It never rains but it pours.
It was so in Central Europe. Not alone had the production of food by the
soil been hamstrung by the never-ending mobilizations of labor for
military purposes, but the means of communication began to fail from the
same cause.
If it takes a stitch in time to save nine in ordinary walks of life, it
takes a stitch in time to save ninety, and often all, in railroading.
The improperly ballasted tie means too great a strain in the fish-plate.
It may also mean a fractured rail. Both may lead to costly train wrecks.
But the makeshifts employed in Central Europe averted much of this.
Where the regular track gangs had been depleted by the mobilizations,
women and Russian prisoners-of-war took their places. But the labor of
these was not as good as that given by the old hands. There is a knack
even in pushing crushed rock under a railroad tie. Under one tie too
much may be placed and not enough under another, so that the very work
that is to keep the rail-bed evenly supported may result in an entirely
different state of affairs. Two ties lifted up too much by the
ballasting may cause the entire rail to be unevenly supported, so that
it would have been better to leave the work undone altogether.
Thus it came that all railroad traffic had to be reduced in speed.
Expresses were discontinued on all lines except the trunk routes that
were kept in fairly good condition for that very purpose.
Passenger-trains ran 20 miles an hour instead of 40 and 45, and
freight-trains had their schedules reduced to 12. That meant, of course,
that with the same motive power and rolling stock about half the normal
traffic could be maintained.
But that was not all. The maintenance departments of rolling stock and
motive power had also been obliged to furnish their quota of men for
service in the field. At first the several governments did not draw
heavily on the mechanicians in the railroad service, but ultimately they
had to do this. The repair work was done by men less fitted, and
cleaning had to be left to the women and prisoners-of-war.
Soon the "flat" wheels were many on the air-braked passenger-cars. It
came to be a blessing that the freight-trains were still being braked by
hand, for otherwise freight traffic would have suffered more than it
did.
I took some interest in railroading, and a rather superficial course in
it at the military academy had made me acquainted with a few of its
essentials. Close attention to the question in the fall of 1916 gave me
the impression that it would not be long before the only thing of value
of most Central European railroads would be the right of way and its
embankments, bridges, cuts, and tunnels--the things known collectively
as _Bahnkörper_--line body.
When I first made the acquaintance of Central Europe's railroads, I
found them in a high state of efficiency. The rail-bed was good, the
rolling stock showed the best of care--repairs were made in time, and
paint was not stinted--and the motive power was of the very best.
Efficiency had been aimed at and obtained. To be sure, there was nothing
that could compare with the best railroading in the United States. The
American train _de luxe_ was unknown. But if its comforts could not be
had, the communities, on the other hand, did not have to bear the waste
that comes from it. Passenger travel, moreover, on most lines, moved in
so small a radius that the American "Limited" was not called for, though
the speed of express-trains running between the principal cities was no
mean performance at that.
It was not long before all this was to vanish. The shortage in labor
began to be seriously felt. There were times, in fact, when the railroad
schedules showed the initiated exactly what labor-supply conditions
were. When an hour was added to the time of transit from Berlin to
Vienna I knew that the pinch in labor was beginning to be badly felt.
When one of the expresses running between the two capitals was taken
off altogether, I surmised that things were in bad shape, and when
ultimately the number of passenger-trains running between Vienna and
Budapest was reduced from twelve each day to four, it was plain enough
that railroading in Austria-Hungary was down to one-third of what it had
been heretofore--lower than that, even, since the government tried to
keep up as good a front as possible.
In Germany things were a little better, owing to the close husbanding of
resources which had been done at the very outbreak of the war. But to
Germany the railroads were also more essential than to Austria-Hungary,
so that, by and large, there really was little difference.
The neatly kept freight-cars degenerated into weather-beaten boxes on
wheels. The oil that would have been needed to paint them was now an
article of food and was required also in the manufacture of certain
explosives. So long as the car body would stand on the chassis it was
not repaired. Wood being plentiful, it was thought better economy to
replace the old body by a new one when finally it became dangerous to
pull it about any longer.
It was the same with the passenger-cars. The immaculate cleanliness
which I had learned to associate with them was replaced by the most
slovenly sweeping. Dusting was hardly ever attempted. From the
toilet-rooms disappeared soap and towel, and usually there was no water
in the tank. The air-brakes acted with a jar, as the shoes gripped the
flat surface of the wheels, and soon the little doll trains were an
abomination, especially when, for the sake of economy, all draperies
were removed from the doors and windows.
The motive power was in no better condition. The engines leaked at every
steam and water joint, and to get within 60 per cent. of the normal
efficiency for the amount of coal consumed was a remarkable performance.
It meant that the engineer, who was getting an allowance on all coal
saved, had to spend his free time repairing the "nag" he ran.
Constantly traveling from one capital to another, and from one front to
the other, I was able to gauge the rapid deterioration of the railroads.
To see in cold weather one of the locomotives hidden entirely in clouds
of steam that was intended for the cylinders caused one to wonder how
the thing moved at all. The closed-in passenger stations reminded me of
laundries, so thick were the vapors of escaping steam.
Despite the reduction in running-time, wrecks multiplied alarmingly. It
seemed difficult to keep anything on the rails at more than a snail's
pace.
To the freight movement this was disastrous. Its volume had to be
reduced to a quarter of what it had been. This caused great hardship,
despite the fact that the distribution and consumption zones had put an
end to all unnecessary trundling about of merchandise. In the winter the
poor freight service led to the exposure of foodstuffs to the cold. It
was nothing unusual to find that a whole train-load of potatoes had
frozen in transit and become unfit for human consumption. Other
shipments suffered similarly.
In countries that were forced to count on every crumb that was a great
loss. It could not be overcome under the circumstances.
In the winter the lame railroads were unable to bring the needed
quantities of coal into the population centers. This was especially true
of the winter of 1916-17. Everybody having lived from hand to mouth
throughout the summer, and the government having unwisely put a ban on
the laying-in of fuel-supplies, there was little coal on hand when the
cold weather came. Inside of three weeks the available stores were
consumed. The insistent demand for fuel led to a rush upon the lines
tapping the coal-fields. Congestion resulted, and when the tangle was
worst heavy snows began to fall. The railroads failed utterly.
Electric street traction shared the fate of the railroads. To save fuel
the service was limited to the absolutely necessary. Heretofore most
lines had not permitted passengers to stand in the cars. Now standing
was the rule. When one half of the rolling stock had been run into the
ground, the other half was put on the streets, and that, too, was
shortly ruined.
The traction-service corporations, private and municipal alike, had been
shown scant mercy by the several governments when men were needed. Soon
they were without the hands to keep their rolling stock in good repair.
Most of the car manufacturers had meanwhile gone into the ammunition
business, so that it was impossible to get new rolling stock. Further
drafts on the employees of the systems led to the employment of women
conductors, and, in some cases, drivers. While these women did their
best, it could not be said that this was any too good on lines that were
much frequented. Travel on the street cars became a trial. People who
never before had walked did so now.
As was to be expected, the country roads were neglected. Soon the fine
macadamized surfaces were full of holes, and after that it was a
question of days usually when the road changed places with a ditch of
deep mire. The farmer, bringing food to the railroad station or town,
moved now about half of what was formerly a load. He was short of draft
animals. Levy after levy was made by the military authorities. By the
end of 1916 the farms in Central Europe had been deprived of half their
horses.
It has been said that a man may be known by his clothing. That is not
always true. There is no doubt, however, that a community may well be
recognized by its means of transportation. Travel in every civilized
country has proved that to my full satisfaction. I once met a man who
insisted that if taken blindfolded from one country into another he
would be able to tell among what people he found himself, or what sort
of gentry they were, merely by traveling on their railroads. To which I
would add that he could also very easily determine what sort of
government they had, if he had an ear for all the "_Es ist Verboten_,"
"_C'est défendu_," and "It is not allowed" which usually grace the
interiors of stations and car.
Travel was the hardest sort of labor in the Central European states. I
was obliged to do much of it. And most of it I did standing. I have made
the following all-afoot trips: Berlin-Bentheim, Berlin-Dresden,
Berlin-Cologne, Vienna-Budapest, and Vienna-Trieste, and this at a time
when the regular running-time had become 80 to 150 per cent. longer.
The means of communication of Central Europe had sunk to the level of
the nag before the ragman's cart. The shay was not good-looking, either.
But the wear and tear of war did not affect the means of communication
alone. Every building in Central Europe suffered heavily from it.
Materials and labor for upkeep were hard to get at any time and were
costly. Real property, moreover, suffered under the moratorium, while
the constantly increasing taxes left little in the pocket of the owner
to pay for repairs. As already stated, paint was hard to get. Exposed to
the weather, the naked wood decayed. Nor were varnishes to be had for
the protection of interior woodwork.
Many manufacturing plants had to be closed, first of all those which
before the war had depended upon the foreign market. The entire doll
industry, for instance, suspended work. In other branches of manufacture
the closing-down was partial, as in the case of the textile-mills. Not
alone had the buildings to be neglected in this instance, but a great
deal of valuable machinery was abandoned to rust. As the stock of
copper, tin, and brass declined the several governments requisitioned
the metals of this sort that were found in idle plants and turned them
over to the manufacturers of ammunition. While the owners were paid the
price which these metals cost in the form of machinery parts and the
like, the economic loss to the community was, nevertheless, heavy.
Farm implements and equipment also suffered much from inattention. Tens
of thousands of horses perished at the fronts and almost every one of
them meant a loss to some farm. The money that had been paid for them
had usually been given back to the government in the form of taxes, so
that now the farmer had lost his horse or horses in much the same manner
as if some epidemic had been at work. Valuable draft and milk animals
were requisitioned to provide meat for the armies. In certain districts
the lack of vitriol had resulted in the destruction of vineyards and
orchards.
To give a better picture of what this meant, I will cite the case of an
acquaintance who is somewhat of a gentleman farmer near Coblentz, on the
Rhine.
When the war broke out this man had in live stock: Five horses, eight
cows, forty sheep, and a large stock of poultry. He also had several
small vineyards and a fine apple orchard. In the winter of 1916-17 his
stock had shrunk to two horses, two cows, no sheep, very little poultry,
and no vineyard. The apple orchard was also dying from lack of Bordeaux
mixture.
In January, 1917, I obtained some figures dealing with the wear and tear
of war in the kingdom of Saxony. Applying them on a per-capita basis to
all of the German Empire, I established that so far the war had caused
deterioration amounting to $8,950,000,000, or $128 for each man, woman,
and child. In Austria-Hungary the damage done was then estimated at
$6,800,000,000.
These losses were due to absence from their proper spheres in the
economic scheme of some 14,000,000 able-bodied men who had been
mobilized for service in connection with the war. This vast army
consumed at a frightful rate and produced very little now. To
non-productive consumption had to be added the rapid deterioration due
to all abandonment of upkeep. The Central states were living from hand
to mouth and had no opportunity of engaging in that thorough maintenance
which had been given so much attention before. All material progress had
been arrested, and this meant that decay and rust got the upper hand.