[1] The more notable chemists of this period were Turquet de Mayerne
(1573-1665), a physician of Paris, who rejected the Galenian
doctrines and accepted the exaggerations of Paracelsus; Andreas
Libavius (d. 1616), chiefly famous for his _Opera Omnia
Medicochymica_ (1595); Jean Baptiste van Helmont (1577-1644),
celebrated for his researches on gases; F. de la Boe Sylvius
(1614-1672), who regarded medicine as applied chemistry; and Otto
Tachenius, who elucidated the nature of salts.
[2] This dictum was questioned by the researches of H. Landolt, A.
Heydweiller and others. In a series of 75 reactions it was found
that in 61 there was apparently a diminution in weight, but in 1908,
after a most careful repetition and making allowance for all
experimental errors, Landolt concluded that no change occurred (see
ELEMENT).
[3] The theory of Berthollet was essentially mechanical, and he
attempted to prove that the course of a reaction depended not on
affinities alone but also on the masses of the reacting components.
In this respect his hypothesis has much in common with the "law of
mass-action" developed at a much later date by the Swedish chemists
Guldberg and Waage, and the American, Willard Gibbs (see CHEMICAL
ACTION). In his classical thesis Berthollet vigorously attacked the
results deduced by Bergman, who had followed in his table of
elective attractions the path traversed by Stahl and S. F. Geoffroy.
[4] Dalton's atomic theory is treated in more detail in the article
ATOM.
[5] Berzelius, however, appreciated the necessity of differentiating
the atom and the molecule, and even urged Dalton to amend his
doctrine, but without success.
[6] The following symbols were also used by Bergman:--
[Illustration]
which represented zinc, manganese, cobalt, bismuth, nickel, arsenic,
platinum, water, alcohol, phlogiston.
[7] The following are the symbols employed by Dalton:--
[Illustration]
which represent in order, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen,
phosphorus, sulphur, magnesia, lime, soda, potash, strontia, baryta,
mercury; iron, zinc, copper, lead, silver, platinum, and gold were
represented by circles enclosing the initial letter of the element.
[8] Approximate values of the atomic weights are employed here.
[9] The definite distinction between potash and soda was first
established by Duhamel de Monceau (1700-1781).
[10] The reader is specially referred to the articles ALIZARIN;
INDIGO; PURIN and TERPENES for illustrations of the manner in which
chemists have artificially prepared important animal and vegetable
products.
[11] These observations were generalized by J.B. Dumas and Polydore
Boullay (1806-1835) in their "etherin theory" (_vide infra_).
[12] This must not be confused with the modern _acetyl_, CH3.CO, which
at that time was known as _acetoxyl_.
[13] It is now established that ortho compounds do exist in isomeric
forms, instances being provided by chlor-, brom-, and amino-toluene,
chlorphenol, and chloraniline; but arguments, e.g. E. Knoevenagel's
theory of "motoisomerism," have been brought forward to cause these
facts to support Kekule.
[14] Victor Meyer and G. Heyl (_Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 2776) attempted a
solution from the following data. It is well known that
di-ortho-substituted benzoic acids are esterified with difficulty.
Two acids corresponding to the formula of Kekule and Claus are
triphenyl acrylic acid, (C6H5)2C:C(COOH).C6H5, and triphenyl acetic
acid, (C6H5)3C.COOH. Experiments showed that the second acid was
much more difficult to esterify than the first, pointing to the
conclusion that Claus' formula for benzene was more probable than
Kekule's.
[15] H. Rose, _Ausfuhrliches Handbuch der analytischen Chemie_ (1851).
[16] F. Wohler, _Die Mineralanalyse in Beispielen_ (1861).
[17] For the connexion between valency and volume, see VALENCY.
[18] This was done simultaneously in 1894 by W. Muthmann and A. E.
H. Tutton, the latter receiving the idea from F. Becke (see _Journ.
Chem. Soc._, 1896, 69, p. 507; 1905, 87, p. 1183).
CHEMNITZ (or KEMNITZ), MARTIN (1522-1586), German Lutheran theologian,
third son of Paul Kemnitz, a cloth-worker of noble extraction, was born
at Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg, on the 9th of November 1522. Left an
orphan at the age of eleven, he worked for a time at his father's trade.
A relative at Magdeburg put him to school there (1539-1542). Having made
a little money by teaching, he went (1543) to the university of
Frankfort-on-Oder; thence (1545) to that of Wittenberg. Here he heard
Luther preach, but was more attracted by Melanchthon, who interested him
in mathematics and astrology. Melanchthon gave him (1547) an
introduction to his son-in-law, Georg Sabinus, at Konigsberg, where he
was tutor to some Polish youths, and rector (1548) of the Kneiphof
school. He practised astrology; this recommended him to Duke Albert of
Prussia, who made him his librarian (1550). He then turned to Biblical,
patristic and kindred studies. His powers were first brought out in
controversy with Osiander on justification by faith. Osiander,
maintaining the infusion of Christ's righteousness into the believer,
impugned the Lutheran doctrine of imputation; Chemnitz defended it with
striking ability. As Duke Albert sided with Osiander, Chemnitz resigned
the librarianship. Returning (1553) to Wittenberg, he lectured on
Melanchthon's _Loci Communes_, his lectures forming the basis of his own
_Loci Theologici_ (published posthumously, 1591), which constitute
probably the best exposition of Lutheran theology as formulated and
modified by Melanchthon. His lectures were thronged, and a university
career of great influence lay before him, when he accepted a call to
become coadjutor at Brunswick to the superintendent, Joachim Morlin, who
had known him at Konigsberg. He removed to Brunswick on the 15th of
December 1554, and there spent the remainder of his life, refusing
subsequent offers of important offices from various Protestant princes
of Germany. Zealous in the duties of his pastoral charge, he took a
leading part in theological controversy. His personal influence, at a
critical period, did much to secure strictness of doctrine and
compactness of organization in the Lutheran Church. Against
Crypto-Calvinists he upheld the Lutheran view of the eucharist in his
_Repetitio sanae doctrinae de Vera Praesentia_ (1560; in German, 1561).
To check the reaction towards the old religion he wrote several works of
great power, especially his _Theologiae Jesuitarum praecipua capita_
(1562), an incisive attack on the principles of the society, and the
_Examen concilii Tridentini_ (four parts, 1565-66-72-73), his greatest
work. His _Corpus doctrinae Prutenicum_ (1567), drawn up in conjunction
with Morlin, at once acquired great authority. In the year of its
publication he became superintendent of Brunswick, and in effect the
director of his church throughout Lower Saxony. His tact was equal to
his learning. In conjunction with Andrea and Selnecker he induced the
Lutherans of Saxony and Swabia to adopt the _Formula Concordiae_ and so
become one body. Against lax views of Socinian tendency he directed his
able treatise _De duabus naluris in Christo_ (1570). Resigning office in
infirm health (1584) he survived till the 8th of April 1586.
Lives of Chemnitz are numerous, e.g. by T. Gasmerus (1588), T. Pressel
(1862), C.G.H. Lentz (1866), H. Hachfeld (1867), H. Schmid in J.J.
Herzog's _Realencyklopadie_ (1878), T. Kunze in A. Hauck's
_Realencyklop. fur prot. Theol. und Kirche_ (1897); that by Hausle, in
I. Goschler's _Dict. encyclopedique de la theol. cath._ (1858), gives
a Roman Catholic view. (A. Go.*)
CHEMNITZ, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, the capital of a
governmental district, 50 m. W.S.W. of Dresden and 51 S.E. of Leipzig by
rail. Pop. (1885) 110,817; (1895) 161,017; (1905) 244,405. It lies 950
ft. above the sea, in a fertile plain at the foot of the Erzgebirge,
watered by the river Chemnitz, an affluent of the Mulde. It is the chief
manufacturing town in the kingdom, ranks next to Dresden and Leipzig in
point of population, and is one of the principal commercial and
industrial centres of Germany. It is well provided with railway
communication, being directly connected with Berlin and with the
populous and thriving towns of the Erzgebirge and Voigtland. Chemnitz is
in general well built, the enormous development of its industry and
commerce having of late years led to the laying out of many fine streets
and to the embellishing of the town with handsome buildings. The centre
is occupied by the market square, with the handsome medieval Rathaus,
now superseded for municipal business by a modern building in the
Post-strasse. In this square are monuments to the emperor William I.,
Bismarck and Moltke. The old inner town is surrounded by pleasant
promenades, occupying the site of the old fortifications, and it is
beyond these that industrial Chemnitz lies, girdling the old town on all
sides with a thick belt of streets and factories, and ramifying far into
the country. Chemnitz has eleven Protestant churches, among them the
ancient Gothic church of St James, with a fine porch, and the modern
churches of St Peter, St Nicholas and St Mark. There are also a
synagogue and chapels of various sects. The industry of Chemnitz has
gained for the town the name of "Saxon Manchester." First in importance
are its locomotive and engineering works, which give employment to some
20,000 hands in 90 factories. Next come its cotton-spinning, hosiery,
textile and glove manufactures, in which a large trade is done with
Great Britain and the United States. It is also the seat of considerable
dyeworks, bleachworks, chemical and woollen factories, and produces
leather and straps, cement, small vehicles, wire-woven goods, carpets,
beer and bricks. The town is well provided with technical schools for
training in the various industries, including commercial, public,
economic and agricultural schools, and has a chamber of commerce. There
are also industrial and historical museums, and collections of painting
and natural history. The local communications are maintained by an
excellent electric tramway system. To the northwest of the town is the
Gothic church of a former Benedictine monastery, dating from 1514-1525,
with a tower of 1897. Chemnitz is a favourite tourist centre for
excursions into the Erzgebirge, the chain of mountains separating Saxony
from Bohemia.
Chemnitz (_Kaminizi_) was originally a settlement of the Serbian Wends
and became a market town in 1143. Its municipal constitution dates from
the 14th century, and it soon became the most important industrial
centre in the mark of Meissen. A monopoly of bleaching was granted to
the town, and thus a considerable trade in woollen and linen yarns was
attracted to Chemnitz; paper was made here, and in the 16th century the
manufacture of cloth was very flourishing. In 1539 the Reformation was
introduced, and in 1546 the Benedictine monastery, founded about 1136 by
the emperor Lothair II. about 2 m. north of the town, was dissolved.
During the Thirty Years' War Chemnitz was plundered by all parties and
its trade was completely ruined, but at the beginning of the 18th
century it had begun to recover. Further progress in this direction was
made during the 19th century, especially after 1834 when Saxony joined
the German Zollverein.
See Zollner, _Geschichte der Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz_
(1891); and Straumer, _Die Fabrik- und Handelsstadt Chemnitz_ (1892).
CHEMOTAXIS (from the stem of "chemistry" and Gr. [Greek: taxis],
arrangement), a biological term for the attraction exercised on living
or growing organisms or their members by chemical substances; e.g. the
attraction of the male cells of ferns or mosses by an organic acid or
sugar-solution.
CHENAB (the Greek Acesines), one of the "Five rivers" of the Punjab,
India. It rises in the snowy Himalayan ranges of Kashmir, enters British
territory in the Sialkot district, and flows through the plains of the
Punjab, forming the boundary between the Rechna and the Jech Doabs.
Finally it joins the Jhelum at Trimmu.
The CHENAB COLONY, resulting from the great success of the Chenab Canal
in irrigating the desert of the Bar, was formed out of the three
adjacent districts of Gujranwala, Jhang, and Montgomery in 1892, and
contained in 1901 a population of 791,861. It lies in the Rechna Doab
between the Chenab and Ravi rivers in the north-east of the Jhang
district, and is designed to include an irrigated area of 2-1/2 million
acres. The Chenab Canal (opened 1887) is the largest and most profitable
perennial canal in India. The principal town is Lyallpur, called after
Sir J. Broad wood Lyall, lieutenant-governor of the Punjab 1887-1892,
which gives its name to a district created in 1904.
CHENEDOLLE, CHARLES JULIEN LIOULT DE (1769-1833), French poet, was born
at Vire (Calvados) on the 4th of November 1769. He early showed a
vocation for poetry, but the outbreak of the Revolution temporarily
diverted his energy. Emigrating in 1791, he fought two campaigns in the
army of Conde, and eventually found his way to Hamburg, where he met
Antoine de Rivarol, of whose brilliant conversation he has left an
account. He also visited Mme de Stael in her retreat at Coppet. On his
return to Paris in 1799 he met Chateaubriand and his sister Lucile (Mme
de Caud), to whom he became deeply attached. After her death in 1804,
Chenedolle returned to Normandy, where he married and became eventually
inspector of the academy of Caen (1812-1832). With the exception of
occasional visits to Paris, he spent the rest of his life in his native
province. He died at the chateau de Coisel on the 2nd of December 1833.
He published his _Genie de l'Homme_ in 1807, and in 1820 his _Etudes
poetiques_, which had the misfortune to appear shortly after the
_Meditations_ of Lamartine, so that the author did not receive the
credit of their real originality. Chenedolle had many sympathies with
the romanticists, and was a contributor to their organ, the _Muse
francaise_. His other works include the _Esprit de Rivarol_ (1808) in
conjunction with F.J.M. Fayolle.
The works of Chenedolle were edited in 1864 by Sainte-Beuve, who drew
portraits of him in his _Chateaubriand et son groupe_ and in an
article contributed to the _Revue des deux mondes_ (June 1849). See
also E. Helland, _Etude biographique et litteraire sur Chenedolle_
(1857); Cazin, _Notice sur Chenedolle_ (1869).
CHENERY, THOMAS (1826-1884), English scholar and editor of _The Times_,
was born in 1826 at Barbados. He was educated at Eton and Caius College,
Cambridge. Having been called to the bar, he went out to Constantinople
as _The Times_ correspondent just before the Crimean War, and it was
under the influence there of Algernon Smythe (afterwards Lord
Strangford) that he first turned to those philological studies in which
he became eminent. After the war he returned to London and wrote
regularly for _The Times_ for many years, eventually succeeding Delane
as editor in 1877. He was then an experienced publicist, particularly
well versed in Oriental affairs, an indefatigable worker, with a rapid
and comprehensive judgment, though he lacked Delane's intuition for
public opinion. It was as an Orientalist, however, that he had meantime
earned the highest reputation, his knowledge of Arabic and Hebrew being
almost unrivalled and his gift for languages exceptional. In 1868 he was
appointed Lord Almoner's professor of Arabic at Oxford, and retained his
position until he became editor of _The Times_. He was one of the
company of revisers of the Old Testament. He was secretary for some
time to the Royal Asiatic Society, and published learned editions of the
Arabic classic _The Assemblies of Al-Hariri_ and of the _Machberoth
Ithiel_. He died in London on the 11th of February 1884.
CHENG, TSCHENG or TSCHIANG (Ger. _Scheng_), an ancient Chinese wind
instrument, a primitive organ, containing the principle of the free reed
which found application in the accordion, concertina and harmonium. The
cheng resembles a tea-pot filled with bamboo pipes of graduated lengths.
It consists of a gourd or turned wooden receptacle acting as wind
reservoir, in the side of which is inserted an insufflation tube curved
like a swan's neck or the spout of a tea-pot. The cup-shaped reservoir
is closed by means of a plate of horn pierced with seventeen round holes
arranged round the edge in an unfinished circle, into which fit the
bamboo pipes. The pipes are cylindrical as far as they are visible above
the plate, but the lower end inserted in the wind reservoir is cut to
the shape of a beak, somewhat like the mouthpiece of the clarinet, to
receive the reed. The construction of the free reed is very simple: it
consists of a thin plate of metal--gold according to the Jesuit
missionary Joseph Amiot,[1] but brass in the specimens brought to
Europe--of the thickness of ordinary paper. In this plate is cut a
rectangular flap or tongue which remains fixed at one end, while at the
other the tongue is filed so that, instead of closing the aperture, it
passes freely through, vibrating as the air is forced through the pipe
(see FREE-REED VIBRATOR). The metal plate is fastened with wax
longitudinally across the diameter of the beak end of the pipe, a little
layer of wax being applied also to the free end of the vibrating tongue
for the purpose of tuning by adding weight and impetus. About half an
inch above the horn plate a small round hole or stop is bored through
the pipe, which speaks only when this hole is covered by the finger. A
longitudinal aperture about an inch long cut in the upper end of the
bamboo pipe serves to determine the length of the vibrating column of
air proper to respond to the vibrations of the free reed. The length of
the bamboo above this opening is purely ornamental, as are also four or
five of the seventeen pipes which have no reeds and do not speak, being
merely inserted for the purposes of symmetry in design. The notes of the
cheng, like those of the concertina, speak either by inspiration or
expiration of air, the former being the more usual method. Mahillon
states that performers on the cheng in China are rare, as the method of
playing by inspiration induces inflammation of the throat.[2] Amiot, who
gives a description of the instrument with illustrations showing the
construction, states that in the great Chinese encyclopaedia _Eulh-ya_,
articles _Yu_ and _Ho_, the _Yu_ of ancient China was the large cheng
with nineteen free reeds (twenty-four pipes), and the _Ho_ the small
cheng with thirteen reeds or seventeen pipes described in this article.
The compass of the latter is given by him as the middle octave with
chromatic intervals, the thirteenth note giving the octave of the first.
Mahillon gives the compass of a modern cheng as follows:
[Illustration]
E.F.F. Chladni,[3] who examined a cheng sent from China to Herr Muller,
organist of the church of St Nicholas, Leipzig, at the beginning of the
19th century, gives an excellent description of the instrument,
reproducing in illustration a plate from Giulio Ferrario's work on
costume.[4] Muller's cheng had the same compass as Mahillon's. Chladni's
article was motived by the publication of an account of the exhibition
of G.J. Grenie's _Orgue expressif_, invented about 1810, in the
Conservatoire of Paris.[5] Grenie's invention, perfected by Alexandre
and Debain about 1840, produced the harmonium. Kratzenstein (see under
HARMONIUM) of St Petersburg was the first to apply the free reed to the
organ in the second half of the 18th century. Inventions of similar
instruments, which after a short life were relegated to oblivion,
followed at the beginning of the 19th century. An interesting
reproduction of a Persian cheng dating from the 10th or 11th century is
to be seen on a Persian vase described and illustrated together with a
shawm in the _Gazette archeologique_ (tome xi., 1886). (K. S.)