Much nonsense has been disseminated on the success of the Germans,
Austrians, and Hungarians in inventing substitutes for the things that
were hard to get during the war. A goodly share of that nonsense came
from the Germans and their allies themselves. But more of it was given
to the four winds of heaven by admiring friends, who were as
enthusiastic in such matters as they were ignorant of actual
achievements.
That much was done in that field is true enough. But a great deal of
scientific effort resulted in no more than what, for instance, synthetic
rubber has been.
The first thing the German scientists did at the outbreak of the war was
to perfect the system of a Norwegian chemist who had succeeded two years
before in condensing the nitrogen of the air into the highly tangible
form of crystals.
Many are under the impression that the process was something entirely
new and distinctly a German invention. I have shown that this is not so.
Even the Norwegian cannot claim credit for the invention as in itself
new. His merit is that he made the process commercially possible.
The thing was a huge success. The British blockade had made the
importation of niter from overseas impossible. There is no telling what
would have happened except for the fact that the practically
inexhaustible store of nitrogen in the air could be drawn upon. It kept
the Central Powers group of belligerents in powder, so long as there was
vegetable fiber and coal-tar enough to be nitrated. Incidentally, some
of the by-products of the nitrogen process served in good stead as
fertilizer. The quantity won was not great, however.
I am not dealing with war as such, and for that reason I will pass by
the many minor inventions of a purely military character that were made,
nor would it be possible to do more than a cataloguing job if I were to
attempt to refer here to all the innovations and substitutions that were
undertaken as time went on.
Science multiplied by three the store of textiles held in the Central
states at the outbreak of the war. This was done in many ways and by
various means. Take cotton, for instance.
That almost anything could be converted into explosives by nitration has
been known ever since Noble made nitroglycerine a commercial product.
Any fat or fiber, even sugar, may be nitrated. That generally we use
glycerine and cotton for the purpose is due to the fact that these
materials are best suited for the process.
But the fats that go into glycerine, and the cotton that becomes
trinitrocellulose, could be put to better use by the Central states. In
a general way coal-tar took the place of the former, and wood pulp that
of cotton. That meant a tremendous saving in food and clothing.
I remember well the shiver that went through Germany when Great Britain
declared cotton to be contraband. The Entente press was jubilant for
weeks. But any chemist familiar with the manufacture of explosives could
have told Sir Kendall that he was too optimistic. It was known even then
that birch pulp and willow pulp made most excellent substitutes for
cotton, if the process, or "operation," as the thing is known
technically, is suitably modified. Coal-tar explosives were already _un
fait accompli_.
Having attended to that little affair, the German scientists turned
their attention to the winning of new textiles. There was the nettle in
the hedges. Anciently, it had been to Europe what cotton was to the
Mexico of the Aztecs. Times being hard, the nettle, now looked upon as a
noxious weed fit only for goose fodder, was brought into its place. Very
soon it was in the market as a textile, which often aspired to as
imposing a name as "natural silk," a name the plant and its fiber well
deserve.
The chemist had very little to do with that. The process was known and,
being in the main similar to the production of flax fiber, presented no
difficulties. The plant is cut, packed tightly under water so that the
vegetable pulp may decay, and is then dried in the sun and prepared for
spinning.
Though the Central states were now importing annually from Turkey in
Asia some eighteen thousand bales of cotton, considerable silk and wool,
and were getting wool also in the Balkan countries, there continued to
be felt a shortage in textiles and their raw materials. The situation
was never serious. The fiber of worn materials was being used again, and
so long as enough new material was added the shoddy produced gave ample
satisfaction.
The paucity of textiles, however, gave rise to the paper-cloth industry.
It was realized that for many purposes for which textiles were being
used the paper cloth was well suited. That applied especially to all the
uses manila and jute had been given in the past.
Even here it was not a question of inventing something. Paper twine had
been in use in Central Europe for many years; it had, in fact, been laid
under ban by the Austrian government--I don't know for what reason.
From paper twine to paper cloth was quite a step, however. Anybody can
twist a piece of tissue-paper into a rope, but to make a reasonably
strong thread or yarn of it is another matter.
The pulp for paper cloth must be tough and not pack too tightly while
the stuff is being made. In this first form the product much resembles
an unbleached tissue-paper. Since the paper has to be in rolls, its
manufacture was undertaken by the mills which in the past had turned
out "news print."
The rolls are then set into a machine, the principal feature of which is
an arrangement of sharp rotary blades that will cut the sheet into
strips or ribbons a quarter-inch wide--or wider, if that be desired. The
ribbons are gathered on spools that revolve not only about their axes,
but also about themselves, at a speed that will give the paper ribbon
the necessary twist or spinning. Raw paper yarn has now been produced.
For many purposes the yarn can be used in the condition it is now in.
For others it must be chemically treated. The process is not dissimilar
to "parchmenting" paper. During the treatment the yarn hardens quite a
little. When intended to make bagging and other textiles of that sort,
this will not matter. The yarn must be softened again if intended for
the paper cloth that is to take the place of serge, possibly. This is
done mechanically, by means of beating.
The yarn does not have the necessary strength to form a fabric when not
reinforced by a tougher fiber. As a rule, it becomes the warp of the
cloth, flax, cotton, and even silk being employed as the weft. When
intended for military overcoats a wool yarn is used. In this case the
cloth is given a water-proofing treatment. A warm garment that is
thoroughly water-proof without being airtight results.
Paper cloth does not have the tensile qualities of good shoddy even, and
for that reason it is mostly used for purposes to which severe usage is
not incident. For instance, it will make splendid sweater coats for
ladies and children. It will also take the place of felt for hats.
The endeavor to find a substitute for sole leather was not so
successful, even when finally it was decided that leather soles could be
made only of animal tissue. There was leather enough for uppers always,
and I am inclined to think that the supply of hides was large enough
also to fill all reasonable demands for soles. The trouble lay in the
nature of the hides, not in their scarcity. Horned cattle in Central
Europe are stabled almost throughout the year and in this manner
protected against the inclemency of the weather. A tender hide has been
the result of this--a hide so tender that, while it will make the finest
uppers, is next to useless as a sole.
A very interesting solution was found in the use of wooden soles. A
thousand capable brains had been occupied with the sole-leather
substitutes, and finally they ruled that wood in its natural state was
the next best thing. So far as the rural population was concerned, that
was well enough. But wooden soles and city pavements are irreconcilable.
How to make that wooden sole bend a little at the instep was the
question.
A sole was tried whose two halves were held together under the instep by
a sort of specially designed hinge. That seemed an improvement over the
single piece of wood, but soon it was found that it had the dangerous
tendency to break down arches, which the hinged sole left unsupported at
the very point where the support should have been.
The experiments were continued. Inventors and cranks worked at them for
nearly two years. The best they ever did was to displace the hinge for a
flexible bit of steel plate. Common sense finally came to the rescue.
The best shoe with a wooden sole was the one that gave the foot lots of
room about the ankle, held the instep snug, and made up for the
flexibility of the leather sole by a rounding-off of the wooden sole
under the toes. A good and very serviceable wooden-sole shoe with
leather uppers had been evolved. The scientists had nothing to do with
it.
It was the department of food substitution that was really the most
interesting. For decades food in tabloid form has interested the men in
the chemical laboratories. Some of them have asserted that man could be
fed chemically. Theoretically that may be done; in practice it is
impossible. If the intestinal tracts could be lined with platinum men
might be able to live on acids of almost any sort. Such is not the case
at present, however.
The very wise pure-food laws of the Central states were thrown on the
rubbish-heap by the governments when stretching the food-supply became
necessary. They were first knocked into the proverbial cocked hat by the
food sharks. What these men were doing was known to the governments,
but these were not times to be particular. If it were possible to
adulterate flour with ground clover there was no reason why this should
not be done, even if the profit went into the pockets of the shark, so
long as the same individual would later subscribe to the war loans. It
was merely another way of mobilizing the pennies and their fractions.
But to much of this an end had to be put. Too much exploitation of the
populace might cause internal trouble. It might also lead to ruining the
health of the entire nation, and that was a dangerous course.
How to substitute flour was indeed a great and urgent problem. There
were those enthusiasts who thought that it could be done chemically. Why
leave to the slow and uncertain process of plant conversion that which
chemistry could do quickly and surely? If certain elements passing
through plant life made flour in the end, why not have them do that
without the assistance of the crop season?
I read some very learned articles on that subject. But there was always
an _if_. If this and that could be overcome, or if this and that could
be done, the thing would be successful.
It never was, of course. Organic life rests on Mother Earth in layers,
and the more developed this life is the farther it lies above the mere
soil--the inorganic. The baby needing milk is above the cow, the cow
needing vegetable food is above the plants, and even the plants do not
depend on inorganic elements alone, as can be learned by any farmer who
tries to raise alfalfa on soil that does not contain the cultures the
plant must have. These cultures again feed on organic life.
This was the rock on which the efforts of the chemical-food experts were
wrecked. Soon they began to see that substitution would have to take the
place of invention and innovation.
They used to sell in the cafés of Vienna, and other large cities, a cake
made mostly of ground clover meal, to which was added the flour of
horse-chestnuts, a little rice, some glucose, a little sugar and honey,
and chopped prunes when raisins could not be had. The thing was very
palatable, and nutritious, as an analysis would show. There were enough
food units in it to make the vehicle, which here was clover meal, really
worth while.
I mention this case to show what are the principal requirements of food
for human consumption. There must be a vehicle if alimentation is to be
normal. This vehicle is generally known as ashes. It is to the human
alimentary system what bread is to butter and meat in the sandwich.
Through it are distributed the actual food elements, and in their
preparation for absorption it occupies the place of the sand and grit we
find in the crop of the fowl. In the toothsome cake I have described,
these factors had been duly honored, and for that reason the cake was a
success even at the price it sold for--an ounce for three cents.
The first war-bread baked was a superior sort of rye bread, containing
in proportions 55, 25, 20, rye flour, wheat flour, and potato meal or
flakes, sugar, and fat. That was no great trick, of course. Any baker
could have thought of that. But rye and wheat flour were not always
plentiful, even when government decree insisted that they be milled to
85 per cent. flour, leaving 15 per cent, as bran--the very outer hull.
Oats, Indian corn, barley, beans, peas, and buckwheat meal had to be
added as time went on.
That was a more difficult undertaking and afforded the scientist the
chance to do yeoman service. He was not found wanting.
Imports of coffee had become impossible in 1916. The scant stores on
hand had been stretched and extenuated by the use of chicory and similar
supplements. I used to wonder how it was possible to make so little go
so far, despite the fact that the _demi-tasse_ was coffee mostly in
color by this time.
A period of transition from coffee to coffee substitutes came.
The first substitute was not a bad one. It was made mostly of roasted
barley and oats and its flavor had been well touched off by chemicals
won from coal-tar. The brew had the advantage of containing a good
percentage of nutritive elements. Taken with a little milk and sugar it
had all the advantages of coffee, minus the effect of caffeine and plus
the value of the food particles. It was palatable even when taken with
sugar only. Without this complement it was impossible, however.
But the grain so used could be put to better purpose. This led to the
introduction of the substitute of a substitute. The next sort of
artificial coffee--_Kaffee-ersatz_--was made of roasted acorns and
beechnuts, with just enough roasted barley to build up a coffee flavor.
This product, too, was healthful. It may even be said that it was a
little better than the first substitute. It certainly was more
nourishing, but also more expensive.
There were not acorns and beechnuts enough, however. Much of the store
had been fed to the porkers, and before long the excellent
acorn-beechnut coffee disappeared.
A third substitute came in the market. Its principal ingredients were
carrots and yellow turnips.
To find substitutes for tea was not difficult. The bloom of the
linden-tree, mixed with beech buds, makes an excellent beverage, and
those who dote on "oolong" can meet their taste somewhat by adding to
this a few tips of pine. If too much of the pine bud is used a very
efficacious emetic will result, however.
The mysteries of cocoa substitutions are a little above me. I can say,
however, that roasted peas and oats have much to do with it. Some of the
materials employed were supplied by coal-tar and synthetic chemistry.
It was really remarkable what this coal-tar would do for the Germans and
their allies. It provided them with the base for their explosives, made
their dyes, and from it were made at one period of the war, by actual
enumeration, four hundred and forty-six distinct and separate chemical
products used in medicine, sanitation, and food substitution. If there
be such a thing as an elixir of life, coal-tar may be expected to
furnish it.
But the net gain in this casting about for substitutes was slight
indeed. The grains, nuts, and vegetables that were used as substitutes
for coffee would have had the same food value if consumed in some other
form. The advantage was that their conversion served to placate the old
eating habits of the public. To what extent these had to be placated was
made plain on every meatless, fatless, or wheatless or some other "less"
day or period.
There was the rice "lamb" chop, for instance. The rice was boiled and
then formed into lumps resembling a chop. Into the lump a skewer of wood
was stuck to serve as a bone, and to make the illusion more complete a
little paper rosette was used to top off the "bone." All of it was very
_comme il faut_. Then the things were fried in real mutton tallow, and
when they came on the table its looks and aroma, now reinforced by green
peas and a sprig of watercress, would satisfy the most exacting. Nor
could fault be found with the taste.
The vegetable beefsteak was another thing that gave great satisfaction,
once you had become used to the color of the thing's interior, which was
pale green--a signal in a real steak that it should not be eaten. The
steak in question was a synthetic affair, composed of cornmeal,
spinach, potatoes, and ground nuts. An egg was used to bind the mass
together, and some of the culinary lights of Berlin and Vienna succeeded
in making it cohesive enough to require the knife in real earnest.
What I have outlined here so far may be called the private effort at
substitution. But substitution also had a governmental application. Its
purpose was to break the populace of its habit of eating highly
concentrated foods, especially fats.
The slaughter of the porkers in 1914 had accidentally led the way to
this policy. The shortage in fats caused by this economic error was soon
to illustrate that the masses could get along very well on about a
quarter of the fat they had consumed in the past. Soon it was plain,
also, that the health of the public could be improved in this manner by
the gradual building up of a stronger physique.
It would have been easy to again crowd the pigsties. The animal is very
prolific, and a little encouragement of the pig-raisers would have had
that result inside of a year had it been desired. But it was not done.
It was difficult to get the necessary feed for these animals, and the
small quantities that could be imported from Roumania were never a
guarantee that the farmers would not feed their pigs with home-raised
cereals and other foods that were of greater value to the state in the
form of cereal and vegetable food for the population. The prices of fats
and meats were well up. A hundred pounds of wheat converted into animal
products would bring nearly three times what the farmer could get for
the grain. Illicit trading in these articles, moreover, was easier
carried on than in breadstuffs.
Since no animal fats, be they butter, lard, or suet, could be produced
without sacrificing a goodly share of the country's cereal supply, it
was necessary to keep the animal-product industry down to its lowest
possible level. It was easier to distribute equitably the larger masses
of cereals and vegetables than the concentrated foods into which animal
industry would convert them. To permit that would also have led to more
hardship for the lower classes at a time when money was cheap and prices
correspondingly high.
The crux of the situation was to fill the public stomach as well as
conditions permitted, and the consumption of fats could have no place in
that scheme under the circumstances. It was decided, therefore, to have
the human stomach do what heretofore had largely been attended to by the
animal industries. An entire series of frictional waste could in that
manner be eliminated, as indeed it was.
The same policy led to a reduction in the supply of eggs. To keep the
human stomach occupied had become as much a necessity as furnishing
nutriment to the body.
I doubt whether without this happy idea the Central states would have
been able to carry on the war. The saving due to the policy was
immense--so stupendous, in fact, that at the same time it discounted
the impossibility of importing foodstuffs and took ample care of the
losses in food production due to the shortage of labor and fertilizers.
It was the one and only thing that stood between the Central Powers and
swift defeat.
It is needless to say that the effect upon certain classes of population
was not so propitious. The lack of sufficient good milk caused an
increase in infant mortality. The feeble of all ages were carried off
quickly when concentrated foods could no longer be had to keep them
alive, and persons of middle age and old age suffered so much that death
was in many cases a welcome relief. While the healthy adult men and
women did not suffer by this sort of rationing--grew stronger, in
fact--those past the prime of life could not readjust themselves to the
iron food discipline that was enforced. The alimentary system in that
case had entered upon its downward curve of assimilation over
elimination, and, constitutionally modified by the ease afforded by
concentrated foods, it declined rapidly when these foods were withdrawn.
Driven by necessity, the several states practised wholesale manslaughter
of the less fit.
I was greatly interested in these "home" casualties, and discussed them
with many, among them life-insurance men, educators, and government
officials. The first class took a strictly business view of the thing.
The life-insurance companies were heavy losers. But there was no way
out. Nothing at all could be done. It was hoped that the better
physical trim of the young adults, and the resulting longevity, would
reimburse the life-insurers. If the war did not last too long this would
indeed happen. Premiums would have to be increased, however, if it
became necessary for the government to apply further food restrictions.
Some of the educators took a sentimental view of the thing. Others were
cynically rational. It all depended upon their viewpoint and age. Those
who believed in the theories of one Osler could see nothing wrong in
this method of killing off the unfit aged. Their opposites thought it
shameful that better provisions were not made for them.
The attitude of the government was more interesting. It took cognizance
of the individual and social aspects involved--of sentiment and reality.
That manslaughter of the aged and unfit was the result of the food
policy was not denied. But could the state be expected to invite
dissolution because of that?
"I understand you perfectly," said a certain food-dictator to me once.
"My own parents are in that position, or would be, were it not that they
have the means to buy the more expensive foods. That thousands of the
poor aged are going to a premature death is only too evident. But what
are we to do? We cannot for their sake lay down our arms and permit our
enemies to impose upon us whatever conditions they please. Quite apart
from the interests of the state as a political unit, there is here to be
considered the welfare of the fit individuals. Being fit, they have the
greatest claim to the benefits that come from the social and economic
institutions which political independence alone can give. That the less
fit must make sacrifices for that is to be expected, for the very good
reason that it is the fit class which is carrying on the war and
shedding its blood for the maintenance of the state. By the time we have
provided for the infants and babies there is nothing left for the aged
over and above what the adult individual gets. Of the babies we must
take care because they are the carriers of our future. Of the aged we
should take care because they have given us our past. But when it comes
to choose which class to preserve, I would say the young every time."
For live-stock-owning governments that is indeed the proper view to
take; and since all governments belong to that class, more or less, it
seems futile to find fault with this food-dictator. The man forced to
decide whether he would give the last morsel to his old father or his
young son might select to divide that morsel evenly between them. But if
the old man was worth his salt at all he would insist that the boy be
given all the food. A social aggregate that cannot act in accordance
with this principle is shortening its own day.
X