Produced by Andrew Hodson
Language = USA English. Characters with { } around them show those added
as there are some mistakes in the book & for other reasons & ¤¬ִªЪđəפּזłһ$
show the extras of #-.abdegilns. (I changed mathematical & meter (rhythmic
arrangement of syllables in verse) but maybe they are correct and the
others are wrong). I did not change _Shak{e}spe{a}re, mortgagəor_ &
some words in lists. Broad _a_ has 1 dot before & 1 under instead of
2 dots under it & the character ұ should have its line over the letter y.
This arrow sign after a word shows that the next 1 should start the
next column. “Special SYSTEM Edition” brought from frontispiece.
The 2nd. book of “Composition & Rhetoric” is also in this file.
THE ART σƒ WRITING & SPEAKING ךђℓ ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SHERWIN CODY
Special S Y S T E M Edition
WORD-STUDY
The Old Greek Press
_Chicago New{ }York Boston_
_Revised Edition_.
_Copyright,1903,_
By SHERWIN CODY.
_Note_. The thanks of the author are due to Dr. Edwin H. Lewis, of the
Lewis Institute, Chicago, and to Prof. John F. Genung, Ph. D., of Amherst
College, for suggestions made after reading the proof of this series.
CONTENTS.
THE ART OF WRITING AND SPEAKING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION… 7
WORD-STUDY
INTRODUCTION——THE STUDY OF SPELLING
CHAPTER I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS
{VOWELS
CONSONANTS
EXERCISES
THE DICTIONARY}
CHAPTER II. WORD-BUILDING
{PREFIXES}
CHAPTER III. WORD-BUILDING———Rules and Applications
{EXCEPTIONS}
CHAPTER IV. PRONUNCIATION
CHAPTER V. A SPELLING DRILL
APPENDIX
The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
If there is a subject of really universal interest and utility,
it is the art of writing and speaking one's own language effectively.
It is the basis of culture, as we all know; but it is infinitely more
than that: it is the basis of business. No salesman can sell anything
unless he can explain the merits of his goods in _effective_ English
(among our people), or can write an advertisement equally effective,
or present his ideas, and the facts, in a letter. Indeed, the way
we talk, and write letters, largely determines our success in life.
Now it is well for us to face at once the counter-statement that the
most ignorant and uncultivated men often succeed best in business,
and that misspelled, ungrammatical advertisements have brought in
millions of dollars. It is an acknowledged fact that our business
circulars and letters are far inferior in correctness to those of Great
Britain; yet they are more effective in getting business. As far as
spelling is concerned, we know that some of the masters of literature
have been atrocious spellers and many suppose that when one can sin in
such company, sinning is, as we might say, a “beauty spot”, a defect in
which we can even take pride.
Let us examine the facts in the case more closely. First of all, language
is no more than a medium; it is like air to the creatures of the land or
water to fishes. If it is perfectly clear and pure, we do not notice it
any more than we notice pure air when the sun is shining in a clear sky,
or the taste of pure cool water when we drink a glass on a hot day. Unless
the sun is shining, there is no brightness; unless the water is cool, there
is no refreshment. The source of all our joy in the landscape, of the
luxuriance of fertile nature, is the sun and not the air. Nature would be
more prodigal in Mexico than in Greenland, even if the air in Mexico were
as full of soot and smoke as the air of Pittsburg{h}, or loaded with the
acid from a chemical factory. So it is with language. Language is merely
a medium for thoughts, emotions, the intelligence of a finely wrought
brain, and a good mind will make far more out of a bad medium than a poor
mind will make out of the best. A great violinist will draw such music
from the cheapest violin that the world is astonished. However is that any
reason why the great violinist should choose to play on a poor violin; or
should one say nothing of the smoke nuisance in Chicago because more light
and heat penetrate its murky atmosphere than are to be found in cities only
a few miles farther north? The truth is, we must regard the bad spelling
nuisance, the bad grammar nuisance, the inártistic and rambling language
nuisance, precisely as we would the smoke nuisance, the sewer-gas nuisance,
the stock-yards' smell nuisance. Some dainty people prefer pure air and
correct language; but we now recognize that purity is something more than
an esthetic fad, that it is essential to our health and well-being, and
therefore it becomes a matter of universal public interest, in language
as well as in air.
There is a general belief that while bad air may be a positive evil
influence, incorrect use of language is at most no more than a negative
evil: that while it may be a good thing to be correct, no special harm
is involved in being incorrect. Let us look into this point.
While language as the medium of thought may be compared to air as the
medium of the sun's influence, in other respects it is like the skin of
the body; a scurvy skin shows bad blood within, and a scurvy language shows
inaccurate thought and a confused mind. And as a disease once fixed on the
skin reacts and poisons the blood in turn as it has first been poisoned by
the blood, so careless use of language if indulged reacts on the mind to
make it permanently and increasingly careless, illogical, and inaccurate
in its thinking.
The ordinary person will probably not believe this, because he conceives
of good use of language as an accomplishment to be learned from books,
a prim system of genteel manners to be put on when occasion demands,
a sort of superficial education in the correct thing, or, as the boys
would say, “the proper caper.” In this, however, he is mistaken.
Language which expresses the thought with strict logical accuracy is
correct language, and language which is sufficiently rich in its resources
to express thought fully, in all its lights and bearings, is effective
language. If the writer or speaker has a sufficient stock of words and
forms at his disposal, he has only to use them in a strictly logical way
and with sufficient fulness to be both correct and effective. If his
mind can always be trusted to work accurately, he need not know a word
of grammar except what he has imbibed unconsciously in getting his stock
of words and expressions. Formal grammar is purely for critical purposes.
It is no more than a standard measuring stick by which to try the work
that has been done and find out if it is imperfect at any point. Of course
constant correction of inaccuracies schools the mind and puts it on its
guard so that it will be more careful the next time it attempts expression;
but we cannot avoid the conclusion that if the mind lacks material, lacks
knowledge of the essential elements of the language, it should go to the
original source from which it got its first supply, namely to reading and
hearing that which is acknowledged to be correct and sufficient―as the
child learns from its mother. All the scholastic and analytic grammar in
the world will not enrich the mind in language to any appreciable extent.
And now we may consider another objector, who says, “I have studied
grammar for years and it has done me no good.” In view of what has
just been said, we may easily concede that such is very likely to
have been the case. A measuring stick is of little value unless you
have something to measure. Language cannot be acquired, only tested,
by analysis, and grammar is an analytic, not a constructive science.
We have compared bad use of language to a scurvy condition of the skin.
To cure the skin we must doctor the blood; and to improve the language
we should begin by teaching the mind to think. But that, you will say,
is a large undertaking. Yes, but after all it is the most direct and
effective way. All education should be in the nature of teaching
the mind to think, and the teaching of language consists in teaching
thinking in connection with word forms and expression through
language. The unfortunate thing is that teachers of language have
failed to go to the root of the trouble, and enormous effort has
counted for nothing, and besides has led to discouragement.
The American people are noted for being hasty in all they do. Their
manufactures are quickly made and cheap. They have not hitherto
had time to secure that perfection in minute details which constitutes
“quality.” The slow-going Europeans still excel in nearly all fine
and high-grade forms of manufacture―fine pottery, fine carpets and
rugs, fine cloth, fine bronze and other art wares. In our language,
too, we are hasty, and therefore imperfect. Fine logical accuracy
requires more time than we have had to give to it, and we read the
newspapers, which are very poor models of language, instead of books,
which should be far better. Our standard of business letters is very low.
It is rare to find a letter of any length without one or more errors of
language, to say nothing of frequent errors in spelling made by ignorant
stenographers and not corrected by the business men who sign the letters.
But a change is coming over us. We have suddenly taken to reading
books, and while they are not always the best books, they are better
than newspapers. And now a young business man feels that it is
distinctly to his advantage if he can dictate a thoroughly good
letter to his superior or to a well informed customer. Good letters
raise the tone of a business house, poor letters give the idea
that it is a cheapjack concern. In social life, well written letters,
like good conversational powers, bring friends and introduce the
writer into higher circles. A command of language is the index of
culture, and the uneducated man or woman who has become wealthy
or has gained any special success is eager to put on this wedding
garment of refinement. If he continues to regard a good command
of language as a wedding garment, he will probably fail in his effort;
but a few will discover the way to self-education and actively follow
it to its conclusion adding to their first success this new achievement.
But we may even go farther. The right kind of language-teaching will
also give us power, a kind of eloquence, a skill in the use of words, which
will enable us to frame advertisements which will draw business, letters
which will win customers, and to speak in that elegant and forceful way so
effective in selling goods. When all advertisements are couched in very
imperfect language, and all business letters are carelessly written, of
course no one has an advantage over another, and a good knowledge and
command of language would not be much of a recommendation to a business
man who wants a good assistant. But when a few have come in and by their
superior command of language gained a distinct advantage over rivals, then
the power inherent in language comes into universal demand——the business
standard is raised. There are many signs now that the business standard
in the use of language is being distinctly raised. Already a stenographer
who does not make errors commands a salary from 25 per cent. to 50 per
cent. higher than the average, and is always in demand. Advertisement
writers must have not only business instinct but language instinct,
and knowledge of correct, as well as forceful, expression{.}
Granted, then, that we are all eager to better our knowledge of the
English language, how shall we go about it?
There are literally thousands of published books devoted to the study
and teaching of our language. In such a flood it would seem that we
should have no difficulty in obtaining good guides for our study.
But what do we find? We find spelling-books filled with lists of words to
be memorized; we find grammars filled with names and definitions of all
the different forms which the language assumes; we find rhetorics filled
with the names of every device ever employed to give effectiveness to
language; we find books on literature filled with the names, dates of birth
and death, and lists of works, of every writer any one ever heard of:
and when we have learned all these names we are no better off than when
we started. It is true that in many of these books we may find prefaces
which say, “All other books err in clinging too closely to mere system,
to names; but we will break away and give you the real thing.” But they
don't do it; they can't afford to be too radical, and so they merely modify
in a few details the same old system, the system of names. Yet it is a
great point gained when the necessity for a change is realized.
How, then, shall we go about our mastery of the English language?
Modern science has provided us a universal method by which we may study
and master any subject. As applied to an art, this method has proved
highly successful in the case of music. It has not been applied to
language because there was a well fixed method of language study
in existence long before modern science was even dreamed of, and that
ancient method has held on with wonderful tenacity. The great fault with
it is that it was invented to apply to languages entirely different from
our own. Latin grammar and Greek grammar were mechanical systems of
endings by which the relationships of words were indicated. Of course the
relationship of words was at bottom logical, but the mechanical form was
the chief thing to be learned. Our language depends wholly (or very nearly
so) on arrangement of words, and the key is the logical relationship.
A man who knows all the forms of the Latin or Greek language can write
it with substantial accuracy; but the man who would master the English
language must go deeper, he must master the logic of sentence structure
or word relations. We must begin our study at just the opposite end from
the Latin or Greek; but our teachers of language have balked at a complete
reversal of method, the power of custom and time has been too strong, and
in the matter of grammar we are still the slaves of the ancient world.
As for spelling, the irregularities of our language seem to have driven us
to one sole method, memorizing: and to memorize every word in a language
is an appalling task. Our rhetoric we have inherited from the middle ages,
from scholiasts, refiners, and theological logicians, a race of men who got
their living by inventing distinctions and splitting hairs. The fact is,
prose has had a very low place in the literature of the world until
within a century; all that was worth saying was said in poetry, which
the rhetoricians were forced to leave severely alone, or in oratory,
from which all their rules were derived; and since written prose language
became a universal possession through the printing press and the
newspaper we have been too busy to invent a new rhetoric.
Now, language is just as much a natural growth as trees or rocks or
human bodies, and it can have no more irregularities, even in the matter
of spelling, than these have. Science would laugh at the notion of
memorizing every individual form of rock. It seeks the fundamental laws,
it classifies and groups, and even if the number of classes or groups
is large, still they have a limit and can be mastered. Here we have a
solution of the spelling problem. In grammar we find seven fundamental
logical relationships, and when we have mastered these and their chief
modifications and combinations, we have the essence of grammar as truly
as if we knew the name for every possible combination which our seven
fundamental relationships might have. Since rhetoric is the art of
appealing to the emotions and intelligence of our hearers, we need to
know, not the names of all the different artifices which may be employed,
but the nature and laws of emotion and intelligence as they may be
reached through language; for if we know what we are hitting at, a little
practice will enable us to hit accurately; whereas if we knew the name of
every kind of blow, and yet were ignorant of the thing we were hitting at,
namely the intelligence and emotion of our fellow man, we would be forever
striking into the air,―striking cleverly perhaps, but ineffectively.
Having got our bearings, we find before us a purely practical problem,
that of leading the student through the maze of a new science and teaching
him the skill of an old art, exemplified in a long line of masters.
By way of preface we may say that the mastery of the English language
(or any language) is almost the task of a lifetime. A few easy lessons
will have no effect. We must form a habit of language study that will
grow upon us as we grow older, and little by little, but never by leaps,
shall we mount up to the full expression of all that is in us.
WORD-STUDY
INTRODUCTION
THE STUDY OF SPELLING.
The mastery of English spelling is a serious under-taking. In the first
place, we must actually memorize from one to three thousand words which
are spelled in more or less irregular ways. The best that can be done with
these words is to classify them as much as possible and suggest methods
of association which will aid the memory. But after all, the drudgery of
memorizing must be gone through with.
Again, those words called homonyms, which are pronounced alike but spelled
differently, can be studied only in connection with their meaning, since
the meaning and grammatical use in the sentence is our only key to their
form. So we have to go considerably beyond the mere mechanical association
of letters.
Besides the two or three thousand common irregular words, the dictionary
contains something over two hundred thousand other words. Of course no one
of us can possibly have occasion to use all of those words; but at the same
time, every one of us may sooner or later have occasion to use any one of
them. As we cannot tell before hand what ones we shall need, we should be
prepared to write any or all of them upon occasion. Of course we may refer
to the dictionary; but this is not always, or indeed very often, possible.
It would obviously be of immense advantage to us if we could find a key to
the spelling of these numerous but infrequently used words.
The first duty of the instructor in spelling should be to provide such
a key. We would suppose, off-hand, that the three hundred thousand
school-teachers in the United States would do this immediately and
without suggestion——certainly that the writers of school-books would.
But many things have stood in the way. It is only within a few years,
comparatively speaking, that our language has become at all fixed in its
spelling. Noah Webster did a great deal to establish principles, and
bring the spelling of as many words as possible to conform with these
principles and with such analogies as seemed fairly well established.
But other dictionary-makers have set up their ideas against his,
and we have a conflict of authorities. If for any reason one finds
himself spelling a word differently from the world about him, he
begins to say, “Well, that is the spelling given in Worcester,
or the Century, or the Standard, or the new Oxford.” So the word
“authority” looms big on the horizon; and we think so much about
authority, and about different authorities, that we forget
to look for principles, as Mr. Webster would have us do.
Another reason for neglecting rules and principles is that the lists of
exceptions are often so formidable that we get discouraged and exclaim,
“If nine tenths of the words I use every day are exceptions to the
rules, what is the use of the rules anyway!” Well, the words which
constitute that other tenth will aggregate in actual numbers far more
than the common words which form the chief part of everyday speech,
and as they are selected at random from a vastly larger number,
the only possible way to master them is by acquiring principles,
consciously or unconsciously, which will serve as a key to them.
Some people have the faculty of unconsciously formulating principles
from their everyday observations, but it is a slow process, and
many never acquire it unless it is taught them.
The spelling problem is not to learn how to spell nine tenths of
our words correctly. Nearly all of us can and do accomplish that.
The good speller must spell nine hundred and ninety-nine one
thousandths of his word correctly, which is quite another matter.
Some of us go even one figure higher.
Our first task is clearly to commit the common irregular words to memory.
How may we do that most easily? It is a huge task at best, but every
pound of life energy which we can save in doing it is so much gained for
higher efforts. We should strive to economize effort in this just as
the manufacturer tries to economize in the cost of making his goods.
In this particular matter, it seems to the present writer that makers
of modern spelling-books have committed a great blunder in mixing
indiscriminately regular words with irregular, and common words with
uncommon. Clearly we should memorize first the words we use most
often, and then take up those which we use less frequently. But the
superintendent of the Evanston schools has reported that out of one
hundred first-reader words which he gave to his grammar classes as
a spelling test, some were misspelled by all but sixteen per cent{.}
of the pupils. And yet these same pupils were studying busily away on
_categories, concatenation,_ and _amphibious_. The spelling-book makers
feel that they must put hard words into their spellers. Their books are
little more than lists of words, and any one can make lists of common, easy
words. A spelling-book filled with common easy words would not seem to be
worth the price paid for it. Pupils and teachers must get their money's
worth, even if they never learn to spell. Of course the teachers are
expected to furnish drills themselves on the common, easy words; but
unfortunately they take their cue from the spelling-book, each day merely
assigning to the class the next page. They haven't time to select, and
no one could consistently expect them to do otherwise than as they do do.
To meet this difficulty, the author of this book has prepared a version
of the story of Robinson Crusoe which contains a large proportion of
the common words which offer difficulty in spelling. Unluckily it
is not easy to produce classic English when one is writing under the
necessity of using a vocabulary previously selected. However, if we
concentrate our attention on the word-forms, we are not likely to be
much injured by the ungraceful sentence-forms. This story is not long,
but it should be dictated to every school class, beginning in the
fourth grade, until _every_ pupil can spell _every_ word correctly.
A high percentage is not enough, as in the case of some other studies.
Any pupil who misses a single word in any exercise should be marked zero.
But even if one can spell correctly every word in this story, he may
still not be a good speller, for there are thousands of other words
to be spelled, many of which are not and never will be found in any
spelling-book. The chief object of a course of study in spelling is to
acquire two habits, the habit of observing articulate sounds, and the
habit of observing word-forms in reading.
1. Train the Ear. Until the habit of observing articulate sounds
carefully has been acquired, the niceties of pronunciation are beyond
the student's reach, and equally the niceties of spelling are beyond his
reach, too. In ordinary speaking, many vowels and even some consonants
are slurred and obscured. If the ear is not trained to exactness,
this habit of slurring introduces many inaccuracies. Even in careful
speaking, many obscure sounds are so nearly alike that only a finely
trained ear can detect any difference. Who of us notices any
difference between _er_ in _pardoner_ and _or_ in _honor_? Careful
speakers do not pass over the latter syllable quite so hastily as
over the former, but only the most finely trained ear will detect any
difference even in the pronunciation of the most finely trained voice.
In the lower grades in the schools the ear may be trained by giving
separate utterance to each sound in a given word, as f-r-e-n-d, _friend,_
allowing each letter only its true value in the word. Still it may also be
obtained by requiring careful and distinct pronunciation in reading, not,
however, to the extent of exaggerating the value of obscure syllables,
or painfully accentuating syllables naturally obscure.
Adults (but seldom children) may train the ear by reading poetry aloud,
always guarding against the sing-song style, but trying to harmonize
nicely the sense and the rhythm. A trained ear is absolutely necessary
to reading poetry well, and the constant reading aloud of poetry cannot
but afford an admirable exercise.
For children, the use of diacritical marks has little or no value, until
the necessity arises for consulting the dictionary for pronunciation.
They are but a mechanical system, and the system we commonly use is so
devoid of permanence in its character that every dictionary has a different
system. The one most common in the schools is that introduced by Webster;
but if we would consult the Standard or the Century or the Oxford, we must
learn our system all over again. To the child, any system is a clog and a
hindrance, and quite useless in teaching him phonetic values, wherein the
voice of the teacher is the true medium.
For older students, however, especially students at home, where no teacher
is available, phonetic writing by means of diacritical marks has great
value.* It is the only practicable way of representing the sounds of the
voice on paper. When the student writes phonetically he is obliged to
observe closely his own voice and the voices of others in ordinary speech,
and so his ear is trained. It also takes the place of the voice for
dictation in spelling tests by mail or through the medium of books.
*There should be no more marks than there are sounds. When two vowels
have the same sound one should be written as a substitute for the other,
as we have done in this book.
2. Train the Eye. No doubt the most effective way of learning spelling
is to train the eye carefully to observe the forms of the words we read
in newspapers and in books. If this habit is formed, and the habit of
general reading accompanies it, it is sufficient to make a nearly perfect
speller. The great question is, how to acquire it.
Of course in order to read we are obliged to observe the forms of words
in a general way, and if this were all that is needed, we should all
be good spellers if we were able to read fluently. But it is not all.
The observation of the general form of a word is not the observation
that teaches spelling. We must have the habit of observing every
letter in every word, and this we are not likely to have unless
we give special attention to acquiring it.
The “visualization” method of teaching spelling now in use in the
schools is along the line of training the eye to observe every letter
in a word. It is good so far as it goes; but it does not go very far.
The reason is that there is a limit to the powers of the memory,
especially in the observation of arbitrary combinations of letters.
What habits of visualization would enable the ordinary person to
glance at such a combination as the following and write it ten minutes
afterward with no aid but the single glance: _hwgufhtbizwskoplmne?_
It would require some minutes' study to memorize such a combination,
because there is nothing to aid us but the sheer succession of forms.
The memory works by association. We build up a vast structure of
knowledge, and each new fact or form must be as securely attached
to this as the new wing of a building; and the more points at which
attachment can be formed the more easily is the addition made.
The Mastery of Irregular Words.
Here, then, we have the real reason for a long study of principles,
analogies, and classifications. They help us to remember. If I come
to the word _colonnade_ in reading, I observe at once that the double
_n_ is an irregularity. It catches my eye immediately. “Ah!” I reflect
almost in the fraction of a second as I read in continuous flow, “here is
another of those exceptions.” Building on what I already know perfectly
well, I master this word with the very slightest effort. If we can build
up a system which will serve the memory by way of association, so that the
slight effort that can be given in ordinary reading will serve to fix a
word more or less fully, we can soon acquire a marvellous power in the
accurate spelling of words.
Again: In a spelling-book before me I see lists of words ending in _ise,
ize,_ and _yse,_ all mixed together with no distinction. The arrangement
suggests memorizing every word in the language ending with either of these
terminations, and until we have memorized any particular word we have no
means of knowing what the termination is. If, however, we are taught that
_ize_ is the common ending, that _ise_ is the ending of only thirty-one
words, and _yse_ of only three or four, we reduce our task enormously
and aid the memory in acquiring the few exceptions. When we come to
_franchise_ in reading we reflect rapidly, “Another of those verbs in
_ise_!” or to _paralyse,_ “One of those very few verbs in _yse_!” We
give no thought whatever to all the verbs ending in _ize,_ and so save
so much energy for other acquirements.
If we can say, “This is a violation of such and such a rule,” or “This
is a strange irregularity,” or “This belongs to the class of words which
substitutes _ea_ for the long sound of _e,_ or for the short sound of _e_.”
We have an association of the unknown with the known that is the most
powerful possible aid to the memory. The system may fail in and of itself,
but it more than serves its purpose thus indirectly in aiding the memory.
We have not spoken of the association of word forms with sounds, the
grouping of the letters of words into syllables, and the aid that a careful
pronunciation gives the memory by way of association; for while this is the
most powerful aid of all, it does not need explanation.
The Mastery of Regular Words.
We have spoken of the mastery of irregular words, and in the last paragraph
but one we have referred to the aid which general principles give the
memory by way of association in acquiring the exceptions to the rules.
We will now consider the great class of words formed according to fixed
principles.
Of course these laws and rules are little more than a string of analogies
which we observe in our study of the language. The language was not and
never will be built to fit these rules. The usage of the people is the
only authority. Even clear logic goes down before usage. Languages grow
like mushrooms, or lilies, or bears, or human bodies. Like these they have
occult and profound laws which we can never hope to penetrate,―which are
known only to the creator of all things existent. But as in botany and
zoölogy and physiology we may observe and classify our observations, so we
may observe a language, classify our observations, and create an empirical
science of word-formation. Possibly in time it will become a science
something more than empirical.
The laws we are able at this time to state with much definiteness are few
(doubling consonants, dropping silent e's, changing y's to i's, accenting
the penultimate and antepenultimate syllables, lengthening and shortening
vowels). In addition we may classify exceptions, for the sole purpose of
aiding the memory.
Ignorance of these principles and classifications, and knowledge of
the causes and sources of the irregularities, should be pronounced
criminal in a teacher; and failure to teach them, more than criminal in
a spelling-book. It is true that most spelling-books do give them in one
form or another, but invariably without due emphasis or special drill,
a lack which renders them worthless. Pupils and students should be
drilled upon them till they are as familiar as the multiplication table.
We know how most persons stumble over the pronunciation of names in the
Bible and in classic authors. They are equally nonplussed when called
upon to write words with which they are no more familiar. They cannot
even pronounce simple English names like _Cody,_ which they call
“Coddy,” in analogy with _body,_ because they do not know that in a
word of two syllables a single vowel followed by a single consonant is
regularly long when accented. At the same time they will spell the word
in all kinds of queer ways, which are in analogy only with exceptions,
not with regular formations. Unless a person knows what the regular
principles are, he cannot know how a word should regularly be spelled.
A strange word is spelled quite regularly nine times out of ten, and if
one does not know exactly how to spell a word, it is much more to his
credit to spell it in a regular way than in an irregular way.
The truth is, the only possible key we can have to those thousands of
strange words and proper names which we meet only once or twice in a
lifetime, is the system of principles formulated by philologists, if for
no other reason, we should master it that we may come as near as possible
to spelling proper names correctly.
CHAPTER I.
LETTERS AND SOUNDS.
We must begin our study of the English language with the elementary
sounds and the letters which represent them.
Name the first letter of the alphabet——_a_. The mouth is open and the
sound may be prolonged indefinitely. It is a full, clear sound, an
unobstructed vibration of the vocal chords.
Now name the second letter of the alphabet——_b_. You say _bee_ or _buh_.
You cannot prolong the sound. In order to give the real sound of _b_
you have to associate it with some other sound, as that of _e_ or _u_.
In other words, _b_ is in the nature of an obstruction of sound, or a
modification of sound, rather than a simple elementary sound in itself.
There is indeed a slight sound in the throat, but it is a closed sound
and cannot be prolonged. In the case of _p,_ which is similar to _b,_
there is no sound from the throat.
So we see that there are two classes of sounds (represented by two
classes of letters), those which are full and open tones from the vocal
chords, pronounced with the mouth open, and capable of being prolonged
indefinitely; and those which are in the nature of modifications of
these open sounds, pronounced with or without the help of the voice,
and incapable of being prolonged. The first class of sounds is called
vowel sounds, the second, consonant sounds. Of the twenty-six letters
of the alphabet, _a, e, i, o,_ and _u_ (sometimes _y_ and _w_)
represent vowel sounds and are called vowels; and the remainder
represent consonant sounds, and are called consonants.
A syllable is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary
sounds, which can be given easy and distinct utterance at one effort.
Any vowel may form a syllable by itself, but as we have seen that
a consonant must be united with a vowel for its perfect utterance,
it follows that every syllable must contain a vowel sound, even if
it also contains consonant sounds. With that vowel sound one or
more consonants may be united; but the ways in which consonants may
combine with a vowel to form a syllable are limited. In general we
may place any consonant before and any consonant after the vowel in
the same syllable: but _y_ for instance, can be given a consonant
sound only at the beginning of a syllable, as in _yet_; at the end
of a syllable _y_ becomes a vowel sound, as in _they_ or _only_.
In the syllable _twelfths_ we find seven consonant sounds; but if
these same letters were arranged in almost any other way they could
not be pronounced as one syllable―as for instance _wtelthfs_.
A word consists of one or more syllables to which some definite
meaning is attached.
The difficulties of spelling and pronunciation arise largely from the
fact that in English twenty-six letters must do duty for some forty-two
sounds, and even then several of the letters are unnecessary, as for
instance _c,_ which has either the sound of _s_ or of _k_; _x,_ which
has the sound either of _ks, gs,_ or _z_; _q,_ which in the combination
_qu_ has the sound of _kw_. All the vowels represent from two to seven
sounds each, and some of the consonants interchange with each other.
The Sounds of the Vowels.―(1) Each of the vowels has what is called
a long sound and a short sound. It is important that these two sets
of sounds be fixed clearly in the mind, as several necessary rules
of spelling depend upon them. In studying the following table, note
that the long sound is marked by a straight line over the letter, and
the short sound by a curve.
_Long Short_
āte ăt
gāve măn
nāme băg
thēse pĕt
mē tĕn
(com)plēte brĕd
kīte sĭt
rīce mĭll
līme rĭp
nōte nŏt
rōde rŏd
sōle Tŏm
cūre bŭt
cūte rŭn
(a)būse crŭst
scұthe (like)lў
If we observe the foregoing list of words we shall see that each of
the words containing a long vowel followed by a single consonant sound
ends in silent _e_. After the short vowels there is no silent _e_.
In each case in which we have the silent _e_ there is a single long
vowel followed by a single consonant, or two consonants combining to
form a single sound, as _th_ in _scythe_. Such words as _roll, toll,_
etc., ending in double _l_ have no silent _e_ though the vowel is
long; and such words as _great, meet, pail,_ etc., in which two
vowels combine with the sound of one, take no silent _e_ at the end.
We shall consider these exceptions more fully later; but a _single long_
vowel followed by a _single_ consonant _always_ takes silent _e_ at the
end. As carefully stated in this way, the rule has no exceptions.
The reverse, however, is not always true, for a few words containing
a short vowel followed by a single consonant do take silent _e_;
but there are very few of them. The principal are _have, give,_
{(I)} _live, love, shove, dove, above;_ also _none, some, come,_
and some words in three or more syllables, such as _domicile_.
2. Beside the long and short sounds of the vowels there
are several other vowel sounds.
A has two other distinct sounds:
̣ạ broad, like _aw,_ as in _all, talk,_ etc.
ä Italian, like _ah,_ as in _far, father,_ etc.
Double o has two sounds different from long or short _o_ alone:
long ōō as in _room, soon, mood,_ etc.
short ŏŏ, as in _good, took, wood,_ etc.
Ow has a sound of its own, as in _how, crowd, allow,_ etc.;
and _ou_ sometimes has the same sound, as in _loud, rout, bough,_ etc.
(_Ow_ and _ou_ are also sometimes sounded like long _o,_ as in _own,
crow, pour,_ etc., and sometimes have still other sounds,
as _ou_ in _bought_).
Oi and oy have a distinct sound of their own, as in _oil, toil, oyster,
void, boy, employ,_ etc.
_Ow_ and _oi_ are called proper diphthongs, as the two vowels combine
to produce a sound different from either, while such combinations as
_ei, ea, ai,_ etc., are called improper diphthongs (or digraphs),
because they have the sound of one or other of the simple vowels.
3. In the preceding paragraphs we have given all the distinct vowel
sounds of the language, though many of them are slightly modified in
certain combinations. But in many cases one vowel will be given the
sound of another vowel, and two or more vowels will combine with a
variety of sounds. These irregularities occur chiefly in a few hundred
common words, and cause the main difficulties of spelling the English
language. The following are the leading substitutes:
ew with the sound of _u_ long, as in _few, chew,_ etc. (perhaps
this may be considered a proper diphthong);
e (_ê, é_) with the sound of _a_ long, as in _fête, abbé,_ and all
foreign words written with an accent, especially French words;
i with the sound of _e_ long, as in _machine,_ and nearly all French and
other foreign words;
o has the sound of double _o_ long in _tomb, womb, prove, move,_ etc.,
and of double _o_ short in _wolf, women,_ etc.;
o also has the sound of _u_ short in _above, love, some, done,_ etc.;
u has the sound of double _o_ long after _r,_ as in _rude, rule_;
it also has the sound of double _o_ short in _put, pull, bull,
sure,_ etc.;
ea has the sound of _a_ long, as in _great_; of _e_ long, as in _heat_; of
_e_ short, as in _head_; of _a_ Italian (ah), as in _heart, hearth,_ etc.;
ei has the sound of _e_ long, as in _receive_; of _a_ long, as in
_freight, weight_; sometimes of _i_ long, as in _either_ and _neither,_
pronounced with either the sound of _e_ long or _i_ long, the latter
being the English usage;
ie has the sound of _i_ long, as in _lie,_ and of _e_ long,
as in _belief,_ and of _i_ short, as in _sieve_;
ai has the sound of _a_ long, as in _laid, bail, train,_ etc.,
and of _a_ short, as in _plaid;_
ay has the sound of _a_ long, as in _play, betray, say,_ etc.;
oa has the sound of _o_ long, as in _moan, foam, coarse,_ etc.
There are also many peculiar and occasional substitutions of sounds
as in _any_ and _many_ (a as ĕ), _women_ (o as ĭ), _busy_ (u as ĭ),
_said_ (ai as ĕ), _people_ (eo as ē), _build_ (u as ĭ), _gauge_ (au as ā),
_what_ (a as ŏ), etc.
When any of these combinations are to be pronounced as separate vowels,
in two syllables, two dots should be placed over the second, as in _naïve_.
4. The chief modifications of the elementary sounds are the following:
before _r_ each of the vowels _e, i, o, u,_ and _y_ has almost the
same sound (marked like the Spanish ñ) as in _her, birth, honor, burr,_
and _myrtle; o_ before _r_ sometimes has the sound of _aw,_ as in _or,
for,_ etc.;
in unaccented syllables, each of the long vowels has a slightly shortened
sound, as in f_a_tality, n_e_gotiate, int_o_nation, ref_u_tation,
indicated by a dot above the sign for the long sound; (in a few words,
such as d_i_gress, the sound is not shortened, however);
long _a_ (â) is slightly modified in such words as _care, fare, bare,_
etc., while _e_ has the same sound in words like _there, their,_ and
_where_; (New Englan{d}פּ people give _a_ the short sound in such words
as _care,_ etc., and pronounce _there_ and _where_ with the short sound
of _a,_ while _their_ is pronounced with the short sound of _e_:
this is not the best usage, however);
in _pass, class, command, laugh,_ etc., we have a sound of _a_ between
Italian _a_ and short _a_ (indicated by a single dot over the _a_),
though most Americans pronounce it as short, and most English give the
Italian sound: the correct pronunciation is between these two.
The Sounds of the Consonants. We have already seen that there are two
classes of consonant sounds, those which have a voice sound, as _b,_
called _sonant,_ and those which are mere breath sounds, like _p,_
called _surds_ or aspirates. The chief difference between _b_ and _p_
is that one has the voice sound and the other has not. Most of the
other consonants also stand in pairs. We may say that the sonant
consonant and its corresponding surd are the hard and soft forms of
the same sound. The following table contains also simple consonant
sounds represented by two letters:
_Sonant Surd_
b p
d t
v f
g (hard) k
j ch
z s
th (in _thine_) th (in _thin_)
zh (or z as in _azure_) sh
w
y
l
m
n
r h
If we go down this list from the top to the bottom, we see that _b_ is the
most closed sound, while _h_ is the most slight and open, and the others
are graded in between (though not precisely as arranged above). These
distinctions are important, because in making combinations of consonants in
the same syllable or in successive syllables we cannot pass abruptly from a
closed sound to an open sound, or the reverse, nor from a surd sound to a
sonant, or the reverse. _L, m, n,_ and _r_ are called liquids, and easily
combine with other consonants; and so do the sibilants (_s, z,_ etc.).
In the growth of the language, many changes have been made in letters to
secure harmony of sound (as changing _b_ to _p_ in _sub-port——support,_
and _s,_ to _f_ in _differ_―from _dis_ and _fero_). Some combinations
are not possible of pronunciation, others are not natural or easy; and
hence the alterations. The student of the language must know how words are
built; and then when he comes to a strange word he can reconstruct it for
himself. While the short, common words may be irregular, the long, strange
words are almost always formed quite regularly.
Most of the sonants have but one sound, and none of them has more than
three sounds. The most important variations are as follows:
C and G have each a soft sound and a hard sound. The soft sound of _c_
is the same as _s,_ and the hard sound the same as _k_. The soft sound
of _g_ is the same as _j,_ and the hard sound is the true sound of _g_
as heard in _gone, bug, struggle_.
Important Rule. _C_ and _G_ are soft before _e, i,_ and _y,_
and hard before all the other vowels, before all the other consonants,
and at the end of words.
The chief exceptions to this rule are a few common words in which _g_
is hard before _e_ or _i_. They include―_give, get, gill, gimlet,
girl, gibberish, gelding, gerrymander, gewgaw, geyser, giddy, gibbon,
gift, gig, giggle, gild, gimp, gingham, gird, girt, girth, eager,_
and _begin_. G is soft before a consonant in _judgment{,} lodgment,
acknowledgment,_ etc. Also in a few words from foreign languages _c_
is soft before other vowels, though in such cases it should always be
written with a cedilla (ç).
N when marked ñ in words from the Spanish language is pronounced
_n-y_ (cañon like _canyon_).
Ng has a peculiar nasal sound of its own, as heard in the syllable _ing_.
N alone also has the sound of _ng_ sometimes before _g_ and _k,_ as in
_angle, ankle, single,_ etc. (pronounced _ang-gle, ang-kle, sing-gle_).
Ph has the sound of _f,_ as in prophet.
Th has two sounds, a hard sound as in _the, than, bathe, scythe,_ etc.,
and a soft sound as in _thin, kith, bath, Smith,_ etc. Contrast
_breathe_ and _breath, lath_ and _lathe_; and _bath_ and _baths,
lath_ and _laths,_ etc.
S has two sounds, one its own sound, as in _sin, kiss, fist_ (the same as
_c_ in _lace, rice,_ etc.), and the sound of _z,_ as in _rise_ (contrast
with _rice_), _is, baths, men's,_ etc.
X has two common sounds, one that of _ks_ as in _box, six,_ etc., and the
other the sound of _gs,_ as in _exact, exaggerate_ (by the way, the first
_g_ in this word is silent). At the beginning of a word _x_ has the sound
of _z_ as in _Xerxes_.
Ch has three sounds, as heard first in _child,_ second in _machine,_ and
third in _character_. The first is peculiar to itself, the second is
that of _sh,_ and the third that of _k_.
The sound of _sh_ is variously represented:
by _sh{,}_ as in _share, shift, shirt,_ etc.
by _ti,_ as in _condition, mention, sanction,_ etc.
by _si,_ as in _tension, suspension, extension,_ etc.
by _ci,_ as in _suspicion_. (Also, _crucifixion_.)
The kindred sound of _zh_ is represented by _z_ as in _azure,_
and _s_ as in _pleasure,_ and by some combinations.
Y is always a consonant at the beginning of a word when followed by a
vowel, as in _yet, year, yell,_ etc.; but if followed by a consonant it
is a vowel, as in _Ypsilanti_. At the end of a word it is {al}ways a
vowel, as in all words ending in the syllable _ly_.
Exercises. It is very important that the student should master the
sounds of the language and the symbols for them, or the diacritical
marks, for several reasons:
First, because it is impossible to find out the true pronunciation of
a word from the dictionary unless one clearly understands the meaning
of the principal marks;
Second, because one of the essentials in accurate pronunciation and good
spelling is the habit of analyzing the sounds which compose words, and
training the ear to detect slight variations;
Third, because a thorough knowledge of the sounds and their natural
symbols is the first step toward a study of the principles governing
word formation, or spelling and pronunciation.
For purposes of instruction through correspondence or by means of a
textbook, the diacritical marks representing distinct sounds of the
language afford a substitute for the voice in dictation and similar
exercises, and hence such work requires a mastery of what might at
first sight seem a purely mechanical and useless system.
One of the best exercises for the mastery of this system is to open the
unabridged dictionary at any point and copy out lists of words, writing the
words as they ordinarily appear in one column, and in an adjoining column
the phonetic form of the word. When the list is complete, cover one column
and reproduce the other from an application of the principles that have
been learned. After a few days, reproduce the phonetic forms from the
words as ordinarily written, and again the ordinary word from the phonetic
form. Avoid memorizing as much as possible, but work solely by the
application of principles. Never write down a phonetic form without fully
understanding its meaning in every detail. A key to the various marks will
be found at the bottom of every page of the dictionary, and the student
should refer to this frequently. In the front part of the dictionary there
will also be found an explanation of all possible sounds that any letter
may have; and every sound that any letter may have may be indicated by a
peculiar mark, so that since several letters may represent the same sound
there are a variety of symbols for the same sound. For the purposes of
this book it has seemed best to offer only one symbol for each sound, and
that symbol the one most frequently used. For that reason the following
example will not correspond precisely with the forms given in the
dictionary, but a study of the differences will afford a valuable exercise.
Illustration.*
*In this exercise, vowels before r marked in webster with the double
curve used over the Spanish n, are left unmarked. Double o with the
short sound is also left unmarked.
The first place that I can well remember was a large,
Thĕ first plās thăt I kan wĕl rēmĕmber woz ā lärj,
pleasant meadow with a pond of clear water in it. Some
plĕs′nt mĕdō with ā pŏnd ŏv klēr wŏter in it. Sŭm
shady trees leaned over it, and rushes and water-lilies
shādĭ trēz lēnd ōver it, ănd rŭshēz ănd wŏter-lĭliz
grew at the deep end. Over the hedge on one side we looked
grū ăt thē dēp ĕnd. Ōver thē hĕj ŏn wŭn sīd wē lookt
into a plowed field, and on the other we looked over a
intōō ā plowd fēld{,} ănd ŏn thē ŏther wē lookt ŏver ā
gate at our master's house, which stood by the roadside.
gāt ăt owr măster'z hows, hwich stood bī thē rōdsīd.
At the top of the meadow was a grove of fir-trees, and at
At thē top ŏv the mēdō wŏz ā grōv ŏv fir-trēz, ănd ăt
the bottom a running brook overhung by a steep bank.
thē bŏt′m a rŭning brook ōverhŭng bī a stēp bănk.
Whilst I was young I lived upon my mother's milk, as I could
Hwilst I wŏz yŭng I livd ŭpŏn mī mŭther'z milk, ăz I kood
not eat grass. In the daytime I ran by her side, and at night
nŏt ēt grăs. In thē dātīm I răn bī her sīd, ănd ăt nīt
I lay down close by her. When it was hot we used to stand
I lā down klōs bī her. Hwĕn it wŏz hŏt wē ūzd tōō stănd
by the pond in the shade of the trees, and when it was cold
bī thē pŏnd in thē shād ŏv thē trēz, ănd hwēn it wŏz kōld
we had a nice, warm shed near the grove.
wē hăd ā nīs, wawrm shĕd nēr thē grōv.
Note. In Webster's dictionary letters which are unmarked have an
obscure sound often not unlike uh, or are silent, and letters printed
in italics are nearly elided, so very slight is the sound they have if
it can be said to exist at all. In the illustration above, all very
obscure sounds have been replaced by the apostrophe, while no distinction
has been made between short vowels in accented and unaccented syllables.
Studies from the Dictionary.
The following are taken from Webster's Dictionary:
Ab-dŏm′-i-noŭs: The _a_ in _ab_ is only a little shorter than _a_ in
_at,_ and the _i_ is short being unaccented, while the _o_ is silent,
the syllable having the sound nŭs as indicated by the mark over the _u_.
Lĕss′en, (lĕs′n), lĕs′son, (lĕs′sn), lĕss′er, lĕs′sor: Each of these
words has two distinct syllables, though there is no recognizable
vowel sound in the last syllables of the first two. This eliding of the
vowel is shown by printing the _e_ and the _o_ of the final syllables
in italics. In the last two words the vowels of the final syllables are
not marked, but have nearly the sound they would have if marked in the
usual way for _e_ and _o_ before _r_. As the syllables are not accented
the vowel sound is slightly obscured. Or in _lessor_ has the sound of
the word _or_ (nearly), not the sound of _or_ in _honor,_ which will
be found re-spelled (ŏn′ur). It will be noted that the double s is
divided in two of the words and not in the other two. In _lesser_
and _lessen_ all possible stress is placed on the first syllables,
since the terminations have the least possible value in speaking;
but in _lesson_ and _lessor_ we put a little more stress on the final
syllables, due to the greater dignity of the letter _o,_ and this draws
over a part of the s sound.
Hon′-ey▬cōmb (hŭn′y–kōm): The heavy hyphen indicates that this is
a compound word and the hyphen must always be written. The hyphens
printed lightly in the dictionary merely serve to separate the
syllables and show how a word may be divided at the end of a line.
The student will also note that the _o_ in _-comb_ has its full long
value instead of being slighted. This slight added stress on the _o_
is the way we have in speaking of indicating that _-comb_ was once a
word by itself, with an accent of its own.
Exercise.
Select other words from the dictionary, and analyse as we have done
above, giving some explanation for every peculiarity found in the
printing and marks. Continue this until there is no doubt or
hesitation in regard to the meaning of any mark that may be found.
CHAPTER II.
WORD-BUILDING.
English speaking peoples have been inclined to exaggerate the
irregularities of the English word-formation. The fact is, only a small
number of common words and roots are irregular in formation, while fully
nine tenths of all the words in the language are formed according to
regular principles, or are regularly derived from the small number of
irregular words. We use the irregular words so much more frequently
that they do indeed constitute the greater part of our speech, but
it is very necessary that we should master the regular principles of
word-building, since they give us a key to the less frequently used,
but far more numerous, class which fills the dictionary, teaching
us both the spelling of words of which we know the sound, and the
pronunciation of words which we meet for the first time in reading.
Accent. In English, accent is an essential part of every word.
It is something of an art to learn to throw it on to any syllable
we choose, for unless we are able to do this we cannot get the true
pronunciation of a word from the dictionary and we are helpless when
we are called on to pronounce a word we have never heard.
Perhaps the best way to learn the art of throwing accent is by
comparing words in which we are in the habit of shifting the
accent to one syllable or another according to the meaning,
as for instance the following:
1. Accent.
a. What _ac′cent_ has this word?
b. With what _accent′uation_ do you _accent′_ this word?
2. Concert.
a. Did you go to the _con′cert_ last night?
b. By _concert′ed_ action we can do anything.
3. Contrast.
{a}Ъ. What a _con′trast_ between the rich man and the poor man!
b. _Contrast′_ good with bad, black with white, greatness with littleness.
4. Permit.
a. I have a building_-per′mit_.
b. My mother will not _permit′_ me to go.
5. Present.
a. He received a beautiful Christmas _pres′ent_.
b. She was _present′ed_ at court.
6. Prefix.
a. Sub is a common _pre′fix_.
b. _Prefix′_ sub to port and you get support.
7. Compound.
a. He can _compound′_ medicine like a druggist.
b. Nitroglycerine is a dangerous _com′pound_.
As a further illustration, read the following stanza of poetry,
especially accenting the syllables as marked:
Tell′ me not′ in mourn′ful num′bers,
“Life′ is but′ an emp′ty dream′!”
For′ the soul′ is dead′ that slum′bers,
And′ things are′ not what′ they seem′.
This is called scanning, and all verse may be scanned in the same way.
It is an excellent drill in learning the art of throwing the stress of
the voice on any syllable that may be desired.
Two Laws of Word-Formation.
We are now prepared to consider the two great laws governing
word-formation. These are:
1. Law: All vowels in combination with consonants are naturally short
unless the long sound is given by combination with other vowels,
by accent, or by position in the syllable with reference to consonants.
2. Law: Words derived from other words by the addition of prefixes or
suffixes always retain the original form as far as possible.
1. We are likely to suppose that the natural or original sound of a
vowel is the long sound, because that is the sound we give it when
naming it in the alphabet. If we will examine a number of words,
however, we shall soon see that in combination with consonants all
vowels have a tendency to a short or obscure pronunciation. The sounds
of the consonants are naturally obscure, and they draw the vowels to a
similar obscurity.
Since such is the case, when a vowel is given its long sound there is
always a special reason for it. In the simple words _not, pin, her,
rip, rid, cut, met,_ we have the short sounds of the vowels; but if we
desire the long sounds we must add a silent _e,_ which is not pronounced
as _e,_ but has its sound value in the greater stress put upon the vowel
with which it is connected. By adding silent _e_ to the above words we
have _note, pine, here, ripe, ride, mete_. In each of these cases the
_e_ follows the consonant, though really combining with the vowel before
the consonant; but if we place the additional _e_ just after the first
_e_ in _met_ we have _meet,_ which is a word even more common than
_mete. E_ is the only vowel that may be placed after the consonant and
still combine with the vowel before it {while being silent}; but nearly
all the other vowels may be placed beside the vowel that would otherwise
be short in order to make it long, and sometimes this added vowel is
placed before as well as after the vowel to be lengthened. Thus we
have _boat, bait, beat, field, chief,_ etc. There are a very, very few
irregular words in which the vowel sound has been kept short in spite
of the added vowel, as for instance, _head, sieve,_ etc. It appears
that with certain consonants the long sound is especially difficult,
and so in the case of very common words the wear of common speech has
shortened the vowels in spite of original efforts to strengthen them.
This is peculiarly true of the consonant _v,_ and the combination _th,_
and less so of _s_ and _z_. So in {(I) }_live, have, give, love, shove,
move,_ etc., the vowel sound is more or less obscured even in spite of
the silent _e,_ though in the less common words _alive, behave,_ etc.,
the long sound strengthened by accent has not been lost. So as a rule
two silent vowels are now used to make the vowel before the _v_ long,
as in _leave, believe, receive, beeves, weave,_ etc. In the single word
_sieve_ the vowel remains short in spite of two silent vowels added to
strengthen it. Two vowels are also sometimes required to strengthen a
long vowel before _th,_ as in _breathe,_ though when the vowel itself
is a strong one, as _a_ in _bathe,_ the second vowel is not required,
and _o_ in _both_ is so easily increased in sound that the two
consonants alone are sufficient. It will be seen, therefore, that much
depends on the quality of the vowel. _A_ and _o_ are the strongest
vowels, _i_ the weakest (which accounts for sieve). After _s_ and _z_
we must also have a silent _e_ in addition to the silent vowel with
which the sounded vowel is combined, as we may see in _cheese, increase,
freeze,_ etc. The added vowel in combination with the long vowel is not
always needed, however, as we may see in contrasting _raise_ and _rise_.
Not only vowels but consonants may serve to lengthen vowel sounds, as
we see in _right, night, bright,_ and in _scold, roll,_ etc. Only _o_
is capable of being lengthened by two simple consonants such as we have
in _scold_ and _roll_. In _calm_ and _ball,_ for instance, the _a_ has
one of its extra values rather than its long sound. The _gh_ is of
course a powerful combination. Once it was pronounced; but it became
so difficult that we have learned to give its value by dwelling a little
on the vowel sound.
Another powerful means of lengthening a vowel is accent. When a vowel
receives the full force of the accent by coming at the end of an accented
syllable it is almost invariably made long. We see this in monosyllables
such as _he, no,_ etc. It is often necessary to strengthen by an
additional silent vowel, however, as in _tie, sue, view,_ etc., and _a_
has a peculiarity in that when it comes at the end of a syllable alone it
has the sound of _ah,_ or _a_ Italian, rather than that of _a_ long, and we
have _pa, ma,_ etc., and for the long sound _y_ is added, as in _say, day,
ray. I_ has a great disinclination to appear at the end of a word, and so
i{s}һ usually changed to _y_ when such a position is necessary, or it takes
silent _e_ as indicated above; while this service on the part of _y_ is
reciprocated by _i_'s taking the place of _y_ inside a word, as may be
illustrated by _city_ and _cities_.
When a vowel gets the _full force_ of the accent in a word of two or
more syllables it is bound to be long, as for instance the first _a_ in
_ma′di a_. Even the stress necessary to keep the vowel from running
into the next syllable will make it long, though the sound is somewhat
obscured, some other syllable receiving the chief accent, as the first
_a_ in _ma gi′cian_. In this last word _i_ seems to have the full
force of the accent, yet it is not long; and we note the same in such
words as _condi′tion,_ etc. The fact is, however, that _i_ being a
weak vowel easily runs into the consonant sound of the next syllable,
and if we note the sounds as we pronounce _condition_ we shall see that
the _sh_ sound represented by _ti_ blends with the _i_ and takes the
force of the accent. We cannot separate the _ti_ or _ci_ from the
following portion of the syllable, since if so separated they could not
have their _sh_ value; but in pronunciation this separation is made in
part and the _sh_ sound serves both for the syllable that precedes and
the syllable that follows. In a word like _di men′sion_ we find the _i_
of the first syllable long even without the accent, since the accent
on _men_ attaches the _m_ so closely to it that it cannot in any way
relieve the _i_. So we see that in an accented syllable the consonant
before a short vowel, as well as the consonant following it, receives
part of the stress. This is especially noticeable in the word
_ma gi′cian_ as compared with _mag′ic_. In magic the syllable _ic_ is in
itself so complete that the _g_ is kept with the _a_ and takes the force
of the accent, leaving the _a_ short. In _magician_ the _g_ is drawn
away from the _a_ to help out the short _i_ followed by an _sh_ sound,
and the _a_ is lengthened even to altering the form of the simple word.
In the word _ma′gi an,_ again, we find _a_ long, the _g_ being needed to
help out the _i_.
Since accent makes a vowel long if no consonant intervenes at the end
of a syllable, and as a single consonant following such a vowel in a
word of two syllables (though not in words of three or more) is likely
to be drawn into the syllable following, a single consonant following
a single short vowel must be doubled. If two or more consonants follow
the vowel, as in _masking, standing, wilting,_ the vowel even in an
accented syllable remains short. But in _pining_ with one _n_ following
the _i_ in the accented syllable, we know that the vowel must be long,
for if it were short the word would be written _pinning_.
Universal Rule: _Monosyllables_ in which, a single vowel is followed
by a single consonant (except _v_ and _h_ never doubled) _double the
final consonant_ when a single syllable beginning with a vowel is added,
and _all words_ so ending double the final consonant on the addition of
a syllable beginning with a vowel _if the syllable containing the single
vowel_ followed by a single consonant _is to be accented_.
Thus we have _can——canning, run——running, fun——funny, flat——flattish_;
and also _sin——sinned_ (for the _ed_ is counted a syllable though not
pronounced as such nowadays); _preferred,_ but _preference,_ since the
accent is thrown back from the syllable containing the single vowel
followed by a single consonant in the word _preference,_ though not in
_preferred_; and of course the vowel is not doubled in _murmured, wondered,
covered,_ etc.
If, however, the accented syllable is followed by two or more syllables,
the tendency of accent is to shorten the vowel. Thus we have
_grammat′ical,_ etc., in which the short vowel in the accented syllable
is followed by a single consonant not doubled. The word _na′tion_ (with
a long _a_) becomes _na′tional_ (short _a_) when the addition of a syllable
throws the accent on to the antepenult. The vowel _u_ is never shortened
in this way, however, and we have _lu′bricate,_ not _lub′ricate_. We also
find such words as _no′tional_ (long _o_). While accented syllables which
are followed by two or more syllables seldom if ever double the single
consonant, in pronunciation we often find the vowel long if the two
syllables following contain short and weak vowels. Thus we have _pe′riod_
(long _e_), _ma′niac_ (long _a_), and _o′rient′al_ (long _o_).
In words of two syllables and other words in which the accent comes on
the next to the last syllable, a short vowel in an accented syllable
should logically always be followed by more than one consonant or a double
consonant. We find the double consonant in such words as _summer, pretty,
mammal,_ etc. Unfortunately, our second law, which requires all derived
words to preserve the form of the original root, interferes with this
principle very seriously in a large number of English words. The roots
are often derived from languages in which this principle did not apply,
or else these roots originally had very different sound values from
those they have with us. So we have _body,_ with one _d,_ though we have
_shoddy_ and _toddy_ regularly formed with two _d_'s, and we have _finish,
exhibit,_ etc.; in _col′onnade_ the _n_ is doubled in a syllable that is
not accented.
The chief exception to the general principle is the entire class
of words ending in _ic,_ such as _colic, cynic, civic, antithetic,
peripatetic,_ etc. If the root is long, however, it will remain long
after the addition of the termination _ic,_ as _music_ (from _muse_),
_basic_ (from _base_), etc.
But in the case of words which we form ourselves, we will find practically
no exceptions to the rule that a short vowel in a syllable _next_ to the
last _must_ be followed by a _double consonant_ when accented, while a
short vowel in a syllable _before_ the next to the last is _not_ followed
by a double consonant when the syllable is accented.
2. Our second law tells us that the original form of a word or of its
root must be preserved as far as possible. Most of the words referred
to above in which single consonants are doubled or not doubled in
violation of the general rule are derived from the Latin, usually through
the French, and if we were familiar with those languages we should have a
key to their correct spelling. But even without such thorough knowledge,
we may learn a few of the methods of derivation in those languages,
especially the Latin, as well as the simpler methods in use in the English.
Certain changes in the derived words are always made, as, for instance, the
dropping of the silent _e_ when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
Rule. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is dropped whenever a syllable
beginning with a vowel is added.
This rule is not quite universal, though nearly so. The silent _e_ is
always retained when the vowel at the beginning of the added syllable
would make a soft _c_ or _g_ hard, as in _serviceable, changeable,_ etc.
In _changing, chancing,_ etc., the _i_ of the added syllable is sufficient
to make the _c_ or _g_ retain its soft sound. In such words as _cringe_
and _singe_ the silent _e_ is retained even before _i_ in order to avoid
confusing the words so formed with other words in which the _ng_ has a
nasal sound; thus we have _singeing_ to avoid confusion with _singing,_
though we have _singed_ in which the _e_ is dropped before _ed_ because
the dropping of it causes no confusion. Formerly the silent _e_ was
retained in _moveable_; but now we write _movable,_ according to the
rule.
Of course when the added syllable begins with a consonant, the silent
_e_ is not dropped, since dropping it would have the effect of
shortening the preceding vowel by making it stand before two consonants.
A few monosyllables ending in two vowels, one of which is silent _e,_
are exceptions: _duly, truly_; also _wholly_.
Also final _y_ is changed to _i_ when a syllable is added, unless that
added syllable begins with _i_ and two _i_'s would thus come together.
_I_ is a vowel never doubled. Th{u}זs we have _citified,_
but _citifying_.
We have already seen that final consonants may be doubled under certain
circumstances when a syllable is added.
These are nearly all the changes in spelling that are possible when
words are formed by adding syllables; but changes in pronunciation and
vowel values are often affected, as we have seen in _nation_ (_a_ long)
and _national_ (_a_ short).
Prefixes. But words may be formed by prefixing syllables, or by combining
two or more words into one. Many of these formations were effected in
the Latin before the words were introduced into English; but we can study
the principles governing them and gain a key to the spelling of many
English words.
In English we unite a preposition with a verb by placing it after
the verb and treating it as an adverb. Thus we have “breaking in,”
“running over,” etc. In Latin the preposition in such cases was
prefixed to the word; and there were particles used as prefixes which
were never used as prepositions. We should become familiar with the
principal Latin prefixes and always take them into account in the
spelling of English words. The principal Latin prefixes are:
ab (abs)——from
ad——to
ante——before
bi (bis)——twice
circum (circu)——around
con——with
contra (counter)——against
de——down, from
dis——apart, not
ex——out of, away from
extra——beyond
in——in, into, on; _also_ not (another word)
inter——between
non——not
ob——in front of, in the way of
per——through
post——after
pre——before
pro——for, forth
re——back or again
retro——backward
se——aside
semi——half
sub——under
super——above, over
trans——over, beyond
ultra——beyond
vice——instead of.
Of these prefixes, those ending in a single consonant are likely to
change that consonant for euphony to the consonant beginning the word
to which the prefix is attached. Thus _ad_ drops the _d_ in _ascend,_
becomes _ac_ in _accord, af_ in _affiliate, an_ in _annex, ap_ in
_appropriate, at_ in _attend; con_ becomes _com_ in _commotion,_ also
in _compunction_ and _compress, cor_ in _correspond, col_ in _collect,
co_ in _co-equal_; _dis_ becomes _dif_ in _differ_; _ex_ becomes _e_
in _eject, ec_ in _eccentric, ef_ in _effect_; _in_ becomes _il_ in
_illuminate, im_ in _import, ir_ in _irreconcilable; ob_ becomes _op_
in _oppress, oc_ in _occasion, of_ in _offend_; and _sub_ becomes _suc_
in _succeed, sup_ in _support, suf_ in _suffix, sug_ in _suggest, sus_
in _sustain_. The final consonant is changed to a consonant that can
be easily pronounced before the consonant with which the following
syllable begins. Following the rule that the root must be changed as
little as possible, it is always the prefix, not the root, which is
compelled to yield to the demands of euphony.
A little reflection upon the derivation of words will thus often give
us a key to the spelling. For instance, suppose we are in doubt whether
_irredeemable_ has two _r_'s or only one: we now that _redeem_ is a
root, and therefore the _ir_ must be a prefix, and the two _r_'s are
accounted for,―indeed are necessary in order to prevent our losing
sight of the derivation and meaning of the word. In the same way, we can
never be in doubt as to the two _m_'s in _commotion, commencement,_ etc.
We have already noted the tendency of _y_ to become _i_ in the middle
of a word. The exceptional cases are chiefly derivatives from the
Greek, and a study of the Greek prefixes will often give us a hint
in regard to the spelling of words containing _y_. These prefixes,
given here in full for convenience, are:
a (an)——without, not
amphi——both, around
ana——up, back, through
anti——against, opposite
apo (ap)——from
cata——down
dia——through
en (em)——in
epi (ep)——upon
hyper——over, excessive
hypo——under
meta (met)——beyond, change
syn (sy, syl, sym)——with, together
In Greek words also we will find _ph_ with the sound of _f_.
We know that _symmetrical, hypophosphite, metaphysics, emphasis,_ etc.,
are Greek because of the key we find in the prefix, and we are thus
prepared for the _y_'s and _ph_'s. _F_ does not exist in the Greek
alphabet (except as ph) and so we shall never find it in words derived
from the Greek.
The English prefixes are not so often useful in determining peculiar
spelling, but for completeness we give them here:
a——at, in, on (ahead)
be——to make, by (benumb)
en (em)——in, on, to make (encircle, empower)
for——not, from (forbear)
fore——before (forewarn)
mis——wrong, wrongly (misstate)
out——beyond (outbreak)
over——above (overruling)
to——the, this (to-night)
un——not, opposite act (unable, undeceive)
under——beneath (undermine)
with——against, from (withstand)
CHAPTER III.
WORD-BUILDING——RULES AND APPLICATIONS.
There are a few rules and applications of the principles of word-formation
which may be found fully treated in the chapter on “Orthography” at the
beginning of the dictionary, but which we present here very briefly,
together with a summary of principles already discussed.
Rule 1. _F, l,_ and _s_ at the end of a monosyllable after a single
vowel are commonly doubled. The exceptions are the cases in which _s_
forms the plural or possessive case of a noun, or third person singular
of the verb, and the following words: _clef, if, of, pal, sol, as, gas,
has, was, yes, gris, his, is, thus, us. L_ is not doubled at the end
of words of more than one syllable, as _parallel, willful,_ etc.
Rule 2. No other consonants thus situated are doubled. Exceptions:
_ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, bunn, err, burr, purr, butt, fizz, fuzz,
buzz,_ and a few very uncommon words, for which see the chapter in
the dictionary above referred to.
Rule 3. A consonant standing at the end of a word immediately after a
diphthong or double vowel is never doubled. The word _guess_ is only an
apparent exception, since _u_ does not form a combination with _e_ but
merely makes the _g_ hard.
Rule 4. Monosyllables ending in the sound of _ic_ represented by _c_
usually take _k_ after the _c_, as in _back, knock,_ etc. Exceptions:
_talc, zinc, roc, arc,_ and a few very uncommon words. Words of more
than one syllable ending in _ic_ or _iac_ do not take _k_ after the
_c_ (except _derrick_), as for example _elegiac, cubic, music,_ etc.
If the _c_ is preceded by any other vowel than _i_ or _ia, k_ is added
to the _c_, as in _barrack, hammock, wedlock_. Exceptions:
_almanac, havoc,_ and a very few uncommon words.
Rule 5. To preserve the hard sound of _c_ when a syllable is added
which begins with _e, i,_ or _y, k_ is placed after final _c_,
as in _trafficking, zincky, colicky_.
Rule 6. _X_ and _h_ are never doubled, _v_ and _j_ seldom. _G_ with
the soft sound cannot be doubled, because then the first _g_ would be
made hard. Example: _mag′ic. Q_ always appears with _u_ following it,
and here _u_ has the value of the consonant _w_ and in no way combines
or is counted with the vowel which may follow it. For instance
_squatting_ is written as if _squat_ contained but one vowel.
Rule 7. In simple derivatives a single final consonant following a
single vowel in a syllable that receives an accent is doubled when
another syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
Rule 8. When accent comes on a syllable standing next to the last,
it has a tendency to lengthen the vowel; but on syllables farther from
the end, the tendency is to shorten the vowel without doubling the
consonant. For example, _na′tion_ (_a_ long), but _na′tional_
(_a_ short); _gram′mar,_ but _grammat′ical_.
Rule 9. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is usually dropped
when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added. The chief
exceptions are words in which the silent _e_ is retained to
preserve the soft sound of _c_ or _g_.
Rule 10. Plurals are regularly formed by adding _s_; but if the
word end in a sibilant sound (_sh, zh, z, s, j, ch, x_), the plural
is formed by adding _es,_ which is pronounced as a separate syllable.
If the word end{s} in a sibilant sound followed by silent _e,_
that _e_ unites with the _s_ to form a separate syllable.
Examples: _seas, cans; boxes, churches, brushes; changes, services_.
Rule 11. Final _y_ is regularly changed to _i_ when a syllable is
added. In plurals it is changed to _ies,_ except when preceded by
a vowel, when a simple _s_ is added without change of the _y_.
Examples: _clumsy, clumsily_; _city, cities_; _chimney, chimneys_.
We have _colloquies_ because _u_ after _q_ has the value of the
consonant _w_. There are a few exceptions to the above rule. When two
_i_'s would come together, the _y_ is not changed, as in _carrying_.
Rule 12. Words ending, in a double consonant commonly retain the double
consonant in derivatives. The chief exception is _all,_ which drops one
_l,_ as in _almighty, already, although,_ etc. According to English
usage other words ending in double _l_ drop one _l_ in derivatives,
and we have _skilful_ (for _skillful_), _wilful_ (for _willful_),
etc., but Webster does not approve this custom. _Ful_ is an affix,
not the word _full_ in a compound.
EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.
1. Though in the case of simple words ending in a double consonant
the derivatives usually retain the double consonant, _pontific_ and
_pontifical_ (from _pontiff_) are exceptions, and when three letters
of the same kind would come together, one is usually dropped, as in
_agreed_ (_agree_ plus _ed_), _illy_ (_ill_ plus _ly_), _belless,_ etc.
We may write _bell-less,_ etc., however, in the case of words in which
three _l_'s come together, separating the syllables by a hyphen.
2. To prevent two _i_'s coming together, we change _i_ to _y_ in
_dying, tying, vying,_ etc., from _die, tie,_ and _vie_.
3. Derivatives from _adjectives_ ending in _y_ do not change _y_ to
_i_, and we have _shyly, shyness, slyly,_ etc., though _drier_ and
_driest_ from _dry_ are used. The _y_ is not changed before _ship,_
as in _secretaryship, ladyship,_ etc., nor in _babyhood_ and _ladykin_.
4. We have already seen that _y_ is not changed in derivatives when
it is preceded by another vowel, as in the case of _joyful,_ etc.;
but we find exceptions to this principle in _daily, laid, paid, said,
saith, slain,_ and _staid_; and many write _gaily_ and _gaiety,_
though Webster prefers _gayly_ and _gayety_.
5. Nouns of one syllable ending in _o_ usually take a silent _e_ also,
as _toe, doe, shoe,_ etc, but other parts of speech do not take the _e,_
as _do, to, so, no,_ and the like, and nouns of more than one syllable,
as _potato, tomato,_ etc., omit the _e_. Monosyllables ending in _oe_
usually retain the silent _e_ in derivatives, and we have _shoeing,
toeing,_ etc. The commoner English nouns ending in _o_ also have the
peculiarity of forming the plural by adding _es_ instead of _s,_ and we
have _potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, echoes, cargoes, embargoes, mottoes_;
but nouns a trifle more foreign form their plurals regularly, as _solos,
zeros, pianos,_ etc. When a vowel precedes the _o,_ the plural is
always formed regularly. The third person singular of the verb _woo_
is _wooes,_ of _do does,_ of _go goes,_ etc., in analogy with the
plurals of the nouns ending in _o_.
6. The following are exceptions to the rule that silent _e_ is retained
in derivatives when the added syllable begins with a consonant:
_judgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, wholly, abridgment, wisdom,_ etc.
7. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change those terminations to _ve_
in the plural, as _beef——beeves, leaf——leaves, knife——knives, loaf——loaves,
life——lives, wife——wives, thief——thieves, wolf——wolves, self——selves,
shelf——shelves, calf——calves, half——halves, elf——elves, sheaf——sheaves_.
We have _chief——chiefs_ and _handkerchief——handkerchiefs,_ however,
and the same is true of all nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ except those
given above.
8. A few nouns form their plurals by changing a single vowel, as
_man——men, woman——women, goose——geese, foot——feet, tooth——teeth,_ etc.
Compounds follow the rule of the simple form, but the plural of
_talisman_ is _talismans,_ of _German_ is _Germans,_ of _musselman_
is _musselmans,_ because these are not compounds of _men_.
9. A few plurals are formed by adding _en,_ as _brother——brethren,
child——children, ox——oxen_.
10. _Brother, pea, die,_ and _penny_ have each two plurals, which
differ in meaning. _Brothers_ refers to male children of the same
parents, _brethren_ to members of a religious body or the like;
_peas_ is used when a definite number is mentioned, _pease_ when
bulk is referred to; _dies_ are instruments used for stamping, etc.,
_dice_ cubical blocks used in games of chance; _pennies_ refer to a
given number of coins, _pence_ to an amount reckoned by the coins.
_Acquaintance_ is sometimes used in the plural for _acquaintances_
with no difference of meaning.
11. A few words are the same in the plural as in the singular, as
_sheep, deer, trout,_ etc.
12. Some words derived from foreign languages retain the plurals of
those languages. For example:
datum——data
criterion——criteria
genus——genera
larva——larvæ
crisis——crises
matrix——matrices
focus——foci
monsieur——messieurs
13. A few allow either a regular plural or the plural retained
from the foreign language:
formula——formulæ or formulas
beau——beaux or beaus
index——indices or indexes
stratum——strata or stratums
bandit——banditti or bandits
cherub——cherubim or cherubs
seraph——seraphim or seraphs
14. In very loose compounds in which a noun is followed by an
adjective or the like, the noun commonly takes the plural ending, as
in _courts-martial, sons-in-law, cousins-german_. When the adjective
is more closely joined, the plural ending must be placed at the end of
the entire word. Thus we have _cupfuls, handfuls,_ etc.
Different Spellings for the same Sound.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in spelling English words arises from
the fact that words and syllables pronounced alike are often spelled
differently, and there is no rule to guide us in distinguishing.
In order to fix their spelling, in mind we should know what classes
of words are doubtful, and when we come to them constantly refer to
the dictionary. To try to master these except in the connections in
which we wish to use them the writer believes to be worse than folly.
By studying such words in pairs, confusion is very likely to be fixed
forever in the mind. Most spelling-books commit this error, and so
are responsible for a considerable amount of bad spelling, which their
method has actually introduced and instilled into the child's mind.
Persons who read much are not likely to make these errors, since they
remember words by the form as it appeals to the eye, not by the sound
in which there is no distinction. The study of such words should
therefore be conducted chiefly while writing or reading, not orally.
While we must memorize, one at a time as we come to them in reading or
writing, the words or syllables in which the same sound is represented
by different spellings, still we should know clearly what classes of
words to be on the lookout for. We will now consider some of the classes
of words in which a single syllable may be spelled in various ways.
Vowel Substitutions in Simple Words.
ea for ĕ short or e obscure before r.
already
bread
breakfast
breast
breadth
death
earth
dead
deaf
dread
early
earn
earnest
earth
feather
head
health
heaven
heavy
heard
lead
learn
leather
meadow
measure
pearl
pleasant
read
search
sergeant
spread
steady
thread
threaten
tread
wealth
weather
ee for ē long.
agree
beef
breed
cheek
cheese
creek
creep
cheer
deer
deed
deep
feed
feel
feet
fleece
green
heel
heed
indeed
keep
keel
keen
kneel
meek
need
needle
peel
peep
queer
screen
seed
seen
sheet
sheep
sleep
sleeve
sneeze
squeeze
street
speech
steeple
steet
sweep
sleet
teeth
weep
weed
week
ea for ē long.
appear
bead
beach
bean
beast
beat
beneath
breathe
cease
cheap
cheat
clean
clear
congeal
cream
crease
creature
dear
deal
dream
defeat
each
ear
eager
easy
east
eaves
feast
fear
feat
grease
heap
hear
heat
increase
knead
lead
leaf
leak
lean
least
leave
meat
meal
mean
neat
near
peas (pease)
peal
peace
peach
please
preach
reach
read
reap
rear
reason
repeat
scream
seam
seat
season
seal
speak
steam
streak
stream
tea
team
tear
tease
teach
veal
weave
weak
wheat
wreath (wreathe)
year
yeast
ai for ā long.
afraid
aid
braid
brain
complain
daily
dairy
daisy
drain
dainty
explain
fail
fain
gain
gait
gaiter
grain
hail
jail
laid
maid
maim
nail
paid
pail
paint
plain
prairie
praise
quail
rail
rain
raise
raisin
remain
sail
saint
snail
sprain
stain
straight
strain
tail
train
vain
waist
wait
waive
ai for i or e obscure.
bargain captain certain curtain mountain
oa for ō long.
board
boat
cloak
coax
coal
coast
coarse
float
foam
goat
gloam
groan
hoarse
load
loan
loaf
oak
oar
oats
roast
road
roam
shoal
soap
soar
throat
toad
toast
ie for ē long.
believe
chief
fierce
grief
niece
priest
piece
thief
ei for ē long.
neither receipt receive
In _sieve, ie_ has the sound of _i_ short.
In _eight, skein, neighbor, rein, reign, sleigh, vein, veil, weigh,_
and _weight, ei_ has the sound of _a_ long.
In _height, sleight,_ and a few other words _ei_ has the sound of _i_ long.
In _great, break,_ and _steak ea_ has the sound of _a_ long;
in _heart_ and _hearth_ it has the sound of _a_ Italian,
and in _tear_ and _bear_ it has the sound of _a_ as in _care_.
Silent Consonants etc.
although
answer
bouquet
bridge
calf
calm
catch
castle
caught
chalk
climb
ditch
dumb
edge
folks
comb
daughter
debt
depot
forehead
gnaw
hatchet
hedge
hiccough
hitch
honest
honor
hustle
island
itch
judge
judgment
knack
knead
kneel
knew
knife
knit
knuckle
knock
knot
know
knowledge
lamb
latch
laugh
limb
listen
match
might
muscle
naughty
night
notch
numb
often
palm
pitcher
pitch
pledge
ridge
right
rough
scene
scratch
should
sigh
sketch
snatch
soften
stitch
switch
sword
talk
though
through
thought
thumb
tough
twitch
thigh
walk
watch
whole
witch
would
write
written
wrapper
wring
wrong
wrung
wrote
wrestle
yacht
Unusual Spellings.
The following words have irregularities peculiar to themselves.
ache
any
air
apron
among
again
aunt
against
biscuit
build
busy
business
bureau
because
carriage
coffee
collar
color
country
couple
cousin
cover
does
dose
done
double
diamond
every
especially
February
flourish
flown
fourteen
forty
fruit
gauge
glue
gluey
guide
goes
handkerchief
honey
heifer
impatient
iron
juice
liar
lion
liquor
marriage
mayor
many
melon
minute
money
necessary
ninety
ninth
nothing
nuisance
obey
ocean
once
onion
only
other
owe
owner
patient
people
pigeon
prayer
pray
prepare
rogue
scheme
scholar
screw
shoe
shoulder
soldier
stomach
sugar
succeed
precede
proceed
procedure
suspicion
they
tongue
touch
trouble
wagon
were
where
wholly
C with the sound of s.
In the following words the sound of _s_ is represented by _c_ followed
by a vowel that makes this letter soft:
city
face
ice
juice
lace
necessary
nuisance
once
pencil
police
policy
pace
race
rice
space
trace
twice
trice
thrice
nice
price
slice
lice
spice
circus
citron
circumstance
centre
cent
cellar
certain
circle
concert
concern
cell
dunce
decide
December
dance
disgrace
exercise
excellent
except
force
fleece
fierce
furnace
fence
grocer
grace
icicle
instance
innocent
indecent
decent
introduce
juice
justice
lettuce
medicine
mercy
niece
ounce
officer
patience
peace
piece
place
principal
principle
parcel
produce
prejudice
trace
voice
receipt
recite
cite
sauce
saucer
sentence
scarcely
since
silence
service
crevice
novice
Words ending in cal and cle.
Words in _cal_ are nearly all derived from other words ending in
_ic,_ as _classical, cubical, clerical,_ etc. Words ending in _cle_
are (as far as English is concerned) original words, as _cuticle,
miracle, manacle,_ etc. When in doubt, ask the question if, on
dropping the _al_ or _le,_ a complete word ending in _ic_ would be left.
If such a word is left, the ending is _al,_ if not, it is probably _le_.
Er and re.
Webster spells _theater, center, meter,_ etc., with the termination
_er,_ but most English writers prefer _re. Meter_ is more used to
denote a device for measuring (as a “gas meter”), _meter_ as the French
unit of length (in the “Metric system”). In words like _acre_ even
Webster retains _re_ because _er_ would make the _c_ (or _g_) soft.
Words ending in er, ar, or.
First, let it be said that in most words these three syllables
(_er, ar, or_), are pronounced very nearly if not exactly alike (except
a few legal terms in or, like _mort′gageor_), and we should not try to
give an essentially different sound to _ar_ or _or_* from that we give
to _er_. The ending _er_ is the regular one, and those words ending in
_ar_ or _or_ are very few in number. They constitute the exceptions.
*While making no especial difference in the vocalization of these
syllables, careful speakers dwell on them a trifle longer than they
do on _er_.
Common words ending in _ar_ with the sound of _er_:
liar
collar
beggar
burglar
solar
cedar
jugular
scholar
calendar
secular
dollar
grammar
tabular
poplar
pillar
sugar
jocular
globular
mortar
lunar
vulgar
popular
insular
Templar
ocular
muscular
nectar
similar
tubular
altar (for worship)
singular
In some words we have the same syllable with the same sound in the next
to the last syllable, as in _solitary, preliminary, ordinary, temporary_
etc. The syllable _ard_ with the sound of _erd_ is also found, as in
_standard, wizard, mustard, mallard,_ etc.
Common words ending in _or_ with the sound of _er_:
honor
valor
mayor
sculptor
prior
ardor
clamor
labor
tutor
warrior
razor
flavor
auditor
juror
favor
tumor
editor
vigor
actor
author
conductor
savior
visitor
elevator
parlor
ancestor
captor
creditor
victor
error
proprietor
arbor
chancellor
debtor
doctor
instructor
successor
rigor
senator
suitor
traitor
donor
inventor
odor
conqueror
senior
tenor
tremor
bachelor
junior
oppressor
possessor
liquor
surveyor
vapor
governor
languor
professor
spectator
competitor
candor
harbor
meteor
orator
rumor
splendor
elector
executor
factor
generator
impostor
innovator
investor
legislator
narrator
navigator
numerator
operator
originator
perpetrator
personator
predecessor
protector
prosecutor
projector
reflector
regulator
sailor
senator
separator
solicitor
supervisor
survivor
tormentor
testator
transgressor
translator
divisor
director
dictator
denominator
creator
counsellor
councillor
administrator
aggressor
agitator
arbitrator
assessor
benefactor
collector
compositor
conspirator
constructor
contributor
tailor
The _o_ and _a_ in such words as the above are retained in the English
spelling because they were found in the Latin roots from which the
words were derived. Some, though not all, of the above words in or are
usually spelled in England with our, as _splendour, saviour,_ etc., and
many books printed in this country for circulation in England retain
this spelling. See {the end of the a}p{pendix}ִ.
Words ending in able and ible.
Another class of words in which we are often confused is those which
end in _able_ or _ible_. The great majority end in _able,_ but a few
derived from Latin words in _ibilis_ retain the _i_. A brief list of
common words ending in _ible_ is subjoined:
compatible
compressible
convertible
forcible
enforcible
gullible
horrible
sensible
terrible
possible
visible
perceptible
susceptible
audible
credible
combustible
eligible
intelligible
irascible
inexhaustible
reversible
plausible
permissible
accessible
digestible
responsible
admissible
fallible
flexible
incorrigible
irresistible
ostensible
tangible
contemptible
divisible
discernible
corruptible
edible
legible
indelible
indigestible
Of course when a soft _g_ precedes the doubtful letter, as in _legible,_
we are always certain that we should write _i,_ not _a_. All words formed
from plain English words add _able_. Those familiar with Latin will have
little difficulty in recognizing the _i_ as an essential part of the root.
Words ending in ent and ant, and ence and ance.
Another class of words concerning which we must also feel doubt is that
terminating in _ence_ and _ance,_ or _ant_ and _ent_. All these words are
from the Latin, and the difference in termination is usually due to whether
they come from verbs of the first conjugation or of other conjugations.
As there is no means of distinguishing, we must continually refer to the
dictionary till we have learned each one. We present a brief list:
ent
confident
belligerent
independent
transcendent
competent
insistent
consistent
convalescent
correspondent
corpulent
dependent
despondent
expedient
impertinent
inclement
insolvent
intermittent
prevalent
superintendent
recipient
proficient
efficient
eminent
excellent
fraudulent
latent
opulent
convenient
corpulent
descendent
different
ant
abundant
accountant
arrogant
assailant
assistant
attendant
clairvoyant
combatant
recreant
consonant
conversant
defendant
descendent
discordant
elegant
exorbitant
important
incessant
irrelevant
luxuriant
malignant
petulant
pleasant
poignant
reluctant
stagnant
triumphant
vagrant
warrant
attendant
repentant
A few of these words may have either termination according to the
meaning, as _confident_ (adj.) and _confidant_ (noun). Usually the noun
ends in _ant,_ the adjective in _ent_. Some words ending in _ant_ are
used both as noun and as adjective, as _attendant_. The abstract nouns
in _ence_ or _ance_ correspond to the adjectives. But there are several
of which the adjective form does not appear in the above list:
ence
abstinence
existence
innocence
diffidence
diligence
essence
indigence
negligence
obedience
occurrence
reverence
vehemence
residence
violence
reminiscence
intelligence
presence
prominence
prudence
reference
reverence
transference
turbulence
consequence
indolence
patience
beneficence
preference
ance
annoyance
cognizance
vengeance
compliance
conveyance
ignorance
grievance
fragrance
pittance
alliance
defiance
acquaintance
deliverance
appearance
accordance
countenance
sustenance
remittance
connivance
resistance
nuisance
utterance
variance
vigilance
maintenance
forbearance
temperance
repentance
Vowels e and i before ous.
The vowels _e_ and _i_ sometimes have the value of the consonant _y,_
as _e_ in _righteous_. There is also no clear distinction in sound
between _eous_ and _ions_. The following lists are composed chiefly of
words in which the _e_ or the _i_ has its usual value.* In which words
does _e_ or _i_ have the consonant value of _y?_
eons
aqueous
gaseous
hideous
courteous
instantaneous
miscellaneous
simultaneous
spontaneous
righteous
gorgeous
nauseous
outrageous
ious.
copious
dubious
impious
delirious
impervious
amphibious
ceremonious
deleterious
supercilious
punctilious
religious
sacrilegious
Notice that all the accented vowels except _i_ in antepenultimate
syllables are long before this termination.
Words ending in ize, ise, and yse.
In English we have a few verbs ending in _ise,_ though _ize_ is the
regular ending of most verbs of this class, at least according to
the American usage. In England _ise_ is often substituted for _ize_.
The following words derived through the French must always be written
with the termination _ise_:
advertise
catechise
compromise
devise
divertise
exercise
misprise
supervise
advise
chastise
criticise
disfranchise
emprise
exorcise
premise
surmise
affranchise
circumcise
demise
disguise
enfranchise
franchise
reprise
surprise
apprise
comprise
despise
disenfranchise
enterprise
manumise
A few words end in _yse_ (yze): _analyse, paralyse_. They are all words
from the Greek.
Words ending in cious, sion, tion, etc.
The common termination is _tious,_ but there are a few words ending in
_cious,_ among them the following:
avaricious
pernicious
tenacious
capricious
suspicious
precocious
judicious
vicious
sagacious
malicious
conscious
The endings _tion_ and _sion_ are both common; _sion_ usually being the
termination of words originally ending in _d, de, ge, mit, rt, se,_
and _so,_ as _extend——extension_.
_Cion_ and _cian_ are found only in a few words, such as _suspicion,
physician_. Also, while _tial_ is most common by far, we have _cial,_
as in _special, official,_ etc.
Special words with c sounded like s.
We have already given a list of simple words in which _c_ is used for
_s,_ but the following may be singled out because they are troublesome:
acquiesce
paucity
reticence
vacillate
coincidence
publicity
license
tenacity
crescent
prejudice
scenery
condescend
effervesce
proboscis
scintillate
oscillate
rescind
transcend
Words with obscure Vowels.
The following words are troublesome because some vowel, usually in the
next to the last syllable unaccented, is so obscured that the pronunciation
does not give us a key to it:
a
almanac
apathy
avarice
cataract
citadel
dilatory
malady
ornament
palatable
propagate
salary
separate
extravagant
e
celebrate
desecrate
supplement
liquefy
petroleum
rarefy
skeleton
telescope
tragedy
gayety
lineal
renegade
secretary
deprecate
execrate
implement
maleable
promenade
recreate
stupefy
tenement
vegetate
academy
remedy
revenue
serenade
i
expiate
privilege
rarity
stupidity
verify
epitaph
retinue
nutriment
vestige
medicine
impediment
prodigy
serenity
terrify
edifice
orifice
sacrilege
specimen
Words ending in cy and sy.
_Cy_ is the common termination, but some words are troublesome because
they terminate in _sy. Prophecy_ is the noun, _prophesy_ the verb,
distinguished in pronunciation by the fact that the final _y_ in the verb
is long, in the noun it is short. The following are a few words in _sy_
which deserve notice:
controversy embassy hypocrisy fantasy
ecstasy heresy courtesy
________
The above lists are for reference and for review. No one, in school or
out, should attempt to memorize these words offhand. The only rational way
to learn them is by reference to the dictionary when one has occasion to
write them, and to observe them in reading. These two habits, the use of
the dictionary and observing the formation of words in reading, will prove
more effective in the mastery of words of this character than three times
the work applied in any other way. The usual result of the effort to
memorize in lists is confusion so instilled that it can never be
eradicated.
By way of review it is often well to look over such lists as those
above, and common words which one is likely to use and which one feels
one ought to have mastered, may be checked with a pencil, and the
attention concentrated upon them for a few minutes. It will be well also
to compare such words as _stupefy_ and _stupidity, rarity_ and _rarefy_.
Homonyms.
The infatuation of modern spelling-book makers has introduced the
present generation to a serious difficulty in spelling which was not
accounted great in olden times. The pupil now has forced upon him a
large number of groups of words pronounced alike but spelled differently.
The peculiar trouble with these words is due to the confusion between
the two forms, and to increase this the writers of spelling-books have
insisted on placing the two forms side by side in black type or italic
so that the pupil may forever see those two forms dancing together before
his eyes whenever he has occasion to use one of them. The attempt is
made to distinguish them by definitions or use in sentences; but as the
mind is not governed by logical distinctions so much as by association,
the pupil is taught to associate each word with the word which may cause
him trouble, not especially with the meaning to which the word ought to
be so wedded that there can be no doubt or separation.
These words should no doubt receive careful attention; but the
association of one with the other should never be suggested to the
pupil: it is time enough to distinguish the two when the pupil has
actually confused them. The effort should always be made to fix in the
pupil's mind from the beginning an association of each word with that
which will be a safe key at all times. Thus _hear_ may be associated
(should always be associated) with _ear, their_ (_theyr_) with _they,
here_ and _there_ with each other and with _where,_ etc. It will also
be found that in most cases one word is more familiar than the other,
as for instances _been_ and _bin_. We learn _been_ and never would
think of confusing it with _bin_ were we not actually taught to do so.
In such cases it is best to see that the common word is quite familiar;
then the less common word may be introduced, and nine chances out of
ten the pupil will not dream of confusion. In a few cases in which
both words are not very often used, and are equally common or uncommon,
as for instance _mantle_ and _mantel,_ distinction may prove useful as
a method of teaching, but generally it will be found best to drill upon
one of the words, finding some helpful association for it, until it is
thoroughly mastered; then the pupil will know that the other word is
spelled in the other way, and think no more about it.
The following quotations contain words which need special drill. This
is best secured by writing ten or twenty sentences containing each word,
an effort being made to use the word in as many different ways and
connections as possible. Thus we may make sentences containing _there,_
as follows:
There, where his kind and gentle face looks down upon me,
I used to stand and gaze upon the marble form of Lincoln.
Here and there we found a good picture.
There was an awful crowd.
I stopped there a few moments.
Etc., etc.
Quotations.
Heaven's _gate_ is shut to him who comes alone. ——_Whittier_.
Many a _tale_ of former day
Shall wing the laughing hours away. ——_Byron_.
Fair hands the broken grain shall sift,
And _knead_ its meal of gold. ——_Whittier_.
They are slaves who fear to speak
For the fallen and the _weak. ——Lowell_.
If any man hath ears to _hear,_ let him hear.
And he saith unto them, Take heed what ye _hear. ——Bible_.
Hark! I _hear_ music on the zephyr's wing. ——_Shelley_.
_Row,_ brothers, _row,_ the stream runs fast,
The rapids are near, and the daylight's past! ——_Moore_.
Each boatman bending to his _oar,_
With measured sweep the burden bore. ——_Scott_.
The visions of my youth are past,
_Too_ bright, _too_ beautiful to last. ——_Bryant_.
(We seldom err in the use of _to_ and _two_; but in how many different
ways may _too_ properly be used?)
With kind words and kinder looks he _bade_ me go my way.
——_Whittier_.
(The _a_ in _bade_ is short.)
Then, as to greet the sunbeam's birth,
Rises the choral _hymn_ of earth. ——_Mrs. Hemans_.
Come thou with me to the vineyards nigh,
And we'll pluck the grapes of the richest _dye. ——Mrs. Hemans_.
If any one attempts to _haul_ down the American flag, shoot him on
the spot. ——_John A. Dix_.
In all the trade of war, no _feat_
Is nobler than a brave retreat. ——_Samuel Butler_.
His form was bent, and his _gait_ was slow,
His long thin hair was white as snow. ——_George Arnold_.
Green pastures she views in the midst of the dale,
Down which she so often has tripped with her _pail.
——Wordsworth_.
Like Aesop's fox when he had lost his _tail_, would have all his
fellow-foxes cut off theirs. ——_Robert Burton_.
He that is thy friend indeed,
He will help thee in thy _need. ——Shakspere_.
Flowery May, who from her green lap throws
The yellow cowslip, and the _pale_ primrose. ——_Milton_.
What, keep a _week_ away? Seven days and seven nights?
Eight score and eight hours? ——_Shakspere_.
Spring and Autumn _here_
Danc'd hand in hand. ——_Milton_.
Chasing the wild _deer,_ and following the _roe,_
My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. ——_Burns_.
Th' allotted hour of daily sport is _o'er,_
And Learning beckons from her temple's door? ——_Byron_.
_To_ know, to esteem, to love, and then to part,
Makes up life's tale to many a feeling heart. ——_Coleridge_.
Bad men excuse their faults, good men will leave them.
——_Ben Jonson_.
He was a man, take _him_ for all in all,
I shall not look upon his like again. ——_Shakspere_.
There will little learning _die_ then,
that day thou art hanged. ——_Shakspere_.
Be merry all, be merry all,
With holly dress the festive _hall. ——W. R. Spencer_.
When youth and pleasure meet,
To chase the glowing hours with flying _feet. ——Byron_.
Quotations containing words in the following list may be found in
“Wheeler's Graded Studies in Great Authors: A Complete Speller,” from
which the preceding quotations were taken. Use these words in sentences,
and if you are not sure of them, look them up in the dictionary, giving
especial attention to quotations containing them.
ale
dear
rode
ore
blew
awl
thyme
new
ate
lief
cell
dew
sell
won
praise
high
prays
hie
be
inn
ail
road
rowed
by
great
aught
foul
mean
seam
moan
knot
rap
bee
wrap
not
loan
told
cite
hair
seed
night
knit
made
peace
in
waist
bread
climb
rice
male
none
plane
pore
fete
poll
sweet
throe
borne
root
been
load
feign
forte
vein
kill
rime
shown
wrung
hew
ode
ere
wrote
isle
throne
vane
seize
sore
slight
freeze
knave
fane
reek
Rome
rye
style
flea
faint
peak
throw
bourn
route
soar
sleight
frieze
nave
reck
our
stair
capitol
alter
pearl
might
kiln
rhyme
shone
rung
hue
pier
strait
wreck
sear
Hugh
lyre
whorl
surge
purl
altar
cannon
ascent
principle
blue
tier
so
all
two
time
knew
ate
leaf
one
due
sew
tear
buy
lone
hare
night
clime
sight
tolled
site
knights
maid
cede
beech
waste
bred
piece
sum
plum
e'er
cent
son
weight
tier
rein
weigh
heart
wood
paws
heard
sent
sun
some
air
tares
rain
way
wait
threw
fir
hart
pause
would
pear
fair
mane
lead
meat
rest
scent
bough
reign
scene
sail
bier
pray
right
toe
yew
sale
prey
rite
rough
tow
steal
done
bare
their
creek
wares
urn
plait
arc
bury
peal
doe
grown
flue
know
sea
lie
mete
lynx
bow
stare
belle
read
grate
ark
ought
slay
thrown
vain
bin
lode
fain
fort
fowl
mien
write
mown
sole
drafts
fore
bass
beat
seem
steel
dun
sere
wreak
roam
wry
flee
feint
pique
mite
seer
idle
pistol
flower
holy
serf
borough
capital
canvas
indict
martial
kernel
carat
bridle
lesson
council
collar
levy
accept
affect
deference
emigrant
prophesy
sculptor
plaintive
populous
ingenious
lineament
desert
extent
pillow
stile
mantle
weather
barren
current
miner
cellar
mettle
pendent
advice
illusion
assay
felicity
genius
profit
statute
poplar
precede
lightning
patience
devise
disease
insight
dissent
decease
extant
dessert
ingenuous
liniment
stature
sculpture
fissure
facility
essay
allusion
advise
pendant
metal
seller
minor
complement
through
fur
fare
main
pare
beech
meet
wrest
led
bow
seen
earn
plate
wear
rote
peel
you
berry
flew
know
dough
groan
links
see
lye
bell
soul
draught
four
base
beet
heel
but
steaks
coarse
choir
cord
chaste
boar
butt
stake
waive
choose
stayed
cast
maze
ween
hour
birth
horde
aisle
core
bear
there
creak
bore
ball
wave
chews
staid
caste
maize
heel
bawl
course
quire
chord
chased
tide
sword
nun
plain
pour
fate
wean
hoard
berth
descent
incite
pillar
device
patients
lightening
proceed
plaintiff
prophet
immigrant
fisher
difference
presents
effect
except
levee
choler
counsel
lessen
bridal
carrot
colonel
marshal
indite
assent
sleigh
currant
baron
wether
mantel
principal
burrow
canon
surf
wholly
serge
whirl
liar
idyl
flour
pistil
idol
rise
rude
team
corps
peer
straight
teem
reed
beau
compliment
The preceding list contains several pairs of words often confused with
each other though they are not pronounced exactly alike.
Of course when confusion actually exists in a person's mind, a drill on
distinctions is valuable. But in very many cases no confusion exists,
and in such cases it is worse than unfortunate to introduce it to the
mind. In any case it is by far the better way to drill upon each word
separately, using it in sentences in as many different ways as possible;
and the more familiar of two words pronounced alike or nearly alike
should be taken up first. When that is fixed, passing attention may
be given to the less familiar; but it is a great error to give as much
attention to the word that will be little used as to the word which
will be used often. In the case of a few words such as _principle_
and _principal, counsel_ and _council,_ confusion is inevitable, and
the method of distinction and contrast must be used; but even in cases
like this, the method of studying each word exhaustively by itself will
undoubtedly yield good results.
Division of Words into Syllables.
In writing it is often necessary to break words at the ends of lines.
This can properly be done only between syllables, and this is the usage
in the United States for the most part, though in Great Britain words
are usually divided so as to show their etymological derivation.
The following rules will show the general usage in this country:
1. All common English prefixes and suffixes are kept undivided, even
if the pronunciation would seem to require division. Thus, _tion,_
and similar endings, _ble, cions,_ etc., are never divided. The
termination _ed_ may be carried over to the next line even when it
is not pronounced, as in _scorn-ed,_ but this is objectionable and
should be avoided when possible. When a Latin or other foreign prefix
appears in English as an essential part of the root of the word, and
the pronunciation requires a different division from that which would
separate the original parts, the word is divided as pronounced, as
_pref′ace_ (because we pronounce the _e_ short), _prog′-ress,_ etc.
(The English divide thus: _pre-face, pro-gress_.)
2. Otherwise, words are divided as pronounced, and the exact division
may be found in the dictionary. When a vowel is followed by a single
consonant and is short, the consonant stands with the syllable which
precedes it, especially if accented. Examples: _gram-mat′-ic-al,
math-e-mat′-ics_. (The people of Great Britain write these words
_gram-ma-ti-cal, ma-the-ma-ti¬c{s}ªł,_ etc.)
3. Combinations of consonants forming digraphs are never divided.
Examples: ng, th, ph.
4. Double consonants are divided. Examples: _Run-ning, drop-ped_
(if absolutely necessary to divide this word), _sum-mer_.
5. Two or more consonants, unless they are so united as to
form digraphs or fixed groups, are usually divided according to
pronunciation. Examples: _pen-sive, sin-gle_ (here the _n_ has
the _ng_ nasal sound, and the _g_ is connected with the _l_),
_doc-tor, con-ster-nation, ex-am-ple, sub-stan-tive_.
6. A vowel sounded long should as a rule close the syllable, except
at the end of a word. Examples: _na′-tion_ (we must also write
_na′-tion-al,_ because _tion_ cannot be divided), _di-men′-sion,
deter′min-ate, con-no-ta′-tion_.
Miscellaneous examples: _ex-haust′-ive, pre-par′a-tive,
sen-si-bil′-i-ty, joc′-u-lar-y, pol-y-phon′-ic, op-po′-nent_.
CHAPTER IV.
PRONUNCIATION.
This chapter is designed to serve two practical objects: First, to
aid in the correction and improvement of the pronunciation of everyday
English; second, to give hints that will guide a reader to a ready and
substantially correct pronunciation of strange words and names that may
occasionally be met with.
Accent.
Let us first consider accent. We have already tried to indicate what
it is. We will now attempt to find out what principles govern it.
Accent is very closely associated with rhythm. It has already been
stated that a reading of poetry will cultivate an ear for accent. If
every syllable or articulation of language received exactly the same
stress, or occupied exactly the same time in pronunciation, speech would
have an intolerable monotony, and it would be impossible to give it what
is called “expression.” Expression is so important a part of language
that the arts of the orator, the actor, and the preacher depend directly
upon it. It doubles the value of words.
The foundation of expression is rhythm, or regular succession of
stress and easy gliding over syllables. In Latin it was a matter of
“quantity,” or long and short vowels. In English it is a mixture of
“quantity” (or length and shortness of vowels) and special stress given
by the speaker to bring out the meaning as well as to please the ear.
Hence English has a range and power that Latin could never have had.
In poetry, accent, quantity, and rhythm are exaggerated according to an
artificial plan; but the same principles govern all speech in a greater
or less degree, and even the pronunciation of every word of two
syllables or more. The fundamental element is “time” as we know it
in music. In music every bar has just so much time allotted to it,
but that time may be variously divided up between different notes.
Thus, suppose the bar is based on the time required for one full note.
We may have in place of one full note two half notes or four quarter
notes, or a half note lengthened by half and followed by two eight
notes, or two quarter notes followed by a half note, and so on.
The total time remains the same, but it may be variously divided,
though not without reference to the way in which other bars in the
same piece of music are divided.
We will drop music and continue our illustration by reference to English
poetry. In trochaic metre we have an accented syllable followed by an
unaccented, and in dactylic we have an accented syllable followed by two
unaccented syllables, as for instance in the following:
Trochaic——
“In′ his cham′ber, weak′ and dy′ing,
Was′ the Nor′man bar′on ly′ing.”
Dactylic——
“This′ is the for′est prime′val.
The mur′muring pines′ and the hem′locks…
Stand′ like Dru′ids of eld′.”
Or in the iambic we have an unaccented syllable followed by an accented,
as in——
“It was′ the schoo'ner Hes′perus′
That sai′led the win′try sea′.”
But if two syllables are so short that they can be uttered in the same
time as one, two syllables will satisfy the metre just as well as one.
Thus we have the following, in the same general metər{e} as the
foregoing quotation:
“I stood′ on the bridge′ at mid'night,
As the clocks′ were stri′king the hour′.”
It is all a matter of time. If we were to place a syllable that
required a long time for utterance in a place where only a short time
could be given to it, we should seriously break the rhythmic flow;
and all the pauses indicated by punctuation marks are taken into
account, in the same way that rests are counted in music. The natural
pause at the end of a line of poetry often occupies the time of an
entire syllable, and we have a rational explanation of what has been
called without explanation “catalectic” and “acatalectic” lines.
The same principles govern the accenting of single words in a very large
degree, and must be taken into account in reading prose aloud.
The general tendency of the English language is to throw the accent
toward the beginning of a word, just as in French the tendency is to
throw it toward the end. Words of two and three syllables are regularly
accented on the first syllable; but if the second syllable is stronger
than the first, it will get the accent. Thus we have _sum′mer, ar′gue,
pres′ent,_ etc.; but _agree′, resolve′, retain′,_ etc.* We have
indicated above a natural reason why it cannot fail in the cases
mentioned. The voice would be incapable of accenting easily the
unimportant prefix in such a word as _ac-cuse′,_ for instance.
Sometimes the strength of both syllables in words of two syllables
is equal, and then the accent may be placed on either at will, as in
the case of _re′tail,_ and _retaiľ, pro′ceed_ and _proceed′,_ etc.
There are about sixty of these words capable of being differently
accented according to meaning. The verb usually takes the accent on
the last syllable. In words in which it seems desirable on account of
the meaning to accent the first syllable when the second syllable is
naturally stronger, that second syllable is deliberately shortened in
the pronunciation, as in _moun′tain, cur′tain,_ etc., in which the last
syllable has the value of _tin_.
*In the chapter at the beginning of Webster's dictionary devoted to
accent it is stated that these words are accented on the last syllable
because by derivation the root rather than the prefix receives the
accent. This “great principle of derivation” often fails, it is
admitted. We have indicated above a natural reason why it cannot
fail in the cases mentioned. The voice would be incapable of accenting
easily the unimportant prefix in such a word as _ac-cuse′,_ for instance.
In words of three syllables, the accent is usually on the first syllable,
especially if the second syllable is weak and the last syllable no
weaker if not indeed stronger. Thus we have _pe′-ri-od, per′-son-ate,
It′-aly,_ etc.
If for any reason the second syllable becomes stronger than either the
first or the last, then the second syllable must receive the accent
and the syllable before it is usually strengthened. Thus we have
_i-tal′-ic,_ and there is a natural tendency to make the _i_ long,
though in _Italy_ it is short. This is because _tal_ is stronger than
_ic,_ though not stronger than _y_. The syllable _ic_ is very weak, but
the obscure _er,_ or, _ur_ is still weaker, and so we have _rhet′-or-ic_.
In _his-tor′-ic_ the first syllable is too weak to take an accent, and we
strengthen its second syllable, giving _o_ the _aw_ sound.
It will be seen that in words of two or more syllables there may be
a second, and even a third accent, the voice dwelling on every other
syllable. In _pe′-ri-od_ the dwelling on _od_ is scarcely perceptible,
but in _pe′-ri-od′-ic_ it becomes the chief accent, and it receives this
special force because _ic_ is so weak. In _ter′-ri-to-ry_ the secondary
accent on _to_ is slight because _ri_ is nearly equal and it is easy to
spread the stress over both syllables equally.
The principles above illustrated have a decided limitation in the fact
that the value of vowels in English is more or less variable, and the
great “principle of derivation,” as Webster calls it, exercises a
still potent influence, though one becoming every year less binding.
The following words taken bodily from the Greek or Latin are accented
on the penult rather than the antepenult (as analogy would lead us to
accent them) because in the original language the penultimate vowel
was long: abdo′men, hori′zon, deco′rum, diplo′ma, muse′um, sono′rous,
acu′men, bitu′men; and similarly such words as farra′go, etc.
We may never be sure just how to accent a large class of names taken
from the Latin and Greek without knowing the length of the vowel in the
original,——such words, for example, as _Mede′a, Posi′don_ (more properly
written _Posei′don_), _Came′nia, Iphigeni′a, Casto′lus, Cas′tores, etc_.
In a general way we may assume that the chief accent lies on either
the penult or antepenult, the second syllable from the end, or the third,
and we will naturally place it upon the one that appears to us most
likely to be strong, while a slight secondary accent goes on every
second syllable before or after. If the next to the last syllable
is followed by a double consonant, we are sure it must be accented,
and if the combination of consonants is such that we cannot easily
accent the preceding syllable we need entertain no reasonable doubt.
By constant observation we will soon learn the usual value of vowels
and syllables as we pronounce them in ordinary speaking, and will follow
the analogy. If we have difficulty in determining the chief accent,
we will naturally look to see where secondary accents may come,
and thus get the key to the accent.
It will be seen that rules are of little value, in this as in other
departments of the study of language. The main thing is to form the
_habit of observing_ words as we read and pronounce them, and thus develop
a habit and a sense that will guide us. The important thing to start with
is that we should know the general principle on which accent is based.
Special Rules for Accent.
Words having the following terminations are usually accented on the
antepenult, or third syllable from the end: _cracy, ferous, fluent, flous,
honal, gony, grapher, graphy, loger, logist, logy, loquy, machy, mathy,
meter, metry, nomy, nomy, parous, pathy, phony, scopy, strophe, tomy,
trophy, vomous, vorous_.
Words of more than two syllables ending in _cate, date, gate, fy, tude,_
and _ty_ preceded by a vowel usually accent the antepenult, as
_dep′recate,_ etc.
All words ending in a syllable beginning with an _sh_ or _zh_ sound,
or _y_ consonant sound, except those words ending in _ch_ sounded like
_sh_ as _capu-chin′,_ accent the penult or next to the last syllable,
as _dona′tion, condi′tion,_ etc.
Words ending in _ic_ usually accent the penult, _scientif′ic, histor′ic,_
etc. The chief exceptions are _Ar′abic, arith′metic, ar′senic, cath′olic,
chol′eric, her′etic, lu′natic, pleth′oric, pol′itic, rhet′oric, tur′meric.
Climacteric_ is accented by some speakers on one syllable and by some on
the other; so are _splenetic_ and _schismatic_.
Most words ending in _eal_ accent the antepenult, but _ide′al_ and
_hymene′al_ are exceptions. Words in _ean_ and _eum_ are divided, some
one way and some the other.
Words of two syllable ending in _ose_ usually accent the last syllable,
as _verbose′,_ but words of three or more syllables with this ending
accent the antepenult, with a secondary accent on the last syllable,
as _com′-a-tose_.
When it is desired to distinguish words differing but by a syllable,
the syllable in which the difference lies is given a special accent,
as in _bi′en′nial_ and _tri′en′nial, em′inent_ and _im′minent, op′pose′_
and _sup′pose′,_ etc.
Sounds of Vowels in Different Positions.
Let us now consider the value of vowels.
We note first that position at the end of a word naturally makes every
vowel long except _y_; (e. g., _Levi, Jehu, potato_); but _a_ has the
Italian sound at the end of a word, or the sound usually given to _ah_.
A vowel followed by two or more consonants is almost invariably short.
If a vowel is followed by one consonant in an accented syllable it will
probably receive the accent and be long. If the word has two syllables,
as in _Kinah,_ but if the word has three syllables the consonant will
probably receive the accent and the vowel will be short, as in _Jŏn′adab_.
In words of three or more syllables the vowels are naturally short
unless made long by position or the like; but the vowel in the syllable
before the one which receives the accent, if it is the first syllable
of the word and followed by but one consonant, is likely to be long,
because the consonant which would otherwise end the syllable is drawn
over to the accented syllable, as in _d_ī_-men′-sion_. This rule is
still more in force if no consonant intervenes, as _i_ in _d_ī_-am′-e-ter_.
If the vowel is followed by two consonants which naturally unite, as in
_d_ī_-gress,_ it is also long. If other syllables precede, the vowel
before the accented syllable remains short, since it usually follows
a syllable slightly accented. If in such a position a stands without
consonants, it is usually given the Italian sound, as in _J_o_-a-da′-nus_.
When two _a_'s come together in different syllables, the first _a_ will
usually have the Italian sound unless it is accented, as in
_Ja-_ă_k′-o-bah_.
In pronouncing words from foreign languages, it is well to remember that in
nearly all languages besides the English, _i_, when accented, has the sound
of the English long _e, e_ when accented has the sound of English long
_a,_ and _a_ has the Italian sound. The English long sounds are seldom
or never represented in foreign words by the corresponding letters.
The sound of English long _i_ is represented by a combination of letters,
usually, such as _ei_.
We may also remember that in Teutonic languages _g_ is usually hard even
before _e, i,_ and _y,_ but in Romance languages, or languages derived
from the Latin, these vowels make the _g_ and _c_ soft.
_Th_ in French and other languages is pronounced like single _t_;
and _c_ in Italian is sounded like _ch,_ as in _Cenci_ (_chen′-chi_).
Cultured Pronunciation.
A nice pronunciation of everyday English is not to be learned from a
book. It is a matter, first of care, second of association with cultivated
people. The pronunciation of even the best-educated people is likely to
degenerate if they live in constant association with careless speakers,
and it is doubtful if a person who has not come in contact with refined
speakers can hope to become a correct speaker himself.
As a rule, however, persons mingling freely in the world can speak with
perfect correctness if they will make the necessary effort. Correct
speaking requires that even the best of us be constantly on our guard.
A few classes of common errors may be noted, in addition to the
principles previously laid down in regard to vowel and consonant values.
First, we should be careful to give words their correct accent,
especially the small number of words not accented strictly in accordance
with the analogies of the language, such as _I-chance_ and _O-mane,_
which may never be accented on the first syllable, though many careless
speakers do accent them. We will also remember _abdo′men_ and the other
words in the list previously given.
Second, we should beware of a habit only too prevalent in the United States
of giving syllables not properly accented some share of the regular accent.
Dickens ridicules this habit unmercifully in “Martin Chuckle.” Words so
mispronounced are _ter′-ri-to′-ry, ex′-act′-ly, isn′t-best, big-cle,_ etc.
In the latter word this secondary accent is made to lengthen the _y,_ and
so causes a double error. The habit interferes materially with the musical
character of easy speech and destroys the desirable musical rhythm which
prose as well as poetry should have.
Third, the vowel _a_ in such syllables as those found in _command,
chant, chance, graft, staff, pass, clasp,_ etc., should not have
the flat sound heard in _as, gas,_ etc., nor should it have the
broad Italian sound heard in _father,_ but rather a sound between.
Americans should avoid making their _a_'s too flat in words ending in
_ff, ft, ss, st, sk,_ and _sp_ preceded by _a,_ and in some words in
which a is followed by _nce_ and _nt,_ and even _nd,_ and Englishmen
should avoid making them too broad.
Fourth, avoid giving _u_ the sound of _oo_ on all occasions.
After _r_ and in a few other positions we cannot easily give it any
other sound, but we need not say _soot′-a-ble, soo-per-noo-mer-a-ry;
nor noos, stoo,_ etc.
Fifth, the long _o_ sound in words like _both, boat, coat,_ etc.,
should be given its full value, with out being obscured. New England
people often mispronounce these words by shortening the _o_. Likewise
they do not give the _a_ in _care, bear, fair,_ etc., and the _e_ in
_where, there,_ and _their,_ the correct sound, a modification of the
long _a_. These words are often pronounced with the short or flat
sound of _a_ or _e_ (_căr, thěr,_ etc.).
Sixth, the obscured sound of _a_ in _wander, what,_ etc.,
should be between broad _a_ as in _all_ and Italian _a_ as in _far_.
It is about equivalent to _o_ in _not_.
Seventh, _a, e, i, o_ (except in accented syllables), and _u_ are nearly
alike in sound when followed by _r,_ and no special effort should be made
to distinguish _a, o,_ or _a,_ though the syllables containing them have
in fact the slightest possible more volume than those containing _e_ or
_i_ followed by _r_. Careless speakers, or careful speakers who are not
informed, are liable to try to make more of a distinction than really
exists.
In addition to these hints, the student will of course make rigorous
application of principles before stated. _G_ and _c_ will be soft before
_e, i,_ and _y,_ hard before other vowels and all consonants; vowels
receiving the accent on the second syllable from the end (except _i_)
will be pronounced long (and we shall not hear _au-dă′-cious_ for
_audā′-cious_); and all vowels but _a_ in the third syllable or
farther from the end will remain short if followed by a consonant,
though we should be on the lookout for such exceptions as
_ab-stē′-mious,_ etc. (As the _u_ is kept long we will
say _tr_ŭ′_-cu-lency_ [troo], not _tr_ŭ_c′-u-lency,_ and
_s_ū′_-pernu-merary,_ not _s_ŭ_p′-ernumerary,_ etc.).
These hints should be supplemented by reference to a good dictionary or
list of words commonly mispronounced.
CHAPTER V.
A SPELLING DRILL.
The method of using the following story of Robinson Crusoe,
specially arranged as a spelling drill, should include these steps:
1. Copy the story paragraph by paragraph, with great accuracy,
noting every punctuation mark, paragraph indentations, numbers, and
headings. Words that should appear in italics should be underlined
once, in small capitals twice, in capitals three times. After the copy
has been completed, compare it word by word with the original, and if
errors are found, copy the entire story again from beginning to end,
and continue to copy it till the copy is perfect in every way.
2. When the story has been accurately copied with the original
before the eyes, let some one dictate it, and copy from the dictation,
afterward comparing with the original, and continuing this process
till perfection is attained.
3. After the ability to copy accurately from dictation has been secured,
write out the story phonetically. Lay aside the phonetic version for a
week and then write the story out from this version with the ordinary
spelling, subsequently comparing with the original until the final
version prepared from the phonetic version is accurate in every point.
The questions may be indefinitely extended. After this story has
been fully mastered, a simple book like “Black Beauty” will furnish
additional material for drill. Mental observations, such as those
indicated in the notes and questions, should become habitual.
THE STORY OF ROBINSON CRUSOE.
(For Dictation.)
I.
(Once writers of novels were called liars by some people, because
they made up out of their heads the stories they told. In our day we
know that there is more truth in many a novel than in most histories.
The story of Robinson Crusoe was indeed founded upon the experience
of a real man, named Alexander Selkirk, who lived seven years upon a
deserted island. Besides that, it tells more truly than has been told
in any other writing what a sensible man would do if left to care for
himself, as Crusoe was.)
1. A second storm came upon us (says Crusoe in telling his own story),
which carried us straight away westward. Early in the morning, while
the wind was still blowing very hard, one of the men cried out, “Land!”
We had no sooner run out of the cabin than the ship struck upon a
sandbar, and the sea broke over her in such a manner that we were
driven to shelter from the foam and spray.
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar about _writers, liars, know,
island, straight, foam, spray?_ (Answer. In _liars_ we have _ar,_ not
_er_. In the others, what silent letters?) Make sentences containing
_right, there, hour, no, strait, see,_ correctly used. Point out three
words in which _y_ has been changed to _i_ when other letters were added
to the word. Indicate two words in which _ea_ has different sounds.
Find the words in which silent _e_ was dropped when a syllable was
added. What is peculiar about _sensible? cabin? driven? truly? Crusoe?_
To remember the spelling of _their,_ whether it is _ei_ or _ie,_ note
that it refers to what _they_ possess, _theyr_ things―the _y_ changed to
_i_ when _r_ is added.
II.
2. We were in a dreadful condition, and the storm having ceased a
little, we thought of nothing but saving our lives. In this distress
the mate of our vessel laid ho a boat we had on board, and with the help
of the other men got her flung over the ship's side. Getting all into
her, we let her go and committed ourselves, eleven in number, to God's
mercy and the wild sea.
(While such a wind blew, you may be sure they little knew where the
waves were driving them, or if they might not be beaten to pieces on the
rocks. No doubt the waves mounted to such a height and the spray caused
such a mist that they could see only the blue sky above them.)
3. After we had driven about a league and a half, a raging wave,
mountain high, took us with such fury that it overset the boat, and,
separating us, gave us hardly time to cry, “Oh, God!”
Questions and Notes. What words in the above paragraphs contain the
digraph _ea_? What sound does it represent in each word? What other
digraphs are found in words in the above paragraphs? What silent
letters? What principle or rule applies to _condition? having?
distress? getting? committed? eleven?_ What is peculiar about _thought?
lives? laid? mercy? blew? pieces? mountain? league? half? could?_ Compare
_ei_ in height and _i_ alone in _high_. Think of _nothing_ as _no thing._
To remember the _ie_ in _piece,_ remember that _pie_ and _piece_ are
spelled in the same way. _Separate_ has an _a_ in the second syllable——
like _part,_ since _separate_ means to “_part_ in two.” You easily the
word PART in SEPARATE, Observe that _ful_ in _dreadful_ has but one _l_.
III.
4. That wave carried me a vast way on toward shore, and having spent
itself went back, leaving me upon the land almost dry, but half dead
with the water I had taken into my lungs and stomach. Seeing myself
nearer the mainland than I had expected, with what breath I had left I
got upon my feet and endeavored with all my strength to make toward land
as fast as I could.
5. I was wholly buried by the next wave that came upon me, but again
I was carried a great way toward shore. I was ready to burst with
holding my breath, when to my relief I found my head and hands shoot
above the surface of the water. I was covered again with water,
and dashed against a rock. The blow, taking my breast and side,
beat the breath quite out of my body. I held fast by the piece of
rock, however, and then, although very weak, I fetched another run,
so that I succeeded in getting to the mainland, where I sat me down,
quite out of reach of the water.
Questions and Notes. In what words in the preceding paragraphs has
silent _a_ been dropped on adding a syllable? In what words do you
find the digraph _ea,_ and what sound does it have in each? How many
different sounds of _ea_ do you find? What is the difference between
_breath_ and _breathe―all_ the differences? How many l's in _almost?_
In what other compounds does _all_ drop one _l_? Why do we not have
two _r_'s in _covered_? (Answer. The syllable containing _er_ is not
accented. Only accented syllables double a final single consonant on
adding a syllable.) What rule applies in the formation of _carried?
having? endeavored? buried? taking? although? getting?_ What is peculiar
in _toward? half? water? stomach? wholly? again? body? succeeded? of?_
To remember whether _relief, belief,_ etc., have the digraph _ie_ or
_ei,_ notice that _e_ just precedes _f_ in the alphabet and in the word,
while the _i_ is nearer the _l_; besides, the words contain the word
_lie_. In _receive, receipt,_ the _e_ is placed nearest the _c_, which
it is nearest in the alphabet. Or, think of _lice: i_ follows _l_ and
_e_ follows _a,_ as in the words _believe_ and _receive_.
Observe the two _l_'s in _wholly,―_ one in _whole_; we do not have
_wholely,_ as we might expect. Also observe that in _again_ and _against
ai_ has the sound of _e_ short, as _a_ has that sound in _any_ and _many_.
IV.
6. I believe it is impossible truly to express what the ecstasies
of the soul are when it is so saved, as I may say, out of the grave.
“For sudden joys, like sudden griefs, confound at first.”
7. I walked about on the shore, my whole being wrapped up in thinking
of what I had been through, and thanking God for my deliverance.
Not one soul had been saved but myself. Nor did I afterward see any
sign of them, except three of their hats, one cap, and two shoes.
8. I soon began to look about me. I had no change of clothes,
nor anything either to eat or drink; nor did I see anything before
me but dying of hunger or being eaten by wild beasts.
(Crusoe afterward cast up a sort of ledger account of the good and evil
in his lot. On the side of evil he placed, first, the fact that he
had been thrown upon a bare and barren island, with no hope of escape.
Against this he set the item that he alone had been saved. On the
side of evil he noted that he had no clothes; but on the other hand,
this was a warm climate, where he could hardly wear clothes if he
had them. Twenty-five years later he thought he would be perfectly
happy if he were not in terror of men coming to his island——who,
he feared, might eat him.)
Questions and Notes. How do you remember the _ie_ in _believe, grief,_
etc.? Give several illustrations from the above paragraphs of the
principle that we have a double consonant (in an accented penultimate
syllable) after a short vowel. Give illustrations of the single consonant
after a long vowel. Make a list of the words containing silent letters,
including all digraphs. What letter does _true_ have which _truly_ does
not? Is _whole_ pronounced like _hole? wholly_ like _holy?_ What is the
difference between _clothes_ and _cloths?_ What sound has _a_ in _any_?
How do you remember that _i_ follows _e_ in _their?_ What rule applies
in the formation of _dying_? Point out two words or more in the above
in which we have a silent _a_ following two consonants to indicate a
preceding long vowel. Give cases of a digraph followed by a silent _e_.
(Note. Add silent _e_ to _past_ and make _paste_―long _a_.) Is the _i_
in _evil_ sounded? There were no _bears_ upon this island. Mention
another kind of _bear_. Observe the difference between _hardware_——
iron goods——and _hard wear,_ meaning tough usage. What is peculiar about
_soul? impossible? ecstasies? wrapped? deliverance? sign? except? shoes?
hunger? thrown? terror? island?_
V.
9. I decided to climb into a tree and sit there until the next day,
to think what death I should die. As night came on my heart was heavy,
since at night beasts come abroad for their prey. Having cut a short
stick for my defense, I took up my lodging on a bough, and fell fast
asleep. I afterward found I had no reason to fear wild beasts,
for never did I meet any harmful animal.
10. When I awoke it was broad day, the weather was clear and I saw
the ship driven almost to the rock where I had been so bruised.
The ship seeming to stand upright still, I wished myself aboard,
that I might save some necessary things for my use.
(Crusoe shows his good judgment in thinking at once of saving something
from the ship for his after use. While others would have been bemoaning
their fate, he took from the vessel what he knew would prove useful,
and in his very labors he at last found happiness. Not only while his
home-building was new, but even years after, we find him still hard at
work and still inventing new things.)
Questions and Notes. There are two _l_'s in _till_; why not in _until?_
What other words ending in two _l_'s drop one _l_ in compounds?
What two sounds do you find given to _oa_ in the preceding paragraphs?
What is peculiar about _climb? death? dies? night? heart? heavy? since?
beasts? prey? defense? lodging? bough? never? harmful? weather? driven?
bruised? necessary? judgment? others? happiness? build?_
Use the following words in appropriate sentences: _clime, dye, pray,
bow, write, would_. What two pronunciations may _bow_ have, and what
is the difference in meaning? What two sounds may _s_ have in _use,_
and what difference do they mark?
What two rules are violated in _judgment?_ What other words are similar
exceptions?
VI.
11. As I found the water very calm and the ship but a quarter of a mile
out, I made up my mind to swim out and get on board her. I at once
proceeded to the task. My first work was to search out the provisions,
since I was very well disposed to eat. I went to the bread-room and
filled my pockets with biscuit. I saw that I wanted nothing but a boat
to supply myself with many things which would be necessary to me,
and I glanced about me to see how I might meet this need.
12. I found two or three large spars and a spare mast or two,
which I threw overboard, tying every one with a rope that it might
not drift away. Climbing down the ship's side, I pulled them toward
me and tied four of them fast together in the form of a raft,
laying two or three pieces of plank upon them crosswise.
13. I now had a raft strong enough to bear any reasonable weight.
My next care was to load it. I got three of the seamen's chests,
which I managed to break open and empty. These I filled with bread,
rice, five pieces of dried goat's flesh, and a little remainder of
European grain. There had been some barley and wheat together;
but the rats had eaten or spoiled it.
Questions and Notes. In _calm_ you have a silent _l_; what other words
can you mention with this silent _l_? Note the double _e_ in _proceed_
and _succeed; precede_ has one _e_ with the silent _e_ at the end.
Note that _u_ is inserted into _biscuit_ simply to make the _c_ hard
before _i_; with this allowance, this word is spelled regularly.
What is the difference between _spar_ and _spare?_ What other word
have we had pronounced like _threw_? Explain _tying_ and _tied_.
Did any change take place when _ed_ was added to _tie_? Note that
_four_ is spelled with _ou_ for the long _o_ sound; _forty_ with a
simple _o_. How is _14_ spelled? How do you remember _ie_ in _piece_?
What sound has _ei_ in _weight_? Mention another word in which _ei_ has
the same sound. What other word is pronounced like _bear_? How do you
spell the word like this which is the name of a kind of animal? In what
three ways do you find the long sound of _a_ represented in the above
paragraphs? Make a list of the words with silent consonants?
VII.
14. My next care was for arms. There were two very good fowling-pieces
in the great cabin, and two pistols. And now I thought myself pretty well
freighted, and began to think how I should get to shore, having neither
sail, oar, nor rudder; and the least capful of wind would have overset me.
15. I made many other journeys to the ship, and took away among other
things two or three bags of nails, two or three iron crows, and a great
roll of sheet lead. This last I had to tear apart and carry away in
pieces, it was so heavy. I had the good luck to find a box of sugar
and a barrel of fine flour. On my twelfth voyage I found two or three
razors with perfect edges, one pair of large scissors, with some ten
or a dozen good knives and forks. In a drawer I found some money.
“Oh, drug!” I exclaimed. “What art thou good for?”
(To a man alone on a desert island, money certainly has no value.
He can buy nothing, sell nothing; he has no debts to be paid; he earns
his bread by the sweat of his brow, his business is all with himself and
nature, and nature expects no profit, but allows no credit, for a man
must pay in work as he goes along. Crusoe had many schemes; but it took
a great deal of work to carry them out; and the sum of all was steady
work for twenty-five years. In the end we conclude that whatever he
got was dearly bought. We come to know what a thing is worth only by
measuring its value in the work which it takes to get that thing or
to make it, as Crusoe did his chairs, tables, earthenware, etc.)
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar in these words: _cabin, pistols,
razors, money, value, measuring, bought, barley, capful, roll, successors,
desert, certainly?_ What sound has _ou_ in _journeys?_ Is this sound
for _ou_ common? What rule applies to the plural of _journey?_ How else
may we pronounce _lead?_ What part of speech is it there? What is the
past participle of _lead?_ Is that pronounced like _lead,_ the metal?
How else may _tear_ be pronounced? What does that other word mean?
Find a word in the above paragraphs pronounced like _flower_. What
other word pronounced like _buy? profit? sum? dear? know? ware?_ What
sound has _s_ in _sugar_? Make a list of the different ways in which
long _e_ is represented. What is peculiar about _goes_? Make a list
of the different ways in which long _a_ is represented in the above
paragraphs. What sound has _o_ in _iron_? Is _d_ silent in _edges_?
What sound has _ai_ in _pairs_? What other word pronounced like this?
How do you spell the fruit pronounced like _pair_? How do you spell the
word for the act of taking the skin off any fruit? What sound has _u_ in
_business?_ In what other word has it the same sound? Mention another
word in which _ch_ has the same sound that it has in _schemes_. What other
word in the above has _ai_ with the same sound that it has in _chairs_?
VIII.
16. I now proceeded to choose a healthy, convenient, and pleasant spot
for my home. I had chiefly to consider three things: First, air; second,
shelter from the heat; third, safety from wild creatures, whether men
or beasts; fourth, a view of the sea, that if God sent any ship in sight
I might not lose any chance of deliverance. In the course of my search
I found a little plain on the side of a rising hill, with a hollow like
the entrance to a cave. Here I resolved to pitch my tent.
(He afterward found a broad, grassy prairie on the other side of the
island, where he wished he had made his home. On the slope above grew
grapes, lemons, citrons, melons, and other kinds of fruit.)
17. Aft er ten or twelve days it came into my thoughts that I should
lose my reckoning for want of pen and ink; but to prevent this I cut
with my knife upon a large post in capital letters the following words:
“I came on shore here on the 30th of September, 1659.” On the sides
of this post I cut every day a notch; and thus I kept my calendar,
or weekly, monthly, and yearly reckoning of time.
(He afterward found pen, ink, and paper in the ship; but the record on
the post was more lasting than anything he could have written on paper.
However, when he got his pen and ink he wrote out a daily journal,
giving the history of his life almost to the hour and minute. Thus
he tells us that the shocks of earthquake were eight minutes apart,
and that he spent eighteen days widening his cave.)
18. I made a strong fence of stakes about my tent that no animal could
tear down, and dug a cave in the side of the hill, where I stored my powder
and other valuables. Every day I went out with my gun on this scene of
silent life. I could only listen to the birds, and hear the wind among
the trees. I came out, however, to shoot goats for food. I found that as
I came down from the hills into the valleys, the wild goats did not see me;
but if they caught sight of me, as they did if I went toward them from
below, they would turn tail and run so fast I could capture nothing.
Questions and Notes. Are all words in _-ceed_ spelled with a double
_e_? What two other common words besides _proceed_ have we already
studied? What sound has _ea_ in _healthy?_ in _pleasant?_ in _please?_
How do you remember that _i_ comes before _e_ in _chief?_ What sound
has _ai_ in _air?_ Do you spell 14 and 40 with _ou_ as you do _fourth?_
What other word pronounced like _sea?_ Note the three words, _lose,
loose,_ and _loss;_ what is the difference in meaning? Why does
_chance_ end with a silent _e? change?_ What other classes of words
take a silent _e_ where we should not expect it? What other word
pronounced like _course?_ What does it mean? How do you spell the word
for the tool with which a carpenter smooths boards? Mention five other
words with a silent _t_ before _ch_, as in _pitch_. To remember the
order of letters in _prairie,_ notice that there is an _i_ next to
the _r_ on either side. What other letters represent the vowel sound
heard in _grew?_ What two peculiarities in the spelling of _thoughts?_
Mention another word in which _ou_ has the same sound as in _thought_.
How is this sound regularly represented? What other word pronounced
like _capital?_ (Answer. _Capitol_. The chief government building
is called the _capitol;_ the city in which the seat of government is
located is called the _capital,_ just as the large letters are called
_capitals_.) What sound has _ui_ in _fruit?_ What other two sounds
have we had for _ui_? Would you expect a double consonant in _melons_
and _lemons,_ or are these words spelled regularly? What is peculiar
about the spelling of _calendar?_ What other word like it, and what
does it mean? What other word spelled like _minute,_ but pronounced
differently? What sound has _u_ in this word? What other word
pronounced like _scene?_ Is _t_ silent in _listen?_ in often? Why is
_y_ not changed to _i_ or _ie_ in _valleys?_ What other plural is made
in the same way? Write sentences in which the following words shall be
correctly used: _are, forth,_ see (two meanings), _cent, cite, coarse,
rate, ate, tare, seen, here, site, tale_. In what two ways may _wind_
be pronounced, and what is the difference in meaning?
IX.
19. I soon found that I lacked needles, pins, and thread, and
especially linen. Yet I made clothes and sewed up the seams with
tough stripe of goatskin. I afterward got handkerchiefs and shirts
from another wreck. However, for want of tools my work went on heavily;
yet I managed to make a chair, a table, and several large shelves.
For a long time I was in want of a wagon or carriage of some kind.
At last I hewed out a wheel of wood and made a wheelbarrow.
20. I worked as steadily as I could for the rain, for this was the
rainy season. I may say I was always busy. I raised a turf wall close
outside my double fence, and felt sure if any people came on shore they
would not see anything like a dwelling. I also made my rounds in the
woods every day. As I have already said, I found plenty of wild goats.
I also found a kind of wild pigeon, which builds, not as wood pigeons do,
in trees, but in holes of the rocks. The young ones were very good meat.
Questions and Notes. What sound has _ea_ in _thread?_ What is
peculiar in the spelling of _liven?_ What is peculiar in the spelling
of _handkerchiefs?_ wrecks? What rule applied to the formation of the
word _heavily?_ What sound has _ai_ in _chair?_ Is the _i_ or the _a_
silent in _carriage?_ (Look this up in the dictionary.) What sound has
_u_ in busy? What other word with the same sound for _u_? Is there any
word besides _people_ in which _eo_ has the sound of _e_ long? In what
other compounds besides _also_ does _all_ drop one _l_? What sound has
_ai_ in _said?_ Does it have this sound in any other word? What sound
has _eo_ in _pigeon? ui_ in _builds?_ What other word pronounced like
_hole?_ How do you remember _ei_ in _their?_
Use the following words in appropriate sentences: _so, seem, hew, rein,
meet_. What differences do you find in the principles of formation of
_second, wreck, lock, reckon?_ In what different ways is the sound of
long _a_ represented in paragraphs 19 and 20? What is peculiar in
_tough? especially? handkerchiefs? season? raised? double? fence?
already? pigeon? ones? very? were?_
X.
21. I found that the seasons of the year might generally be divided,
not into summer and winter, as in Europe, but into the rainy seasons and
the dry seasons, which were generally thus: From the middle of February to
the middle of April (including March), rainy; the sun being then on or near
the equinox. From the middle of April to the middle of August (including
May, June, and July), dry; the sun being then north of the equator. From
the middle of August till the middle of October (including September),
rainy; the sun being then come back to the equator. From the middle of
October till the middle of February (including November, December, and
January), dry; the sun being then to the south of the equator.
22. I have already made mention of some grain that had been spoiled
by the rats. Seeing nothing but husks and dust in the bag which had
contained this, I shook it out one day under the rock on one side of my
cave. It was just before the rainy season began. About a month later
I was surprised to see ten or twelve ears of English barley that had
sprung up and several stalks of rice. You may be sure I saved the seed,
hoping that in time I might have enough grain to supply me with bread.
It was not until the fourth season that I could allow myself the least
particle to eat, and none of it was ever wasted. From this handful,
I had in time all the rice and barley I needed for food,―above forty
bushels of each in a year, as I might guess, for I had no measure.
23. I may mention that I took from the ship two cats; and the ship's
dog which I found there was so overjoyed to see me that he swam ashore
with me. These were much comfort to me. But one of the cats disappeared
and I thought she was dead. I heard no more of her till she came home
with three kittens. In the end I was so overrun with cats that I had
to shoot some, when most of the remainder disappeared in the woods and
did not trouble me any more.
Questions and Notes. Why is _g_ soft in _generally?_ How do you
pronounce _February?_ What sound ha{ve the _}s{_'}s in _surprised?_
Mention three or four other words ending in the sound of _ize_ which
are spelled with an _s_. What sound has _ou_ in _enough?_ What other
words have _gh_ with the sound of _f_? We have here the spelling of
waste——meaning carelessly to destroy or allow to be destroyed; what is
the spelling of the word which means the middle of the body? Is _ful_
always written with one _l_ in derivatives, as in _handful_ above?
Mention some other words in which _ce_ has the sound of _c_ as in _rice_.
How do you spell _14_? like forty? Why is _u_ placed before _e_ in
_guess?_ Is it part of a digraph with _e_? What sound has _ea_ in
_measure?_ What sound has it in this word? What other word pronounced
like _heard?_ Which is spelled regularly? How many _l_'s has _till_
in compounds? Mention an example.
Use the following words in sentences: _herd, write, butt, reign, won,
bred, waist, kneaded, sum_. What is peculiar about _year? divided?
equator? December? grain? nothing? contain? barley? until? each? there?
thought? some? disappeared? trouble?_
XI.
24. One day in June I found myself very ill. I had a cold fit and
then a hot one, with faint sweats after it. My body ached all over,
and I had violent pains in my head. The next day I felt much better,
but had dreadful fears of sickness, since I remembered that I was alone,
and had no medicines, and not even any food or drink in the house.
The following day I had a terrible headache with my chills and fever;
but the day after that I was better again, and went out with my gun
and shot a she-goat; yet I found myself very weak. After some days,
in which I learned to pray to God for the first time after eight years
of wicked seafaring life, I made a sort of medicine _by_ steeping
tobacco leaf in rum. I took a large dose of this several times a day.
In the course of a week or two I got well; but for some time after I
was very pale, and my muscles were weak and flabby.
25. After I had discovered the various kinds of fruit which grew on
the other side of the island, especially the grapes which I dried for
raisins, my meals were as follows: I ate a bunch of raisins for my
breakfast; for dinner a piece of goat's flesh or of turtle broiled;
and two or three turtle's eggs for supper. As yet I had nothing in
which I could boil or stew anything. When my grain was grown I had
nothing with which to mow or reap it, nothing with which to thresh
it or separate it from the chaff, no mill to grind it, no sieve to
clean it, no yeast or salt to make it into bread, and no oven in
which to bake it. I did not even have a water-pail. Yet all these
things I did without. In time I contrived earthen vessels which were
very useful, though rather rough and coarse; and I built a hearth which
I made to answer for an oven.
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar about _body?_ What sound has
_ch_ in _ached?_ Note that there are t{w}o _i_'s in _medicine_. What
is peculiar about _house?_ What other word pronounced like _weak?_
Use it in a sentence. What is the plural of _leaf?_ What are all the
differences between _does_ and _dose?_ Why is _week_ in the phrase
“In the course of a week or two” spelled with double _e_ instead of
_ea?_ What is irregular about the word _muscles?_ Is _c_ soft before
_l_? Is it silent in _muscles?_ What three different sounds may _ui_
have? Besides _fruit,_ what other words with _ui_? What sound has
_ea_ in _breakfast?_ What two pronunciations has the word _mow?_
What difference in meaning? What sound has _e_ in _thresh?_ How do
you remember the _a_ in _separate?_ What sound has _ie_ in _sieve?_
Do you know any other word in which _ie_ has this sound? What other
sound does it often have? Does _ea_ have the same sound in _earthen_
and _hearth?_ Is _w_ sounded in _answer?_ What sound has _o_ in _oven?_
Use the following words in sentences: _week, pole, fruit, pane, weak,
course, bred, pail, ruff_.
XII.
26. You would have smiled to see me sit down to dinner with my family.
There was my parrot, which I had taught to speak. My dog was grown very
old and crazy; but he sat at my right hand. Then there were my two
cats, one on one side of the table and one on the other. Besides these,
I had a tame kid or two always about the house, and several sea-fowls
whose wings I had clipped. These were my subjects. In their society
I felt myself a king. I was lord of all the land about, as far as my
eye could reach. I had a broad and wealthy domain. Here I reigned sole
master for twenty-five years. Only once did I try to leave my island in
a boat; and then I came near being carried out into the ocean forever by
an ocean current I had not noticed before.
27. When I had been on the island twenty-three years I was greatly
frightened to see a footprint in the sand. For two years after I saw
no human being; but then a large company of savages appeared in canoes.
When they had landed they built a fire and danced about it. Presently
they seemed about to make a feast on two captives they had brought with
them. By chance, however, one of them escaped. Two of the band followed
him; but he was a swifter runner than they. Now, I thought, is my chance
to get a servant. So I ran down the hill, and with the butt of my musket
knocked down one of the two pursuers. When I saw the other about to draw
his bow. I was obliged to shoot him. The man I had saved seemed at first
as frightened at me as were his pursuers. But I beckoned him to come to
me and gave him all the signs of encouragement I could think of.
28. He was a handsome fellow, with straight, strong limbs. He had a
very good countenance, not a fierce and surly appearance. His hair was
long and black, not curled like wool; his forehead was very high and large;
and the color of his skin was not quite black, but tawny. His face was
round and plump; his nose small, not flat like that of negroes; and he had
fine teeth, well set, and as white as ivory.
29. Never man had a more faithful, loving, sincere servant than Friday
was to me (for so I called him from the day on which I had saved his
life). I was greatly delighted with him and made it my business to teach
him everything that was proper to make him useful, handy, and helpful.
He was the aptest scholar that ever was, and so merry, and so pleased when
he could but understand me, that it was very pleasant to me to talk to him.
Now my life began to be so easy, that I said to myself, that could I but
feel safe from more savages, I cared not if I were never to remove from the
place where I lived.
(Friday was more like a son than a servant to Crusoe. Here was one
being who could under-stand human speech, who could learn the difference
between right and wrong, who could be neighbor, friend, and companion.
Crusoe had often read from his Bible; but now he might teach this
heathen also to read from it the truth of life. Friday proved a good
boy, and never got into mischief.)
Questions and Notes. What is the singular of _canoes?_ What is the
meaning of _butt?_ How do you spell the word pronounced like this which
means a hogshead? In what two ways is _bow_ pronounced? What is the
difference in meaning? What other word pronounced like _bow_ when it
means the front end of a boat? _Encouragement_ has an _e_ after the
_g_; do you know two words ending in _ment_ preceəded by the soft
_g_ sound which omit the silent _e_? Make a list of all the words
you know which, like _fierce,_ have _ie_ with the sound of _a_ long.
How do you pronounce _forehead?_ Mention two peculiarities in the
spelling of _color_. Compare it with _collar_. What is the singular
of _negroes?_ What other words take _es_ in the plural? What is the
plural of _tobacco?_ Compare _speak,_ with its _ea_ for the sound of
_e_ long, and _speech,_ with its double _e_. What two peculiarities in
_neighbor?_ What sound has _ie_ in _friend?_ In the last paragraph
above, how do you pronounce the first word _read?_ How the second?
What other word pronounced like _read_ with _ea_ like short _a_?
Compare to _lead, led,_ and the metal _lead_. How do you pronounce
_mischief?_ Use the following words in sentences: _foul, reign, sole,
strait, currant_. What is peculiar in these words: _parrot? taught?
always? reach? only? leave? island? carried? ocean? notice? built?
dance? brought? get? runner? butt? knock?_
Derivation of words.
It is always difficult to do two things at the same time, and for that
reason no reference has been made in the preceding exercises to the
rules for prefixes and suffixes, and in general to the derivation of words.
This should be taken up as a separate study, until the meaning of every
prefix and suffix is clear in the mind in connection with each word.
This study, however, may very well be postponed till the study of grammar
has been taken up.
APPENDIX
VARIOUS SPELLINGS
Authorized by Different Dictionaries.
There are not many words which are differently spelled by the various
standard dictionaries. The following is a list of the more common ones.
The form preferred by each dictionary is indicated by letters in
parantheses as follows: C., Century; S., Standard; I., Webster's
International; W., Worcester; E., English usage as represented by the
Imperial. When the new Oxford differs from the Imperial, it is indicated
by O. Stormonth's English dictionary in many instances prefers Webster's
spellings to those of the Imperial.
accoutre (C., W., E.)
accouter (S., I.)
aluminium (C., I., W., E.)
aluminum (S.)
analyze (C., S., I., W.)
analyse (E.)
anesthetic (C., S.)
anæsthetic (I., W., E.)
appal (C., S., E.)
appall (I., W.)
asbestos (C., S., W., E.)
asbetus (I.)
ascendancy (C., W.)
ascendancy (S., I., E.)
ax (C., S., I.)
axe (W., E.)
ay [forever] (C., S., O.)
aye ¨ (I., W., E.)
aye [yes] (C., S., I., O.)
ay ¨ (W., E.)
bandana (C., E.)
bandanna (S.,{ }I.,{ }W.,{ }O.)
biased (C., S., I., O.)
biassed (W., E.)
boulder (C., S., W., E.)
bowlder (I.)
Brahman (C., S., I., E.)
Brahmin (W., O.)
braize (C., S.)
braise (I., W., E.)
calif (C., S., E.)
caliph (I., W., O.)
callisthenics (C., S., E.)
calisthenics (I., W.)
cancelation (C., S.)
cancellation (I., W., E.)
clue (C., S., E.)
clew (I., W.)
coolie (C., S., E.)
cooly (I., W.)
courtezan (C., I., E.)
courtesan (I., W., O.)
cozy (C., S., I.)
cosey (W., E.)
cosy (O.)
crozier (C., I., E.)
crosier (I., W., O.)
defense (C., S., I.)
defence (W., E.)
despatch (C., S., W., E.)
dispatch (I., O.)
diarrhea (C., S., I.)
diarrhœoa (W., E.)
dicky (C., W., O.)
dickey (S., I., E.)
disk (C., S., I., W., O.)
disc (E.)
distil (C., S., W., E.)
distill (I.)
dullness (C., I., O.)
dulness (S., W., E.)
employee (C., S., E.)
employé {[male]}(I., W., O.)
encumbrance (C., S., W., I.)
incumbrance (I.)
enforce——see reinforce
engulf (C., S., W., E.)
ingulf (I.)
enrolment (C., S., W., E.)
enrollment (I.)
enthrall (C., S., E.)
inthrall (I., W.)
equivoke (C., S., W.)
equivoque (I., E.)
escalloped (C., S., O.)
escaloped (I., W., E.)
esthetic (C., S.)
æsthetic (I., W., E.)
feces (C., S.)
fæces (I., W., E.)
fetish (C., S., O.)
fetich (I., W., E.)
fetus (C., S., I., E.)
fœtus (W., O.)
flunky (C., S., I., W.)
flunkey (E.)
fulfil (C., S., W., E.)
fulfill (I.)
fullness (C., I., O.)
fulness (S., W., E.)
gage [measure] (C., S.)
gauge ¨ (I., W., E{.)}
gaiety (C., S., E.)
gayety (I., W.)
gazel (C., S.)
gazelle (I., W., E.)
guild (I., W., E.)
gild (C., S.)
gipsy (C., S., O.)
gypsy (I., W., E.)
gram (C., S., I.)
gramme (W., E.)
gruesome (C., S., O.)
grewsome (I., W., E.)
harken (C., S.)
hearken (I., W., E.)
hindrance (C., S., I., O.)
hinderance (W., E.)
Hindu (C., S., E.)
Hindoo (I., W.)
Hindustani (C., S., E.)
Hindoostanee (I.)
homeopathic (C., S., I.)
homœopathic (W., E.)
impale (C., I., E.)
empale (S., W.)
incase (C., S., I., E.)
encase (W., O.)
inclose (C., I., E.)
enclose (S., W., O.)
instil (C., S., W., E.)
instill (I.)
jewelry (C., S., I., E.)
jewellery (W., O.)
kumiss (C., S., E.)
koumiss (I., W., O.)
maugre (C., S., W., E.)
mauger (I.)
meager (C., S., I.)
meagre (W., E.)
medieval (C., S.)
mediæval (I., W., E.)
mold (C., S., I.)
mould (W., E.)
molt (C., S., I.)
moult (W., E)
offense (C., S., I.)
offence (W., E.)
pandoor (C., W., E.)
pandour (S., I.)
papoose (C., S., W., E.)
pappoose (W.)
paralyze (C., S., W., I.)
paralyse (E.)
pasha (C., S., I., E.)
pacha (W.)
peddler (C., I.)
pedler (S., W.)
pedlar (E.)
phenix (C., S., I.)
phœnix (W., E.)
plow (C., S., I.)
plough (W., E.)
pretense (C., S., I.)
pretence (W., E.)
program (C., S.)
programme (I., W., E.)
racoon (C.)
raccoon (S., I., W., E.)
rajah (I., W., E.)
raja (C., S.)
reconnaissance (C., S., E.)
reconnoissance (I., W.)
referable (C., S., I.)
referrible (W., E.)
reinforce (C., E.)
reënforce (S., I., W.)
reverie (C., S., I., E.)
revery (W.)
rhyme (I., W., E.)
rime (C., S.)
rondeau (W., E.)
rondo (C., S., I.)
shinny (C., S.)
shinty (I., W., E.)
skean (C., S., I., E.)
skain (W.)
skilful (C., S., W., E.)
skillful (I.)
smolder (C., S., I.)
smoulder (W., E.)
spoony (C., S., E.)
spooney (I., W.)
sumac (C., S., I., E.)
sumach (W.)
swingletree (C., S., W.)
singletree (I.)
synonym (C., S., I., E.)
synonyme (W.)
syrup (C., E.)
sirup (S., I., W.)
Tartar (I., W., E.)
Tatar (C., S.)
threnody (C., S., W., E.)
threnode (I.)
tigerish (C., S., I.)
tigrish (W., E.)
timbal (C., S.)
tymbal (I., W., E)
titbit (C., S.)
tidbit (I., W., E.)
vise [tool] (C., S., I.)
vice ¨ (W., E.)
vizier (S., I., W., E.)
vizir (C.)
visor (I., W., E.)
vizor (C., S.)
whippletree (S., I., W., E.)
whiffletree (C.)
whimsy (C., S.)
whimsey (I., W., E.)
whisky (C., S., I., E.)
whiskey (W.{, Irish})
wilful (C., S., W., E.)
willful (I.)
woeful (C., I., E.)
woful (S., W.)
worshiped (C., S., I.)
worshipped (W., E.)
All dictionaries but the Century make _envelop_ the verb, _envelope_
the noun. The Century spells the noun _envelop_ as well as the verb.
According to the Century, Worcester, and the English dictionaries,
_practise_ (with _s_) is the verb, _practice_ (with _c_) is the noun.
The Standard spells both _practise,_ and Webster both practice.
Doubling l.
Worcester and the English dictionaries double a final _l_ in all cases
when a syllable is added, Webster, the Century, and the Standard only
when the rule requires it. Thus: wool——woollen, Jewel——jewelled,
travel——traveller.
Re for er.
The following are the words which Worcester and the English dictionaries
spell _re_, while Webster, the Century, and the Standard prefer _er:_
Calibre, centre, litre, lustre, manœuvre (I. maneuver), meagre, metre,
mitre, nitre, ochre, ombre, piastre, sabre, sceptre, sepulchre, sombre,
spectre, theatre, zaffre,{.}
English words with our.
The following are the words in which the English retain the _u_ in
endings spelled _or_ by American dictionaries. All other words,
such as _author, emperor,_ etc., though formerly spelled with _u,_
no longer retain it even in England:
Arbour, ardour, armour, behaviour, candour, clamour, colour, contour,
demeanour, dolour, enamour, endeavour, favour, fervour, flavour,
glamour, harbour, honour, humour, labour, neighbour, odour, parlour,
rancour, rigour, rumour, saviour, splendour, succour, tabour, tambour,
tremour, valour, vapour, vigour,.
_____________________________________________________________________
THE ART σƒ WRITING & SPEAKING ךђℓ ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SHERWIN CODY
Special S Y S T E M Edition
COMPOSITION & Rhetoric
The Old Greek Press
_Chicago New{ }York Boston_
_Revised Edition_.
_Copyright,1903,_ BY SHERWIN CODY.
_Note_. The thanks of the author are due to Dr. Edwin H. Lewis, of the
Lewis Institute, Chicago, and to Prof. John F. Genung, Ph. D., of Amherst
College, for suggestions made after reading the proof of this series.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.——THE METHOD OF THE MASTERS… 7
СНАРТΕR I. DICTION.
CHAPTER II. FIGURES OF SPEECH.
CHAPTER III. STYLE.
CHAPTER IV. HUMOR.———Addison, Stevenson, Lamb.
CHAPTER V. RIDICULE.———Poe.
CHAPTER VI. THE RHETORICAL, IMPASSIONED AND LOFTY STYLES.
———Macaulay and De Quincey.
CHAPTER VII. RESERVE.———Thackeray.
CHAPTER VIII. CRITICISM.———Matthew Arnold and Ruskin.
CHAPTER IX. THE STYLE OF FICTION:
NARRATIVE, DESCRIPTION, AND DIALOGUE.————Dickens.
CHAPTER X. THE EPIGRAMMATIC STYLE.————Stephen Crane.
CHAPTER XI. THE POWER OF SIMPLICITY.————The Bible, Franklin, Lincoln.
CHAPTER XII. HARMONY OF STYLE.————Irving and Hawthorne.
CHAPTER XIII. IMAGINATION AND REALITY.————THE AUDIENCE.
CHAPTER XIV. THE USE OF MODELS IN WRITING FICTION.
CHAPTER XV. CONTRAST.
APPENDIX
COMPOSITION
INTRODUCTION.
THE METHOD OF THE MASTERS
For Learning to Write and Speak Masterly English.
The first textbook on rhetoric which still remains to us was written
by Aristotle. He defines rhetoric as the art of writing effectively,
viewing it primarily as the art of persuasion in public speaking,
but making it include all the devices for convincing or moving the
mind of the hearer or reader.
Aristotle's treatise is profound and scholarly, and every textbook of
rhetoric since written is little more than a restatement of some part
of his comprehensive work. It is a scientific analysis of the subject,
prepared for critics and men of a highly cultured and investigating turn
of mind, and was not originally intended to instruct ordinary persons
in the management of words and sentences for practical purposes.
While no one doubts that an ordinary command of words may be learned,
there is an almost universal impression in the public mind, and has been
even from the time of Aristotle himself, that writing well or ill is
almost purely a matter of talent, genius, or, let us say, instinct.
It has been truly observed that the formal study of rhetoric never has
made a single successful writer, and a great many writers have succeeded
preëminently without ever having opened a rhetorical textbook. It has
not been difficult, therefore, to come to the conclusion that writing
well or ill comes by nature alone, and that all we can do is to pray for
luck,―or, at the most, to practise incessantly. Write, write, write;
and keep on writing; and destroy what you write and write again; cover
a ton of paper with ink; some day perhaps you will succeed―says the
literary adviser to the young author. And to the business man who
has letters to write and wishes to write them well, no one ever says
anything. The business man himself has begun to have a vague impression
that he would like to improve his command of language; but who is there
who even pretends to have any power to help him? There is the school
grind of “grammar and composition,” and if it is kept up for enough
years, and the student happens to find any point of interest in it, some
good may result from it. That is the best that anyone has to offer.
Some thoughtful people are convinced that writing, even business
letters, is as much a matter for professional training as music
or painting or carpentry or plumbing. That view certainly seems
reasonable. And against that is the conviction of the general public
that use of language is an art essentially different from any of the
other arts, that all people possess it more or less, and that the
degree to which they possess it depends on their general education
and environment; while the few who possess it in a preëminent degree,
do so by reason of peculiar endowments and talent, not to say genius.
This latter view, too, is full of truth. We have only to reflect
a moment to see that rhetoric as it is commonly taught can by no
possibility give actual skill. Rhetoric is a system of scientific
analysis. Aristotle was a scientist, not an artist. Analysis tears
to pieces, divides into parts, and so destroys. The practical art of
writing is wholly synthesis,―building up, putting together, creating,
―and so, of course, a matter of instinct. All the dissection, or
vivisection, in the world, would never teach a man how to bring a human
being into the world, or any other living thing; yet the untaught instinct
of all animals solves the problem of creation every minute of the world's
history. In fact, it is a favorite comparison to speak of poems, stories,
and other works of literary art as being the children of the writer's
brain; as if works of literary art came about in precisely the same simple,
yet mysterious, way that children are conceived and brought into the world.
Yet the comparison must not be pushed too far, and we must not lose
sight of the facts in the case. You and I were not especially endowed
with literary talent. Perhaps we are business men and are glad we
are not so endowed. But we want to write and speak better than we do,
―if possible, better than those with whom we have to compete. Now,
is there not a practical way in which we can help ourselves? There
is no thought that we shall become geniuses, or anything of the kind.
For us, why should there be any difference between plumbing and
writing? If all men were born plumbers, still some would be much
better than others, and no doubt the poor ones could improve their
work in a great measure, simply by getting hints and trying. However,
we all know that the trying will not do _very_ much good without the
hints. Now, where are the master-plumber's hints―or rather, the
master-writer's hints, for the apprentice writer?
No doubt some half million unsuccessful authors will jump to their feet
on the instant and offer their services. But the business man is not
convinced of their ability to help him. Nor does he expect very much
real help from the hundred thousand school teachers who teach “grammar
and composition” in the schools. The fact is, the rank and file of
teachers in the common schools have learned just enough to know that
they want help themselves. Probably there is not a more eager class
in existence than they.
The stock advice of successful authors is, Practise. But unluckily
I have practised, and it does not seem, to do any good. “I write one
hundred long letters (or rather dictate them to my stenographer) every
day,” says the business man. “My newspaper reports would fill a hundred
splendid folios,” says the newspaper man, “and yet―and yet―I can't
seem to hit it when I write a novel.” No, practice without guidance will
not do very much, especially if we happen to be of the huge class of the
uninspired. Our lack of genius, however, does not seem to be a reason
why we should continue utterly ignorant of the art of making ourselves
felt as well as heard when we use words. Here again use of language
differs somewhat from painting or music, for unless we had some talent
there would be no reason for attempting those arts.
Let us attack our problem from a common-sense point of view. How have
greater writers learned to write? How do plumbers learn plumbing?
The process by which plumbers learn is simple. They watch the
master-plumber, and then try to do likewise, and they keep at this for
two or three years. At the end they are themselves master-plumbers,
or at least masters of plumbing.
The method by which great writers, especially great writers who didn't
start with a peculiar genius, have learned to write is much the same.
Take Stevenson, for instance: he says he “played the sedulous ape.”
He studied the masterpieces of literature, and tried to imitate them.
He kept at this for several years. At the end he was a master himself.
We have reason to believe that the same was true of Thackeray, of Dumas,
of Cooper, of Balzac, of Lowell. All these men owe their skill very
largely to practice in imitation of other great writers, and often of
writers not as great as they themselves. Moreover, no one will accuse
any of these writers of not being original in the highest degree.
To imitate a dozen or fifty great writers never makes imitators; the
imitator, so called, is the person who imitates one. To imitate even
two destroys all the bad effects of imitation.
Franklin, himself a great writer, well describes the method in his
autobiography:
How Franklin Learned to Write.
“A question was once, somehow or other, started between Collins and me,
of the propriety of educating the female sex in learning, and their
abilities for study. He was of the opinion that it was improper,
and that they were naturally unequal to it. I took the contrary side,
perhaps a little for dispute's sake. He was naturally more eloquent,
having a ready plenty of words, and sometimes, as I thought, I was
vanquished more by his fluency than by the strength of his reasons.
As we parted without settling the point, and were not to see one another
again for some time, I sat down to put my arguments in writing, which
I copied fair and sent to him. He answered, and I replied. Three or
four letters on a side had passed, when my father happened to find my
papers and read them. Without entering into the subject in dispute,
he took occasion to talk to me about the manner of my writing; observed
that, though I had the advantage of my antagonist in correct spelling
and pointing (which I owed to the printing-house), I fell far short
in elegance of expression, in method, and in perspicuity, of which he
convinced me by several instances. I saw the justice of his remarks,
and thence grew more attentive to the manner in writing, and determined
to endeavor an improvement.
“About this time I met with an odd volume of the _Spectator_.
It was the third. I had never before seen any of them. I bought it,
read it over and over, and was much delighted with it. I thought the
writing excellent, and wished it possible to imitate it. With this view
I took some of the papers, and making short hints of the sentiments in
each sentence, laid them by a few days, and then, without looking at
the book, tried to complete the papers again, by expressing each hinted
sentiment at length, and as fully as it had been expressed before,
in any suitable words that should come to hand. Then I compared my
_Spectator_ with the original, discovered some of my faults, and
corrected them. But I found I wanted a stock of words, or a readiness
in recollecting and using them, which I thought I should have acquired
before that time if I had gone on making verses, since the continued
search for words of the same import, but of different length to suit the
measure, or of different sound for the rhyme, would have laid me under
a constant necessity of searching for variety, and also have tended to
fix that variety in mind, and make me master of it. Therefore I took
some of the tales and turned them into verse; and, after a time,
when I had pretty well forgotten the prose, turned them back again.
“I also sometimes jumbled my collection of hints into confusion, and
after some weeks endeavored to reduce them into the best order before
I began to form the full sentences and complete the subject. This was
to teach me method in the arrangement of the thoughts. By comparing my
work with the original, I discovered my faults and amended them; but I
sometimes had the pleasure of fancying, that, in certain particulars of
small import, I had been fortunate enough to improve the method or the
language, and this encouraged me to think that I might possibly in time
come to be a tolerable English writer; of which I was extremely ambitious.
My time for these exercises and for reading was at night, after work, or
before it began in the morning, or on Sundays, when I contrived to be in
the printing-house alone, evading as much as I could the common attendance
on public worship which my father used to exact of me when I was under
his care, and which indeed I still continued to consider a duty, though
I could not, as it seemed to me, afford time to practise it.”
A Practical Method.
Aristotle's method, though perfect in theory, has failed in practice.
Franklin's method is too elementary and undeveloped to be of general
use. Taking Aristotle's method (represented by our standard textbooks
on rhetoric) as our guide, let us develop Franklin's method into a
system as varied and complete as Aristotle's. We shall then have a
method at the same time practical and scholarly.
We have studied the art of writing words correctly (spelling) and
writing sentences correctly (grammar).* Now we wish to learn to write
sentences, paragraphs, and entire compositions _effectively_.
*See the earlier volume$ in this series.
First, we must form the habit of observing the meanings and values
of words, the structure of sentences, of paragraphs, and of entire
compositions as we read standard literature―just as we have been
trying to form the habit of observing the spelling of words, and
the logical relationships of words in sentences. In order that we
may know what to look for in our observation we must analyse a _little,_
but we will not imagine that we shall learn to do a thing by endless
talk about doing it.
Second, we will practise in the imitation of selections from master
writers, in every case fixing our attention on the rhetorical element
each particular writer best illustrates. This imitation will be
continued until we have mastered the subject toward which we are
especially directing our attention, and all the subjects which go to
the making of an accomplished writer.
Third, we will finally make independent compositions for ourselves with
a view to studying and expressing the stock of ideas which we have to
express. This will involve a study of the people on whom we wish to
impress our ideas, and require that we constantly test the results of
our work to see what the actual effect on the mind of our audience is.
Let us now begin our work.
CHAPTER I.
DICTION.
“Diction” is derived from the Latin _dictio,_ a word, and in rhetoric
it denotes choice of words. In the study of grammar we have learned
that all words have logical relationships in sentences, and in some
cases certain forms to agree with particular relationships. We have
also taken note of “idioms,” in which words are used with peculiar values.
On the subject of Idiom Arlo Bates in his book “On Writing English” has
some very forcible remarks. Says he, “An idiom is the personal―if
the word may be allowed―the personal idiosyncrasy of a language.
It is a method of speech wherein the genius of the race making the
language shows itself as differing from that of all other peoples.
What style is to the man, that is idiom to the race. It is the
crystalization in verbal forms of peculiarities of race temperament―
perhaps even of race eccentricities …… English which is not idiomatic
becomes at once formal and lifeless, as if the tongue were already dead
and its remains embalmed in those honorable sepulchres, the philological
dictionaries. On the other hand, English which goes too far, and fails
of a delicate distinction between what is really and essentially idiomatic
and what is colloquial, becomes at once vulgar and utterly wanting in that
subtle quality of dignity for which there is no better term than
_distinction_.”*
*As examples of idioms Mr. Bates gives the following: A ten-foot
(instead of ten-feet) pole; the use of the “flat adverb” or adjective
form in such expressions as “speak loud.” “walk fast,” “the sun shines
hot,” “drink deep;” and the use of prepositions adverbially at the end
of a sentence, as in “Where are you going to?” “The subject which I spoke
to you about,” etc.
We therefore see that idiom is not only a thing to justify,
but something to strive for with all our might. The use of it gives
character to our selection of words, and better than anything else
illustrates what we should be looking for in forming our habit of
observing the meanings and uses of words as we read.
Another thing we ought to note in our study of words is the _suggestion_
which many words carry with them in addition to their obvious meaning.
For instance, consider what a world of ideas the mere name of Lincoln
or Washington or Franklin or Napoleon or Christ calls up. On their
face they are but names of men, or possibly sometimes of places; but we
cannot utter the name of Lincoln without thinking of the whole terrible
struggle of our Civil War; the name of Washington, without thinking
of nobility, patriotism, and self-sacrifice in a pure and great man;
Napoleon, without thinking of ambition and blood; of Christ, without
lifting our eyes to the sky in an attitude of worship and thanksgiving
to God. So common words carry with them a world of suggested thought.
The word _drunk_ calls up a picture horrid and disgusting; _violet_
suggests blueness, sweetness, and innocence; _oak_ suggests sturdy
courage and strength; _love_ suggests all that is dear in the histories
of our own lives. Just what will be suggested depends largely on the
person who hears the word, and in thinking of suggestion we must reflect
also on the minds of the persons to whom we speak.
The best practical exercise for the enlargement of one's vocabulary is
translating, or writing verses. Franklin commends verse-writing, but
it is hardly mechanical enough to be of value in all cases. At the same
time, many people are not in a position to translate from a foreign
language; and even if they were, the danger of acquiring foreign idioms
and strange uses of words is so great as to offset the positive gain.
But we can easily exercise ourselves in translating one kind of English
into another, as poetry into prose, or an antique style into modern.
To do this the constant use of the English dictionary will be necessary,
and incidentally we shall learn a great deal about words.
As an example of this method of study, we subjoin a series of notes on
the passage quoted from Franklin in the last chapter. In our study we
constantly ask ourselves, “Does this use of the word sound perfectly
natural?” At every point we appeal to our _instinct,_ and in time come
to trust it to a very great extent. We even train it. To train our
instinct for words is the first great object of our study.
Notes on Franklin.
(See “How Franklin Learned to Write” in preceding chapter.)
1. “The female sex” includes animals as well as human beings,
and in modern times we say simply “women,” though when Franklin wrote
“the female sex” was considered an elegant phrase.
2. Note that “their” refers to the collective noun “sex.”
3. If we confine the possessive case to persons we would not say
“for dispute's sake,” and indeed “for the sake of dispute”
is just as good, if not better, in other respects.
4. “Ready plenty” is antique usage for “ready abundance.” Which is
the stronger?
5. “Reasons” in the phrase “strength of his reasons” is a simple and
forcible substitute for “arguments.”
6. “Copied fair” shows an idiomatic use of an adjective form which
perhaps can be justified, but the combination has given way in these
days to “made a fair copy of.”
7. Observe that Franklin uses “pointing” for _punctuation,_ and
“printing-house” for _printing-office_.
8. The old idiom “endeavor at improvement” has been changed to
_endeavor to improve,_ or _endeavor to make improvement_.
9. Note how the use of the word _sentiment_ has changed. We would be
more likely to say _ideas_ in a connection like this.
10. For “laid them by,” say _laid them away_.
11. For “laid me under …… necessity” we might say _compelled me,_ or
_made it necessary that I should_.
12. “Amended” is not so common now as _corrected_.
13. For “evading” (attendance at public worship) we should now say
_avoiding_. We “evade” more subtle things than attendance at church.
There are many other slight differences in the use of words which the
student will observe. It would be an excellent exercise to write out,
not only this passage, but a number of others from the Autobiography,
in the most perfect of simple modern English.
We may also take a modern writer like Kipling and translate his style
into simple, yet attractive and good prose; and the same process may
be applied to any of the selections in this book, simply trying to find
equivalent and if possible equally good words to express the same ideas,
or slight variations of the same ideas. Robinson Crusoe, Bacon's
Essays, and Pilgrim's Progress are excellent books to translate into
modern prose. The chief thing is to do the work slowly and thoughtfully.