heavy commerce.

The plan of the city is in general "regular," i.e. rigidly rectangular,

and the streets are in general wide. The evenness of the plain has saved

Chicago from most of the vast expense, incurred by some American cities

(notably Boston and San Francisco) in the extension or levelling of

their sites and the removal of obstructions unfavourable to their

development. The business district is concentrated in a small area of

the South Side, just below the main river and between the south branch

and the lake. A number of the railway terminals, almost all the great

wholesale and retail houses, the leading hotels and public buildings

are crowded within an area of about 1.5 sq.m. The congestion of the

streets--considerably lessened since the freight-subways have reduced

the amount of heavy trucking--is proportionately great, and their din

and crush is characteristic of the city. The residential districts, on

the other hand, are unevenly and loosely spread; many areas well within

the city are only sparsely settled. A belt of "bad lands"--occupied by

factories, shanties, &c.--partially surrounds the best business

district. The smoke resulting from the use of soft coal has given a drab

and dingy colour-tone to the buildings. The low and even relief of the

site and the long vistas of the streets do not lend themselves to the

picturesque; yet this quality may be claimed for the high and broken

skyline, varied colour, massiveness, bustle and impressive commercialism

of the business district. Chicago is generally credited with being the

original home of the steel-frame "sky-scraper,"[5] though there are now

higher buildings elsewhere in America. The unstable soil of sand, clay

and boulders that underlies the city is unfavourable to tall

constructions, and necessitates extraordinary attention to foundations.

The bed-rock lies, on an average, 50 ft. below the level of the lake (in

places more than a hundred). To the rock the foundations are often sunk

in caissons, the buildings restingon monster columns of concrete and

steel.[6] In other cases great "pads" of the same materials, resting or

"floating" upon the clay, sustain and distribute the weight of the

building. The small extent of the business quarter adds to the effect of

its tall structures. The Auditorium (1889; cost, $3,500,000), a huge

building containing a hotel and a theatre (5000 seats), is one of the

most massive commercial structures of the country. The Masonic Temple

(cost, $3,000,000) is the tallest in the city (302 ft.). In 1909 there

were some 475 structures ten or more storeys high. Not a few are

noteworthy, whether for size--as the Monadnock office building of 16

storeys, with some 6000 occupants, and the new Northwestern Railway

station; or for the luxury of their interior fittings--as the La Salle,

Blackstone and Sherman hotels; or for boldness and originality in the

treatment of the steel-frame type; or for association with the city's

life--as the Fine Arts building, given over to varied purposes of public

amusement and artistic or intellectual improvement, or the Railway

Exchange (cased in tiles), the University Club, the Chamber of Commerce

and the Board of Trade; and many others are handsome and dignified

examples of architecture. The Marquette building, consistently and

handsomely decorated with works of art, is one of the finest

office-buildings in the country. There are a number of enormous retail

stores. The largest, and one of the finest in the world, is that of

Marshall Field. The wholesale establishment of the same firm is the work

of H.H. Richardson, considered one of his best, and one of the most

admirable examples among American commercial buildings. The city hall

and county court house (cost, $4,500,000) is an enormous double building

in a free French Renaissance style, with columned facades. The new

Federal building (finished in 1905; cost, $4,750,000) is a massive

edifice (a low rectangle surmounted by a higher inner cross and crowned

with a dome). The public library (1893-1897, $2,125,000), constructed of

dark granite and limestone, with rich interior decorations of varied

frescoes, mosaics, ornamental bronze and iron-work, and mottoes, is one

of the handsomest libraries of the country. The Chicago Art Institute

(1892-1893; Italian Renaissance), the Chicago Orchestra building (1904),

and the Commercial National Bank, are also noteworthy. The finest

residence streets are the Lake Shore Drive of the North Side and the

"boulevards"--broad parkways that connect the parks of the city--of

which Michigan Avenue, Drexel and Grand are the finest. The city's

environs are not of particular beauty, but there are bluffs on the lake

to the north, and woods to the south-west, and a fair variety of pretty

hill and plain; and though the Calumet and Chicago rivers have been

given over to commerce, the valley of the Desplaines will be preserved

in the park system. On the South Side are the Union Stockyards,

established in 1865, by far the largest in the world. They cover about

500 acres, have about 45 m. of feeding and watering troughs, and can

accommodate at one time more than 400,000 hogs, cattle, sheep and

horses.

_Public Works and Communications._--Local transit is provided for by the

suburban service of the steam railways, elevated electric roads, and a

system of electric surface cars. Two great public works demand notice:

the water system and the drainage canal. Water is pumped from Lake

Michigan through several tunnels connecting with "cribs" located from 2

to 5 m. from shore. The "cribs" are heavy structures of timber and iron

loaded with stone and enclosing the in-take cylinders, which join with

the tunnels well below the bottom of the lake. The first tunnel was

completed in 1867. The capacity of the tunnels was estimated in 1900 by

two very competent authorities at 528 and 615 million gallons daily,

respectively. The average daily supply in 1909 was 475,000,000 gallons;

there were then 16.6 m. of tunnels below the lake. The wastes of the

city--street washings, building sewage, the offal of slaughter-houses,

and wastes of distilleries and rendering houses--were originally turned

into the lake, but before 1870 it was discovered that the range of

impurity extended already a mile into the lake, half-way to the water

"crib," and it became evident that the lake could not be indefinitely

contaminated. The Illinois and Michigan Canal, for which the right of

way was granted in 1821 and which was built in 1836-1841 and 1845-1848,

and opened in 1848 (cost, $6,557,681), was once thought to have solved

the difficulty; it is connected with the main (southern) branch of the

Chicago river, 5 m. from its mouth, with the Illinois river at La Salle,

the head of steamer navigation on the Illinois river, and is the natural

successor in the evolution of transportation of the old Chicago portage,

1/2 m. in length, between the Chicago river and the headwaters of the

Kankakee; it was so deepened as to draw water out from the lake, whose

waters thus flowed toward the Gulf of Mexico. It is about 96 m. long,

40-42 ft. wide, and 4-7 ft. deep, but proved inadequate for the disposal

of sewage. A solution of the problem was imperative by 1876, but almost

all the wastes of the city continued nevertheless to be poured into the

lake. In 1890 a sanitary district, including part of the city and

certain suburban areas to be affected, was organized, and preparations

made for building a greater canal that should do effectively the work it

was once thought the old canal could do. The new drainage canal, one of

the greatest sanitary works of the world, constructed between 1892 and

1900 under the control of the trustees of the Sanitary District of

Chicago (cost up to 1901, $35,448,291), joins the south branch of the

Chicago with the Desplaines river, and so with the Illinois and

Mississippi, and is 28.5 m. long,[7] of which 15 m. were cut through

rock; it is 22 ft. deep and has a minimum width of 164 ft. The canal, or

sewer, is flushed with water from Lake Michigan, and its waters are pure

within a flow of 150 m.[8] Its capacity, which was not at first fully

utilized, is 600,000 cub. ft. per minute, sufficient entirely to renew

the water of the Chicago river daily. A system of intercepting sewers to

withdraw drainage into the lake was begun in 1898; and the construction

of a canal to drain the Calumet region was begun in 1910. The Illinois

and Michigan canal is used by small craft, and the new drainage canal

also may be used for shipping in view of the Federal government's

improvements of the rivers connecting it with the Mississippi for the

construction of a ship-canal for large vessels. The canal also made

possible the development (begun in 1903) of enormous hydraulic power

for the use of the city. The Illinois and Michigan Canal has been

supplemented by the Illinois and Mississippi Canal, commonly known as

"the Hennepin," from its starting at the great bend of the Illinois

river 1-3/4 m. above Hennepin, not far below La Salle; the first

appropriation for it was made in 1890, and work was begun in 1892 and

completed in October 1907. Its course from Hennepin is by the Bureau

Creek valley to the mouth of Queen river on the Rock river, thence by

the Rock river and a canal around its rapids at Milan to its mouth at

Rock Island on the Mississippi river. This barge canal is 80 ft. wide at

water-line, 52 ft. wide at the bottom, and 7 ft. deep. Its main feeder

is the Rock river, dammed by a dam nearly 1500 ft. long between Sterling

and Rock Falls, Illinois, where the opening of the canal was celebrated

on the 24th of October 1907.

Beginning with 1892 steam railways began the elevation (or depression)

of their main tracks, of which there were in 1904 some 838 m. within the

city. Another great improvement was begun in 1901 by a private telephone

company. This is an elaborate system of freight subways, more than 65 m.

of which, underlying the entire business district, had been constructed

before 1909. It is the only subway system in the world that seeks to

clear the streets by the lessening of trucking, in place of devoting

itself to the transportation of passengers. Direct connexion is made

with the freight stations of all railways and the basements of important

business buildings, and coal, building materials, ashes and garbage,

railway luggage, heavy mail and other kinds of heavy freight are

expeditiously removed and delivered. Telegraph and telephone wires are

carried through the tunnel, and can be readily repaired. The subway was

opened for partial operation in 1905.[9]

_Parks._--The park system may be said to have been begun in 1869, and in

1870 aggregated 1887 acres. Chicago then acquired the name of "The

Garden City," which still clings to her. But many other cities have

later passed her (until in 1904, though the second largest of the

country, she ranked only thirty-second in her holdings of park area per

capita among American cities of 100,000 population). In 1908 the acreage

of the municipal parks was 3179 acres, and there were 61.4 m. of

boulevards. After 1900 another period of ambitious development began.

The improvement of old and the creation of new "internal" parks, i.e.

within the cordon of those older parks and boulevards that once girdled

the city but have been surrounded in its later growth; the creation of a

huge metropolitan ring--similar to that of Boston but vaster (35,000

acres)--of lake bluffs, hills, meadows, forests and river valley; and a

great increase of "neighbourhood parks" in the poor districts, are

included in the new undertakings. The neighbourhood park, usually

located near a school, is almost all-inclusive in its provision for all

comers, from babyhood to maturity, and is open all day. There are sand

gardens and wading ponds and swings and day nurseries, gymnasiums,

athletic fields, swimming pools and baths, reading-rooms--generally with

branches of the city library--lunch counters, civic club rooms, frequent

music, assembly halls for theatricals, lectures, concerts, or meetings,

penny savings banks, and in the winter skating ponds. These social

centres have practically all been created since about 1895. There are

also municipal baths on the lake front and elsewhere. The older parks

include several of great size and beauty. Lincoln Park (area 552 acres),

on the lake shore of the North Side, has been much enlarged by an

addition reclaimed from the lake. It has fine monuments, conservatories,

the only zoological garden in the city, and the collections of the

Academy of Sciences. A breakwater carriage drive connects with a

boulevard to Fort Sheridan (27 m.) up the lake. Jackson Park (542

acres), on the lake shore of the South Side, was the main site of the

World's Columbian Exposition of 1893, and contains the Field Columbian

Museum, occupying the art building of the exposition. It is joined with

Washington Park (371 acres) by the Midway Plaisance, a wide boulevard,

intended to be converted into a magnificent sunken water-course

connecting the lagoons of the two parks with Lake Michigan. Along the

Midway are the greystone buildings of the University of Chicago, and of

its (Blaine) School of Education. On the West Side are three fine

parks--Douglas, Garfield (with a fine conservatory), and Humboldt, which

has a remarkable rose garden (respectively 182, 187 and 206 acres), and

in the extreme South Side several others, including Calumet (66 acres),

by the lake side, and Marquette (322 acres), Jackson Boulevard, Western

Avenue Boulevard and Marshall Boulevard join the South and the West Park

systems. Neither New York nor Boston has preserved as has Chicago the

beauty of its water front. The shore of the North Side is quite free,

and beginning a short distance above the river is skirted for almost 30

m. by the Lake Shore Drive, Lincoln Park and the Sheridan Drive. The

shore of the South Side is occupied by railway tracks, but they have

been sunk and the shore otherwise improved. In addition to Calumet and

Jackson parks there was another just below the river, Lake Park, which

has since been included in Grant Park, mostly reclaimed from the water.

Here are the public library and the building of the Art Institute

(opened in 1893); the park had also been proposed as the site of a new

building for the Field Museum of Natural History. The park and

boulevards along the lake in 1905 stretched 10.78 m., within the city

limits, or almost half the total frontage.[10] The inner "boulevards"

are broad parked ways, 150 to 300 ft. wide, joining the parks; Chicago

was the first American city to adopt this system.

_Art._--Among the monuments erected in public places are a Columbus by

D.C. French and a bronze replica of French's equestrian statue of

Washington in Paris; statues of John A. Logan and Abraham Lincoln by St

Gaudens; monuments commemorating the Haymarket riot and the Fort

Dearborn massacres; statues of General Grant, Stephen A. Douglas, La

Salle, Schiller, Humboldt, Beethoven and Linnaeus. There is also a

memorial to G.B. Armstrong (1822-1871), a citizen of Chicago, who

founded the railway mail service of the United States. A city art

commission approves all works of art before they become the property of

the city, and at the request of the mayor acts in various ways for the

city's aesthetic betterment. The Architectural Club labours for the same

end. A Municipal Art League (organized in 1899) has done good work in

arousing civic pride; it has undertaken, among other things, campaigns

against bill-board advertisements,[11] and against the smoke nuisance.

The Art Institute of Chicago contains valuable collections of paintings,

reproductions of bronzes and sculpture, architectural casts, and other

objects of art. Connected with it is the largest and most comprehensive

art school of the county--including newspaper illustration and a normal

school for the training of teachers of drawing in the public schools.

The institute was incorporated in 1879, though its beginnings go back to

1866, while the school dates from 1878. The courses in architecture are

given with the co-operation of the Armour Institute of Technology. There

are also a number of notable private art collections in the city. In

1894 the Chicago Public School Art Society was founded to secure the

placing of good works of art in the public schools. Picture collections

are also exchanged among the neighbourhood-park homes.

Music in Chicago owes much to the German element of the population.

Especially noteworthy among musical organizations are the Apollo Musical

Club (1872) and The Theodore Thomas orchestra, which has disputed with

the Boston Orchestra the claim to artistic primacy in the United States.

Its leader from its organization in 1891 until his death in 1905 was

Theodore Thomas, who had long been identified with summer orchestral

concerts in the city. In 1904 a fund was gathered by public subscription

to erect a handsome building and endow the orchestra.

The Field Museum of Natural History, established (1894) largely by

Marshall Field, is mainly devoted to anthropology and natural history.

The nucleus of its great collection was formed by various exhibits of

the Columbian Exposition which were presented to it. Its collections of

American ethnology, of exceptional richness and value, are constantly

augmented by research expeditions. In addition to an original endowment

of $1,000,000, Mr Field bequeathed to the museum $8,000,000, Lo be

utilized in part for the new building which is being erected in Jackson

Park.

_Libraries._--At the head of the libraries of the city stands the public

library[12] (established 1872; opened 1874), supported by taxation,

which on the 1st of June 1910 had 402,848 volumes, and in the year 1910

circulated 1,805,012 volumes. In 1889 John Crerar (1827-1889), a wealthy

manufacturer of railroad supplies, left to the city for the endowment of

a non-circulating library funds which in 1907 were estimated to amount

to $3,400,000. The library was incorporated in 1894 and was opened in

1897; in February 1908 it had 216,000 volumes and 60,000 pamphlets. It

occupies a floor in the Marshall Field Building on Wabash Avenue.

Another reference library was established (opened in 1887) with a

bequest (1868) of Walter L. Newberry. It has a rich endowment, and in

February 1908 had 191,644 volumes and 43,644 pamphlets. By a plan of

co-operation each of these three libraries devotes itself primarily to

special fields: the John Crerar is best for the natural, physical and

social sciences; the Newberry is particularly strong in history, music,

medicine, rare books and fine editions; the public library covers the

whole range of general literature. The library of the University of

Chicago contained in 1908 some 450,000 titles. Among other collections

are those of the Chicago Historical Society (1856; about 150,000 titles

in 1908), the Athenaeum (1871); the Law Institute and Library (1857),

which in 1908 had about 46,500 volumes; the Art Institute, the Field

Museum of Natural History, the Academy of Sciences (1857) and the

libraries of various schools.

_Universities and Colleges._--There are three universities situated

wholly or in part in the city. The leading institution is the University

of Chicago (_see_ CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF). The professional department

of North-Western University is in Chicago, while its academic department

is in the suburb of Evanston. North-Western University was organized in

1851 and is under Methodist Episcopal control. Its students in 1908

(exclusive of pupils in "co-operating" theological schools) numbered

3850; the best equipped departments are those of dentistry, medicine and

pharmacy. There are two Roman Catholic colleges in Chicago: Loyola

University (chartered in 1870), with a department of law, called Lincoln

College (1908), and a medical department; and St. Stanislaus College

(1870). The College of Physicians and Surgeons is the medical department

of the University of Illinois, at Champaign-Urbana. Theological schools

independent of the universities include the McCormick Theological

Seminary (Presbyterian); the Chicago Theological Seminary

(Congregational, opened 1858, and including German, Danish-Norwegian and

Swedish Institutes); the Western Episcopal Theological Seminary; a

German Lutheran theological seminary, and an Evangelical Lutheran

theological seminary. There are a number of independent medical schools

and schools of dentistry and veterinary surgery. The Lewis Institute

(bequest 1877, opened 1896), designed to give a practical education to

boys and girls at a nominal cost, and the Armour Institute of

Technology, one of the best technical schools of the country, provide

technical education and are well endowed. The Armour Institute was

founded in 1892 by Philip D. Armour, and was opened in 1893. It

comprises the College of Engineering, including, besides the usual

departments, a department of chemical engineering and a department of

fire protection engineering, a department of "commercial tests," and the

Armour Scientific Academy (preparatory). In 1907 the Institute had 1869

students. The Chicago Academy of Science (1857) has a handsome building

and museum collections in Lincoln Park.

The leading daily newspapers are the _Record-Herald, Evening Post, News_

(evening) and _Journal_ (evening), all Independent; the _Inter-Ocean_

and _Tribune_, Republican; and the _Evening American_ and _Examiner_,

both Democratic. There are several journals in German, Bohemian, Polish,

Swedish, Norwegian and Danish. Many trade papers are published in the

city, which is also a centre for much of the religious publishing of the

Middle West. Chicago's position in the labour world has made it the home

of several socialist and anarchistic periodicals.

_Industry and Commerce._--Chicago's situation at the head of the most

south-western of the Great Lakes has given it great importance in trade

and industry. The development of its extraordinary railway facilities

was a recognition of its supreme advantages as the easiest outlet for

the products of the Middle West, on whose wealth its prosperity is

founded. The growth of its trade has been marvellous. The last years of

the 19th century showed, however, an inevitable loss to Chicago in the

growth of Duluth, Kansas City and other rivals in strategic situations.

In particular, the struggle of the North and South railway lines in the

Mississippi Valley to divert to ports on the Gulf of Mexico grain and

other freight caused great losses to Chicago. An enormous increase in

the cereal trade of Philadelphia, Baltimore, Newport News and Norfolk

was partly due to the traffic eastward over lines S. of Chicago. The

traffic of the routes through Duluth and Canada does not, indeed,

represent in the main actual losses, for the traffic is largely a new

growth; but there has been nevertheless a considerable drain to these

routes from American territory once tributary to Chicago. Altogether the

competition of the Gulf roads and the lines running S.W. from Duluth had

largely excluded Chicago by 1899 (according to her Board of Trade) from

the grain trade W. of the Missouri river, and in conjunction with

southerly E. and W. routes had made serious inroads upon trade E. of

that river. Its facilities for receiving and distributing remain

nevertheless unequalled, and it still practically monopolizes the

traffic between the northern Atlantic seaboard and the West. New York

alone, among American cities, has a greater trade. Chicago is the

greatest railway centre, the greatest grain market, the greatest

live-stock market and meat-packing centre, and the greatest lumber

market of the world. The clearings of her 'associated banks amounted to

$13,781,843,612 in the year 1909. The wholesale trade was estimated in

1875 at $293,900,000 and in 1905 at $1,781,000,000. The average annual

grain receipts (including flour in wheat equivalent) in the five years

1900-1904 amounted to 265,500,000 bu. (12,902,310 in 1854; 72,369,194 in

1875), and the shipments to 209,862,966 bu. The first shipment of wheat

was of 78 bu. in 1838. The grain elevators are among the sights of

Chicago. They are enormous storehouses into which the grain is elevated

from ships and cars, sorted into grades and reloaded for shipment; all

the work is done by machinery. Their capacity in 1904 was 65,140,000

bu.[13] In the same quinquennial period, 1900-1904, the average yearly

receipts of lumber aggregated 1,807,066,000 ft.,[14] and of shingles,

410,711 thousand; of cattle, 3,078,734; of hogs, 8,334,904; of sheep,

3,338,291; of butter, 239,696,921 lb; the exports of hides, 167,442,077

lb; of dressed beef, 1,126,995,490 lb; of lard, 410,688,319 lb; of pork,

191,371 bbl.; of other hog products, 600,503,394 lb. The combined

tonnage in and out averaged 14,135,406 tons.[15] There is a large direct

trade with Europe, mainly in goods that come in bond by rail from

Atlantic ports. In 1907 the value of Chicago's imports was $27,058,662,

and of its exports, $5,643,302.

The value of manufactures (from establishments under the "factory

system") in 1900 was $797,879,141, 71.2% of all those of Illinois, and

in 1905 was $955,036,277, 67.7% of all those of the state; in both these

years Chicago was second only to New York City. Wholesale slaughtering

and meat-packing (not including many by-products), valued at

$256,527,949 (32.2% of the city's total) in 1900 and at $269,581,486

(28.2% of the total) in 1905, are the most important of the city's

industries; in 1905 the product value in Chicago was 29.5% of that for

the slaughtering and meat-packing of the entire United States. Other

important manufactures are foundry and machine shop products,

$44,561,071 in 1900, and $51,774,695 in 1905; and other iron and steel

products, $35,058,700 in 1900 and $27,074,307 in 1905; clothing

($58,093,572 in 1900, and $64,913,481 in 1905); cars and other railway

construction, $28,369,956 in 1900 and $36,080,210 in 1905; malt liquors

($14,956,865 in 1900, and $16,983,421 in 1905), and furniture

($12,344,510 in 1900 and $17,488,257 in 1905). The Illinois Steel

Company has the largest rolling mills in the world. The McCormick

Harvesting Machine Company is the largest concern in the world

manufacturing agricultural implements. Pullman in southern Chicago, in

the sparsely settled outskirts of the city, is a model little "labour

town," planned and constructed with regard for both appearances and

conveniences by the Pullman Palace Car Company, which has its works

here. The town consists mainly of workmen's cottages. Most of the

population are dependent upon the car works. The Pullman Company owns

and operates dining and sleeping cars on practically all the railways of

the country. In addition to its own cars it builds ordinary passenger

and freight cars on contract.

Meat-packing is the greatest local industry and is that for which

Chicago is best known. In the enormous stock-yards from two-thirds to

four-fifths of the cattle and hogs received are killed, and sent out in

various forms of prepared meats and by-products (lard, fertilizers,

glue, butterine, soap, candles, &c).[16] This industry is remarkable for

the extraordinary division of labour in its processes. In the

preparation of a bullock more than thirty specialties are involved, and

some twenty different rates of pay. This system enabled the packing

companies, until checked by the development of labour unions, to save

money not only by paying low wages for crude labour and high for

skilled, but to develop wonderful expertness in every line, and so

"speed up" the workmen to a remarkable pace.[17] No more interesting

field can be found for the study of the qualities of foreign races. The

introduction of the refrigerator railway car in the 'seventies of the

19th century, making possible the distant marketing of dressed meats,

enormously increased the business. The workmen of the yards were

organized in a national union of meat packers in 1897, and all the

different classes of workmen have their separate organizations, formed

mainly between 1900 and 1902. The number of women employed more than

doubled in the decade 1891-1900, constituting probably about 9% of the

total in the latter year.

_Administration._--Chicago is governed under a general city-charter law

of Illinois of 1870, accepted by the city in 1875. In November 1904 the

people of Illinois adopted a constitutional amendment authorizing the

legislature of the state to provide a complete new system of local

government for Chicago, but the old system continued and is here

described, the new charter, from which so much had been hoped, being

rejected by the voters of the city by an overwhelming majority in

September 1907. A common council chosen by wards and renewed in half

each year controls the budget, police, liquor licences, city contracts

and the granting of franchises; it also confirms appointments made by

the mayor and by a vote of two-thirds may pass legislation over his

veto. The mayor, chosen for four years, is the executive head of the

city, and has large power of appointment and removal, limited by a civil

service law, under which he must submit reasons for removals, while

two-thirds of the council may prevent them. On the other hand the mayor

can veto separate items in the council's budget. The administrative

departments are generally headed by single commissioners; but those of

elections, education and the public library are exceptions. The council

was once all important, but as early as the charter of 1851 it began to

lose power to the mayor, whose directive and executive powers have

steadily increased, beginning first in the financial department.

Administration was once performed entirely by boards as in other

American cities: every specific problem or demand for municipal activity

was met by an appeal to the state legislature for special legislation

and the creation of a board. The substitution of single commissioners

began in 1876. The state constitution of 1870 forbade special

legislation, prescribed a general city charter law and forbade special

amendatory acts for Chicago. This stopped grave abuses, but because a

large part of the state has not been interested in Chicago's special

needs and demands for betterment it also saddled upon the city an

organization which in 1901 remained practically the same as in 1870,

when Chicago was an overgrown town of 300,000 inhabitants. Chicago was

the only large city of the state, and a charter generalized from village

experience was unsuitable for it. The parts of Cook county outside the

city have also been very jealous of forwarding its reorganization,

important features of which must be either, the complete absorption of

the county or at least the reconstitution of the county government,[18]

which the constitution left unchanged, and which, with the city's

growth, has caused clash of interests and authority. Nor is this dual

government--though the city has above nine-tenths of the population and

pays ninetenths of the taxes of the county--the only anomaly. Illinois

has had since 1848 a modified New England "township" local-government

system, and various townships have been absorbed by Chicago, yet they

all retained till after 1900 their political structure and some of their

functions. There are three park commissions, two appointed by the

governor and one by circuit court judges, created for different parts of

the old city, differently constituted and all independent of the city;

their jurisdiction was not enlarged as the city grew, so large portions

remained free of charges for parks and boulevards. A special park

commission now supplements them and lessens this anomaly though

increasing administrative diversity. A sanitary and drainage district,

not larger than the city area but quite different from it, was created

in 1886 (present form 1890) to carry through the drainage canal. The

school board has been nominally separate from and almost independent of

the city government in power since 1857. The courts of law are courts of

the state of Illinois, but a certain number of justices of the peace are

designated by the mayor to act as police magistrates. The initiative and

referendum in local matters has been made possible under a state law,

and has been several times exercised in important questions. Financial

arrangements have been loose and inefficient. Independent taxing power

has been lavishly granted. State, county, city, three park boards, the

school board, the public library board, the drainage board, and as late

as 1903 ten townships,[19] exercised this sovereign right within the

municipal area. Tax assessment valuations have been excessively

irregular (_e.g._ the "equalized" value for 1875 was $55,000,000 greater

than that for 1892), and apparently very low. The average assessment

valuation for the years from 1904 to 1908 was $438,729,897 (403.28

millions in 1904, and 477.19 millions in 1908), and in 1907 the highest

taxing rate was 8%. The bonded debt in 1908 was $25,157,400, about half

of it old ($11,362,726 in 1870; 4.5 millions contracted to aid the

World's Fair of 1893). In the early years following 1900 the city paid

more than half of its income on police; this expenditure, per capita of

population, was not high (in 1901 Boston $5.03, New York $3.21, Chicago

$2.19), and the results were not exactly efficient. The difficulty is

that the city is poor and can pay only for strict necessities. Its

poverty is due mainly to state laws. The taxation limit on property is

1% on the cash value, thus compelling special dependence upon all sorts

of indirect taxes; the debt limit is 5% on the assessed valuation. Since

1900 relief has been given by state law in some matters, such as for the

park system. The water system has been operated by the city since 1851,

and has been financially very successful from the beginning: rates are

far lower than in the other great cities of the country, and a handsome

net revenue accrues to the treasury.[20] A municipal electric-lighting

plant (1887), which was paid for gradually out of the general tax levy

and was not built by the sale of bonds, gave excellent results in the

city service. The city, like the state, has power to regulate the price

of gas sold by private companies. The elevation of the railway tracks

within the city was begun in 1892; at the close of 1908 the railway

companies had accepted ordinances of the City Council for the elevation

of 192.77 m. of main tracks and 947.91 m. of all tracks, and the

construction of 724 subways, at an estimated cost of $65,000,000; at

that time the railway companies had completed the elevation of 133.83 m.

of main tracks and 776 m. of all tracks, and had constructed 567

subways, at a total expense of $52,500,000. The system of intercepting

sewers begun in 1898 to complete the service of the drainage canal has

been constructed with the profits of the water system.

In addition to the movement for a new charter to remove the anomalies

and ease the difficulties already referred to, two great problems have

been in the forefront in recent years: the lessening of municipal

corruption and the control of local transit agencies.

The traction question may be said to have begun in 1865, in which year,

and again in 1883, public opinion was bitterly aroused against an

attempt of the traction companies to secure a ninety-nine year extension

of franchises. Following 1883 all lines were consolidated and enormously

over-capitalized (in 1905 about $150,000,000 of stocks and bonds on a 6%

basis, two-thirds of which rested only on the franchise). In 1895-1897

bold attempts to secure a 50-year extension of franchises were defeated

by Governor John P. Altgeld (1847-1902), by the formation of a Municipal

Voters' League, and by a representative committee of 100 sent from

Chicago to attend the legislature at Springfield. The transit service of

the city had for years been antiquated and inadequate. At the mayor's

elections in 1897, 1899, 1901 and 1903 the victory lay with the

opponents of the companies, and in 1905 the successful party stood for

immediate municipal acquisition of all roads. Meanwhile, under the state

referendum act, the city in 1902 voted overwhelmingly for municipal

ownership and operation (142,826 to 27,990); the legislature in 1903 by

the Mueller law gave the city the requisite powers; the people accepted

the law, again declared for municipal ownership, and for temporary

compulsion of adequate service, and against granting any franchise to

any company, by four additional votes similarly conclusive. At last,

after tedious negotiations, a definite agreement was reached in 1906

assuring an early acquisition of all roads by the city. The issue of

bonds for municipal railways was, however, declared unconstitutional

that year; and at the municipal elections of 1907 there was a complete

reversal of policy; a large majority voted this time against municipal

ownership in favour of leaving the working of the street railways in

private hands, and strengthening the powers of municipal control.

The active campaign for the improvement of municipal service and

politics may be said to have begun in 1896. A civil service system was

inaugurated in 1895. The salaries of the councilmen were raised with

good effect. Numerous reform associations were started to rouse public

opinion, such as the Citizens' Association of Chicago, organized in

1874, the Civic Federation (1894), the Municipal Voters' League (1896),

the Legislative Voters' League (1901), the Municipal Lecture Association

(1902), the Referendum League of Illinois (1901), the Civil Service

Reform Association of Chicago, the Civil Service Reform Association of

Illinois (1902), the Merchants' Club, the City Club (1903), the Law and

Order League (1904), Society of Social Hygiene (1906), and many of the

women's clubs took an active part. They stood for the _real_ enforcement

of the laws, sanitation, pure food, public health, the improvement of

the schools and the widening of their social influence, and (here

especially the women's clubs) aesthetic, social and moral progress. The

Merchants' Club reformed the city's book-keeping, and secured the

establishment (1899) of the first state pawnbrokers' society. The Civic

Federation demonstrated (1896) that it could clean the central streets

for slightly over half what the city was paying (the city has since

saved the difference); it originated the movement for vacation schools

and other educational advances, and started the Committee of One Hundred

(1897), from which sprang various other reform clubs. The Municipal

Voters' League investigated and published the records of candidates for

the city council, and recommended their election or defeat as the case

may be. Moreover, a "Municipal Museum" was organized in 1905, mainly

supported by private aid, but in part by the board of education, in

order to collect and make educational use of materials illustrating

municipal administration and conditions, physical and social.

_Education and Charity._--The school board is appointed by the mayor.

Since 1904 a merit system has been applied in the advancement of

teachers; civil service rules cover the rest of the employees.

Kindergartens were maintained without legal sanction in connexion with

the public schools for several years, and for more than twenty-five

years as private schools, before their legal establishment as a part of

the system in 1899. Free evening schools, very practical in their

courses, are utilized mainly by foreigners. Vacation schools were begun

in 1896. So far as possible the school buildings are kept open for

school, lectures and entertainments, serving thus as wholesome social

centres; and a more adequate use is made of the large investment (in

1908 about $44,500,000) which they represent. In all the public schools

manual training, household arts and economy, and commercial studies are

a regular part of the curriculum. A department of scientific pedagogy

and child study (1900) seeks to secure a development of the school

system in harmony with the results of scientific study of children (the

combination of hand and brain training, the use of audito-visual

methods, an elastic curriculum during the adolescent period, &c.). The

expenditure for all purposes by the city in 1903 for every dollar

expended for schools was only $1.713; a ratio paralleled in only a few

cities of the country.

Hospitals, infirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, shelters and homes for

the defective, destitute, orphaned, aged, erring, friendless and

incurably diseased; various relief societies, and associations that sift

the good from the bad among the mendicant, the economically inefficient,

and the viciously pauper, represent the charity work of the city. Among

public institutions are the Cook County hospital (situated in the

"Medical District" of the West Side, where various hospitals and schools

are gathered near together), asylum and poor house. Since 1883 a Lincoln

Park Sanitarium has been maintained for infants and small children

during warm weather. Two legal-aid societies, the Chicago Bureau of

Justice (1888) and the Protective Agency for Women and Children, collect

small wage claims and otherwise aid the poor or helpless. The most

important charitable societies of the city are the United Charities of

Chicago (1909), the United Hebrew Charities (1857), and the Associated

Jewish Charities (1900). The first is the union of the Relief and Aid

Society (1857) and the Bureau of Charities (1894), and tries to prevent

overlapping of efforts and to weed out fraud. Following the gradual

development of New York state laws on behalf of children was enacted the

Illinois Juvenile Court Law, which came into force on the 1st of July

1899 and was largely the result of Chicago's interest in juvenile

reform. Much philanthropic work centres in the West Side with its

heterogeneous population. A famous institution is Hull House, a social

settlement of women, which aims to be a social, charitable, and

educational neighbourhood centre. It was established in 1889 by Miss

Jane Addams, who became the head-worker, and Miss Ellen Gates Starr. It

includes an art building, a free kindergarten, a fine gymnasium, a

creche, and a diet kitchen; and supports classes, lectures and concerts.

It has had a very great influence throughout the United States. The

Armour mission (1886) for the poor is organized with similar breadth of

scope.

_Population._--Of the total population in 1900 not less than 34.6% were

foreign-born; the number of persons either born abroad, or born in the

United States of foreign parentage (i.e. father or both parents

foreign), was 77.4% of the population, and in the total number of males

of voting age the foreign-born predominated (53.4%). Of the latter

category 68.2% were already citizens by naturalization. 3.9% of the

inhabitants of ten years of age or upward were illiterate (unable to

write), while the percentage of foreign-born whites was 8.2% (93.9% of

illiterate males of voting age). Germans, Irish, Poles, Swedes and

Bohemians made up respectively 29.1, 12.6, 8.6, 8.3 and 6.2% of the

foreign-born population. It was estimated in 1903 by a very competent

authority that above 500,000 persons spoke German, 125,000 Polish,

100,000 Swedish, 90,000 Bohemian, 50,000 Norwegian, 50,000 Yiddish,

35,000 Dutch, 25,000 Italian, 20,000 Danish, 17,000 French and 12,000

Irish (Celtic), and that each of fourteen foreign languages was spoken

by more than 10,000 people: "Newspapers appear regularly in 10

languages, and church-services may be heard in about 20 languages.

Chicago is the second largest Bohemian city of the world, the third

Swedish, the fourth Norwegian, the fifth Polish, the fifth German (New

York being the fourth). In all there are some 40 languages spoken by ...

over one million" persons.[21] The death-rate of Chicago is the lowest

of the great cities of the country. Births are but slightly in excess of

deaths, so that the growth of the city is almost wholly from

immigration. The death-rate is the lowest of the great cities of the

country (16.2 in 1900; New York, 20.4; Boston, 20.1, &c.).

The growth of Chicago has been remarkable even for American cities. Any

resident of four-score years living in 1900 had seen it grow from a

settlement of fourteen houses, a frontier military post among the

Indians, to a great metropolis, fifth in size among the cities of the

world. In 1828 what is now the business centre was fenced in as a

pasture; in 1831 the Chicago mail was deposited in a dry-goods box; the

tax-levy of 1834 was $48.90, and a well that constituted the city

water-works was sunk at a cost of $95.50; in 1843 hogs were barred from

the town streets. Such facts impress upon one, as nothing else can, the

marvellously rapid growth of the city. In 1830 with a population of less

than 100, in 1840 with 4479, the increase by percentages in succeeding

decades was as follows: 507.3, 264.6, 173.6, 68.3, 118.6 and 54.4; an

increase equivalent to 8.6% annually, compounded. Such a continuous

"boom" no other American city has ever known.

_History._--The river Chicago (an Indian name of uncertain meaning, but

possibly from Ojibwa _she-kag-ong_, "wild onion place") was visited by

Joliet and Marquette in 1673, and later by La Salle and others. It

became a portage route of some importance, used by the French in passing

to the lower Illinois country. In 1804 the United States established

here Fort Dearborn. In 1812, during the Indian War of Tecumseh, the

garrison and settlers, who had abandoned the fort and were retreating

toward safety, were attacked and overpowered by the savages at a point

now well within the city. The fort was re-established and fitfully

occupied until its final abandonment in 1837. When Cook county was

organized in 1831, Chicago, then a tiny village, became the seat of

justice. It became a town in 1833 and a city in 1837. By that time

Chicago was confident of its future. The federal government had begun

the improvement of the harbour, and the state had started the Illinois

and Michigan canal. There was a federal land-office also, and the land

speculator and town promoter had opened a chapter of history more

picturesque, albeit sordid, than in any of the old French days. The

giant growth of the lake trade had drawn attention before railway

connexion was secure with the East in 1852, making progress even more

rapid thereafter. During the Civil War a large prison-camp for

Confederate prisoners, Camp Douglas, was maintained at Chicago. In 1870

the city had 306,605 inhabitants and was already a commercial centre of

immense importance.

In 1871 it suffered a terrible calamity. On the 8th of October a fire

broke out near the lumber district on the West Side. Two-thirds of the

city's buildings were wood, and the summer had been excessively dry,

while to make conditions worse a high and veering wind fanned the

flames. The conflagration leaped the river to the South and finally to

the North Side, burned over an area of 3-1/3 sq. m., destroyed 17,450

buildings and property valued at $196,000,000,[22] and rendered almost

100,000 people homeless; 250 lost their lives. The flames actually

travelled 2-1/4 m. in an air-line within 6-1/2 hours. Thousands of persons,

fleeing before the flames and fire-brands, sought refuge on the shore

and even in the waters of the lake. Robbery, pillage, extortion, orgies

and crime added to the general horror. In the South Side the fire was

checked on the 9th by the use of gunpowder; in the North (where the

water-works were early destroyed) it had extended almost to the prairie

when rainfall finally ended its ravages, after about twenty-seven hours

of destruction. With the exception of the San Francisco fire of 1906

this was the greatest fire of modern times. A vast system of relief was

organized and received generous aid from all parts of the world. The

money contributions from the United States and abroad were $4,996,782;

of this foreign countries contributed nearly $1,000,000 (England half of

this). These funds, which were over and above gifts of food, clothing

and supplies, were made to last till the close of 1876. Out of them

temporary homes were provided for nearly 40,000 people; barracks and

better houses were erected, workmen were supplied with tools, and women

with sewing-machines; the sick were cared for and the dead buried; and

the poorer classes of Chicago were probably never so comfortable as

during the first two or three years after the fire. The rebuilding of

the city was accomplished with wonderful rapidity. Work was begun before

the cinders were cold. The business district was largely rebuilt within

a year, and within three there were hardly scars of the calamity. Wood

was barred from a large area (and subsequently from the entire city),

and a new Chicago of brick and stone, larger, finer and wealthier, had

taken the place of the old. Business and population showed no set-back

in their progress. The solidity and permanence of this prosperity were

confirmed during the financial panic of 1873, when Chicago banks alone,

among those of the large cities of the country, continued steadily to

pay out current funds.

In its later history certain special factors stand out, apart from

continued commercial progress.

Chicago has been a storm centre of labour troubles, some of them of a

specially spectacular character. There were great strikes in the packing

industry in 1886, 1894 and 1904. But more noteworthy are the railway

strike of 1894 and the unsuccessful teamsters' strike of 1905. The

former began in the works of the Pullman Car Company, and its leader was

Eugene Victor Debs (b. 1855). When the contentions of the Pullman

employees were taken up by the American Railway Union the strike

immediately extended to tremendous proportions. Union men throughout the

country refused to handle Pullman cars, and since Pullman cars are

almost invariably attached to mail trains the transportation of the

United States mail was thus obstructed. Chicago, as the greatest railway

centre of the country and the home of the strike, was naturally the seat

of the most serious complications. There was much rioting and

destruction of property, and the railway service was completely

disorganized. President Cleveland, on the ground of preventing

obstruction of the mail service, and of protecting other federal

interests, ordered a small number of federal troops to Chicago. Those

interests were, he contended, menaced by "domestic violence" evidently

beyond the control of the state power. Governor Altgeld denied the

inability of the state to deal with the difficulty, and entered a strong

protest against Federal interference; but he himself did nothing to put

down the disorder. Federal troops entered the state, and almost

immediately the strike collapsed. The high officials of the Railway

Union, for ignoring a court injunction restraining them from interfering

with the movement of the mails, were imprisoned for long terms for

contempt of court.

Out of a strike in the McCormick works in 1886 there sprang another

famous incident in Chicago's history. The "international" anarchists of

Chicago had been organized in "groups" about two years earlier, and were

very active. They were advocating a "general strike" for an eight-hour

day, and the tense excitement among the labourers of the city, owing to

the McCormick strike, induced unusually ultra utterances. There was a

riot at the McCormick works on the 3rd of May, in which several men were

killed by the police. An anarchist meeting was called for the next day

at the Haymarket, a square in Randolph Street, and when the authorities

judged that the speeches were too revolutionary to be allowed to

continue, the police undertook to disperse the meeting. A bomb was

thrown, and many policemen were injured, seven fatally. No person could

be proved to have thrown the bomb, or to have been directly implicated

in its throwing; but on the ground that they were morally conspirators

and accomplices in the killing, because they had repeatedly and publicly

advocated such acts against the servants of government, seven anarchists

were condemned to death. An application to the United States Supreme

Court for a writ of error was unanimously refused.[23]

The four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America was

commemorated by a World's Columbian Exposition held at Chicago. The site

was in Jackson Park and the adjoining Midway, and included 686 acres, of

which 188 were covered by buildings. On the 21st of October

1892--corresponding to the 12th of October 1492, O.S.--the grounds were

formally dedicated, and on the following 1st of May opened to the

public, continuing open for six months. The number of paid admissions

was 21,500,000; of total admissions 27,539,521. The buildings, planned

by a commission of architects--among whom John W. Root and Daniel H.

Burnbam of Chicago were responsible for the general scheme--formed a

collection of remarkable beauty, to which the grounds, planned by F.L.

Olmsted, intersected by lagoons and bordered by the lake, lent an

appropriate setting. The entire cost of the fair is variously estimated

at from 33 to 43 million dollars, according to the inclusiveness of the

estimate; the local cost may be put at $28,151,169. Of this Chicago gave

about 10-1/2 millions, in addition to a preparatory house-cleaning that

cost 3-1/2 millions; and finally a very small dividend was paid to

stockholders. The whole undertaking, carried through with remarkable

enterprise, was an artistic and educational triumph of the first order.

Owing to its position Chicago has long been a favourite convention city.

Lincoln (1860), Grant (1868), Garfield (1880), Cleveland (1884 and

1892), Harrison (1888), Roosevelt (1904), and Taft (1908) were all

nominated here for president; and in addition not a few candidates who

were unsuccessful. A national peace jubilee was held here in 1898.

AUTHORITIES.--See the annual reports of city officials, board of

trade, park commissions, sanitary board, &c.; A.T. Andreas, _History

of Chicago_ (Chicago, 3 vols., 1884-1886); R. Blanchard, _Discovery

and Conquest of the North-West with the History of Chicago_ (Chicago,

2 vols., 1898-1903); J. Kirkland, _Story of Chicago_ (Chicago, 1892);

issues of the Fergus _Historical Series_ (1876, ff.); T.J. Riley, _A

Study of the Higher Life of Chicago_ (Chicago University, doctoral

dissertation, 1905); S.E. Sparling, _Municipal History and Present

Organization of the City of Chicago_ (University of Wisconsin,

doctoral dissertation, Madison, 1898). Periodical literature contains

a vast amount of information on Chicago's progress and conditions that

is elsewhere unobtainable; exact references may be obtained in Poole's

_Index to Periodical Literature_.