Act 1896) and South Australia (Inebriates Act 1881). Provision is made

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally

printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an

underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective

paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not

inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [oo] for infinity; ð for Partial

derivative; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE INDULGENCE: "... his standpoint is frankly non-Catholic,

but he gives ample materials for judgment." 'is' amended from 'in'.

ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... for himself by the aid of a

diagram drawn by Pascal in a demonstration of the formula for the

area of a spherical surface." 'demonstration' amended from

'demonstation'.

ARTICLE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: "... The discoveries 543 of Brook

Taylor and Colin Maclaurin were absorbed into the rapidly growing

continental analysis" 'Colin' amended from 'Colon'.

ARTICLE INSANITY: "... the suggestion of utterly absurd commercial

schemes, or attempts at feats beyond his physical powers."

'commercial' amended from 'commerical'.

ARTICLE INSANITY: "Finally, chronic morphia intoxication produces

mental symptoms very similar to those of chronic alcoholism."

'symptoms' amended from 'symptons'.

ARTICLE INSANITY: "... and wherein the percentage of recoveries

will be larger than in asylums and hospitals as now conducted."

'percentage' amended from 'precentage'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE

AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XIV, SLICE V

Indole to Insanity

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

INDOLE INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN

INDONESIAN INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN

INDORE INGERSOLL

INDORSEMENT INGHAM, CHARLES CROMWELL

INDO-SCYTHIANS INGHIRAMI

INDRA INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD

INDRE INGLEFIELD, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS

INDRE-ET-LOIRE INGLE-NOOK

INDRI INGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT

INDUCTION INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM

INDUCTION COIL INGOLSTADT

INDULGENCE INGOT

INDULINES INGRAM, JAMES

INDULT INGRAM, JOHN KELLS

INDUNA INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE

INDUS INGRESS

INDUSTRIA INHAMBANE

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL INHERITANCE

INDUSTRY INHIBITION

INE INISFAIL

INEBOLI INITIALS

INEBRIETY, LAW OF INITIATION

INFALLIBILITY INJECTOR

INFAMY INJUNCTION

INFANCY INK

INFANT INKERMAN, BATTLE OF

INFANTE INLAYING

INFANTICIDE INMAN, HENRY

INFANTRY INN (river of Europe)

INFANT SCHOOLS INN and INNKEEPER

INFINITE INNERLEITHEN

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS INNESS, GEORGE

INFINITIVE INNOCENT

INFLEXION INNOCENTS' DAY

INFLUENCE INNSBRUCK

INFLUENZA INNS OF COURT

IN FORMÂ PAUPERIS INNUENDO

INFORMATION INOUYE, KAORU, MARQUESS

INFORMER INOWRAZLAW

INFUSORIA INQUEST

INGEBORG INQUISITION, THE

INGELHEIM INSANITY

INGELOW, JEAN

INDOLE, or BENZOPYRROL, C8H7N, a substance first prepared by A. Baeyer

in 1868. It may be synthetically obtained by distilling oxindole

(C8H8NO) with zinc dust; by heating ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with potash

and iron filings; by the reduction of indigo blue; by the action of

sodium ethylate on ortho-aminochlorstyrene; by boiling aniline with

dichloracetaldehyde; by the dry distillation of ortho-tolyloxamic acid;

by heating aniline with dichloracetal; by distilling a mixture of

calcium formate and calcium anilidoacetate; and by heating pyruvic acid

phenyl hydrazone with anhydrous zinc chloride. It is also formed in the

pancreatic fermentation of albumen, and, in small quantities, by passing

the vapours of mono- and dialkyl-anilines through a red-hot tube. It

crystallizes in shining leaflets, which melt at 52° C. and boil at 245°

C. (with decomposition), and is volatile in a current of steam. It is a

feeble base, and gives a cherry-red coloration with a pine shaving. Many

derivatives of indole are known. B-methylindol or skatole occurs in

human faeces.

INDONESIAN, a term invented by James Richardson Logan to describe the

light-coloured non-Malay inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago. It now

denotes all those peoples of Malaysia and Polynesia who are not to be

classified as Malays or Papuans, but are of Caucasic type. Among these

are the Battaks of north Sumatra; many of the Bornean Dyaks and

Philippine Islanders, and the large brown race of east Polynesia which

includes Samoans, Maoris, Tongans, Tahitians, Marquesas Islanders and

the Hawaiians.

See J. Richardson Logan, _The Languages and Ethnology of the Indian

Archipelago_ (1857).

INDORE, a native state of India in the central India agency, comprising

the dominions of the Maharaja Holkar. Its area, exclusive of guaranteed

holdings on which it has claims, is 9500 sq. m. and the population in

1901 was 850,690, showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, owing to the

results of famine. As in the case of most states in central India the

territory is not homogeneous, but distributed over several political

charges. It has portions in four out of the seven charges of central

India, and in one small portion in the Rajputana agency. The Vindhya

range traverses the S. division of the state in a direction from east to

west, a small part of the territory lying to the north of the mountains,

but by much the larger part to the south. The latter is a portion of the

valley of the Nerbudda, and is bounded on the south by the Satpura

hills. Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both ranges,

although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda flows through the

state; and the valley at Mandlesar, in the central part, is between 600

and 700 ft. above the sea. The revenue is estimated at £350,000. The

metre gauge railway from Khandwa to Mhow and Indore city, continued to

Neemuch and Ajmere, was constructed in 1876.

The state had its origin in an assignment of lands made early in the

18th century to Malhar Rao Holkar, who held a command in the army of the

Mahratta Peshwa. Of the Dhangar or shepherd caste, he was born in 1694

at the village of Hol near Poona, and from this circumstance the family

derives its surname of Holkar. Before his death in 1766 Malhar Rao had

added to his assignment large territorial possessions acquired by his

armed power during the confusion of the period. By the end of that

century the rulership had passed to another leader of the same clan,

Tukoji Holkar, whose son, Jaswant Rao, took an important part in the

contest for predominance in the Mahratta confederation. He did not,

however, join the combined army of Sindha and the raja of Berar in their

war against the British in 1803, though after its termination he

provoked hostilities which led to his complete discomfiture. At first he

defeated a British force that had marched against him under Colonel

Monson; but when he made an inroad into British territory he was

completely defeated by Lord Lake, and compelled to sign a treaty which

deprived him of a large portion of his possessions. After his death his

favourite mistress, Tulsi Bai, assumed the regency, until in 1817 she

was murdered by the military commanders of the Indore troops, who

declared for the peshwa on his rupture with the British government.

After their defeat at Mehidpur in 1818, the state submitted by treaty to

the loss of more territory, transferred to the British government its

suzerainty over a number of minor tributary states, and acknowledged the

British protectorate. For many years afterwards the administration of

the Holkar princes was troubled by intestine quarrels, misrule and

dynastic contentions, necessitating the frequent interposition of

British authority; and in 1857 the army, breaking away from the chief's

control, besieged the British residency, and took advantage of the

mutiny of the Bengal sepoys to spread disorder over that part of central

India. The country was pacified after some fighting. In 1899 a British

resident was appointed to Indore, which had formerly been directly under

the agent to the governor-general in central India. At the same time a

change was made in the system of administration, which was from that

date carried on by a council. In 1903 the Maharaja, Shivaji Rao Holkar,

G.C.S.I., abdicated in favour of his son Tukoji Rao, a boy of twelve,

and died in 1908.

The CITY OF INDORE is situated 1738 ft. above the sea, on the river

Saraswati, near its junction with the Khan. Pop. (1901) 86,686. These

figures do not include the tract assigned to the resident, known as "the

camp" (pop. 11,118), which is under British administration. The city is

one of the most important trading centres in central India.

INDORE RESIDENCY, a political charge in central India, is not

co-extensive with the state, though it includes all of it except some

outlying tracts. Area, 8960 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 833,410. (J. S. Co.)

INDORSEMENT, or ENDORSEMENT (from Med. Lat. _indorsare_, to write upon

the _dorsum_, or back), anything written or printed upon the back of a

document. In its technical sense, it is the writing upon a bill of

exchange, cheque or other negotiable instrument, by one who has a right

to the instrument and who thereby transmits the right and incurs certain

liabilities. See BILL OF EXCHANGE.

INDO-SCYTHIANS, a name commonly given to various tribes from central

Asia, who invaded northern India and founded kingdoms there. They

comprise the Sakas, the Yue-Chi or Kushans and the Ephthalites or Hunas.

INDRA, in early Hindu mythology, god of the clear sky and greatest of

the Vedic deities. The origin of the name is doubtful, but is by some

connected with _indu_, drop. His importance is shown by the fact that

about 250 hymns celebrate his greatness, nearly one-fourth of the total

number in the Rig Veda. He is represented as specially lord of the

elements, the thunder-god. But Indra was more than a great god in the

ancient Vedic pantheon. He is the patron-deity of the invading Aryan

race in India, the god of battle to whose help they look in their

struggles with the dark aborigines. Indra is the child of Dyaus, the

Heaven. In Indian art he is represented as a man with four arms and

hands; in two he holds a lance and in the third a thunderbolt. He is

often painted with eyes all over his body and then he is called

Sahasraksha, "the thousand eyed." He lost much of his supremacy when the

triad Brahma, Siva and Vishnu became predominant. He gradually became

identified merely with the headship of Swarga, a local vice-regent of

the abode of the gods.

See A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strassburg, 1897).

INDRE, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from parts of the

old provinces of Berry, Orléanais, Marche and Touraine. Pop. (1906)

290,216. Area 2666 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of

Loir-et-Cher, E. by Cher, S. by Creuse and Haute-Vienne, S.W. by Vienne

and N.W. by Indre-et-Loire. It takes its name from the river Indre,

which flows through it. The surface forms a vast plateau divided into

three districts, the Boischaut, Champagne and Brenne. The Boischaut is a

large well-wooded plain comprising seven-tenths of the entire area and

covering the south, east and centre of the department. The Champagne, a

monotonous but fertile district in the north, produces abundant cereal

crops, and affords excellent pasturage for large numbers of sheep,

celebrated for the fineness of their wool. The Brenne, which occupies

the west of the department, was formerly marshy and unhealthy, but

draining and afforestation have brought about considerable improvement.

The department is divided into the arrondissements of Châteauroux, Le

Blanc, La Châtre and Issoudun, with 23 cantons and 245 communes. At

Neuvy-St-Sépulchre there is a circular church of the 11th century, to

which a nave was added in the 12th century, and at Mézières-en-Brenne

there is an interesting church of the 14th century. At Levroux there is

a fine church of the 13th century and the remains of a feudal fortress,

and there is a magnificent château in the Renaissance style at Valençay.

INDRE-ET-LOIRE, a department of central France, consisting of nearly the

whole of the old province of Touraine and of small portions of

Orléanais, Anjou and Poitou. Pop. (1906) 337,916. Area 2377 sq. m. It is

bounded N. by the departments of Sarthe and Loir-et-Cher, E. by

Loir-et-Cher and Indre, S. and S.W. by Vienne and W. by Maine-et-Loire.

It takes its name from the Loire and its tributary the Indre, which

enter it on its eastern border and unite not far from its western

border. The other chief affluents of the Loire in the department are the

Cher, which joins it below Tours, and the Vienne, which waters the

department's southern region. Indre-et-Loire is generally level and

comprises the following districts: the Gâtine, a pebbly and sterile

region to the north of the Loire, largely consisting of forests and

heaths with numerous small lakes; the fertile Varenne or valley of the

Loire; the Champeigne, a chain of vine-clad slopes, separating the

valleys of the Cher and Indre; the Véron, a region of vines and

orchards, in the angle formed by the Loire and Vienne; the plateau of

Sainte-Maure, a hilly and unproductive district in the centre of which

are found extensive deposits of shell-marl; and in the south the Brenne,

traversed by the Claise and the Creuse and forming part of the marshy

territory which extends under the same name into Indre.

Indre-et-Loire is divided into the arrondissements of Tours, Loches and

Chinon, with 24 cantons and 282 communes. The chief town is Tours, which

is the seat of an archbishopric; and Chinon, Loches, Amboise,

Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-le-Rideau are also important places with

châteaus. The Renaissance château of Ussé, and those of Luynes (15th and

16th centuries) and Pressigny-le-Grand (17th century) are also of note.

Montbazon possesses the imposing ruins of a square donjon of the 11th

and 12th centuries. Preuilly has the most beautiful Romanesque church in

Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle (16th century) at Champigny is a survival

of a château of the dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of

Montrésor (1532) with its mausoleum of the family of Montrésor; that of

St Denis-Hors (12th and 16th century) close to Amboise, with the curious

mausoleum of Philibert Babou, minister of finance under Francis I. and

Henry II.; and that of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, of the 15th century,

are of architectural interest. The town of Richelieu, founded 1631 by

the famous minister of Louis XIII., preserves the enceinte and many of

the buildings of the 17th century. Megalithic monuments are numerous in

the department.

INDRI, a Malagasy word believed to mean "there it goes," but now

accepted as the designation of the largest of the existing Malagasy (and

indeed of all) lemurs. Belonging to the family _Lemuridae_ (see

PRIMATES) it typifies the subfamily _Indrisinae_, which includes the

avahi and the sifakas (q.v.). From both the latter it is distinguished

by its rudimentary tail, measuring only a couple of inches in length,

whence its name of _Indris brevicaudatus_. Measuring about 24 in. in

length, exclusive of the tail, the indri varies considerably in colour,

but is usually black, with a variable number of whitish patches, chiefly

about the loins and on the fore-limbs. The forests of a comparatively

small tract on the east coast of Madagascar form its home. Shoots,

flowers and berries form the food of the indri, which was first

discovered by the French traveller and naturalist Pierre Sonnerat in

1780. (R. L.*)

INDUCTION (from Lat. _inducere_, to lead into; cf. Gr. [Greek:

epagôgê]), in logic, the term applied to the process of discovering

principles by the observation and combination of particular instances.

Aristotle, who did so much to establish the laws of deductive reasoning,

neglected induction, which he identified with a complete enumeration of

facts; and the schoolmen were wholly concerned with syllogistic logic. A

new era opens with Bacon, whose writings all preach the principle of

investigating the laws of nature with the purpose of improving the

conditions of human life. Unluckily his mind was still enslaved by the

formulae of the quasi-mechanical scholastic logic. He supposed that

natural laws would disclose themselves by the accumulation and due

arrangement of instances without any need for original speculation on

the part of the investigator. In his _Novum Organum_ there are

directions for drawing up the various kinds of lists of instances. For

two hundred years after Bacon's death little was done towards the theory

of induction; the reason being, probably, that the practical scientists

knew no logic, while the university logicians, with their conservative

devotion to the syllogism, knew no science. Whewell's _Philosophy of the

Inductive Sciences_ (1840), the work of a thoroughly equipped scientist,

if not of a great philosopher, shows due appreciation of the cardinal

point neglected by Bacon, the function of theorizing in inductive

research. He saw that science advances only in so far as the mind of the

inquirer is able to suggest organizing ideas whereby our observations

and experiments are colligated into intelligible system. In this respect

J. S. Mill is inferior to Whewell: throughout his _System of Logic_

(1843) he ignores the constitutive work of the mind, and regards

knowledge as the merely passive reception of sensuous impressions. His

work was intended mainly to reduce the procedure of induction to a

regular demonstrative system like that of the syllogism; and it was for

this purpose that he formulated his famous Four Methods of Experimental

Inquiry. His work has contributed greatly to the systematic treatment of

induction. But it must be remarked that his Four Methods are not methods

of formal proof, as their author supposed, but methods whereby

hypotheses are suggested or tested. The actual proof of an hypothesis is

never formal, but always lies in the tests of experiment or observation

to which it is subjected.

The current theory of induction as set forth in the standard works is so

far satisfactory that it combines the merit of Whewell's treatment with

that of Mill's; and yet it is plain that there is much for the logician

of the future to accomplish. The most important faculty in scientific

inquiry is the faculty of suggesting new and valuable hypotheses. But no

one has ever given any explanation how the hypotheses arise in the mind:

we attribute it to "genius," which, of course, is no explanation at all.

The logic of discovery, in the higher sense of the term, simply has no

existence. Another important but neglected province of the subject is

the relation of scientific induction to the inductions of everyday life.

There are some who think that a study of this relation would quite

transform the accepted view of induction. Consider such a piece of

reasoning as may be heard any day in a court of justice, a detective who

explains how in his opinion a certain burglary was effected. If all

reasoning is either deductive or inductive, this must be induction. And

yet it does not answer to the accepted definition of induction, "the

process of discovering a general principle by observation of particular

instances": what the detective does is to reconstruct a particular

crime; he evolves no general principle. Such reasoning is used by every

man in every hour of his life: by it we understand what people are doing

around us, and what is the meaning of the sense-impressions which we

receive. In the logic of the future it will probably be recognized that

scientific induction is only one form of this universal constructive or

reconstructive faculty. Another most important question closely akin to

that just mentioned is the true relation between these reasoning

processes and our general life as active intelligent beings. How is it

that the detective is able to understand the burglar's plan of

action?--the military commander to forecast the enemy's plan of

campaign? Primarily, because he himself is capable of making such plans.

Men as active creatures co-operating with their fellow-men are

incessantly engaged in forming plans and in apprehending the plans of

those around them. Every plan may be viewed as a form of induction; it

is a scheme invented to meet a given situation, an hypothesis which is

put to the test of events, and is verified or refuted by practical

success or failure. Such considerations widen still farther our view of

scientific induction and help us to understand its relation to ordinary

human thought and activity. The scientific investigator in his inductive

stage is endeavouring to make out the plan on which his material is

constructed. The phenomena serve as indications to help him in framing

his hypothesis, generally a guess at first, which he proceeds to verify

by experiment and the collection of additional facts. In the deductive

stage he assumes that he has made out the plan and can apply it to the

discovery of further detail. He has the capacity of detecting plans in

nature because he is wont to form plans for practical purposes.

There are good recent accounts of induction in Welton's _Manual of

Logic_, ii., in H. W. B. Joseph's _Introduction to Logic_, and in W.

R. Boyce Gibson's _Problem of Logic_; see also LOGIC. (H. St.)

INDUCTION COIL, an electrical instrument consisting of two coils of wire

wound one over the other upon a core consisting of a bundle of iron

wires. One of these circuits is called the primary circuit and the other

the secondary circuit. If an alternating or intermittent continuous

current is passed through the primary circuit, it creates an alternating

or intermittent magnetization in the iron core, and this in turn creates

in the secondary circuit a secondary current which is called the induced

current. For most purposes an induction coil is required which is

capable of giving in the secondary circuit intermittent currents of very

high electromotive force, and to attain this result the secondary

circuit must as a rule consist of a very large number of turns of wire.

Induction coils are employed for physiological purposes and also in

connexion with telephones, but their great use at the present time is in

connexion with the production of high frequency electric currents, for

Röntgen ray work and wireless telegraphy.

Early history.

The instrument began to be developed soon after Faraday's discovery of

induced currents in 1831, and the subsequent researches of Joseph Henry,

C. G. Page and W. Sturgeon on the induction of a current. N. J. Callan

described in 1836 the construction of an electromagnet with two separate

insulated wires, one thick and the other thin, wound on an iron core

together. He provided the primary circuit of this instrument with an

interrupter, and found that when the primary current was rapidly

intermitted, a series of secondary currents was induced in the fine

wire, of high electromotive force and considerable strength. Sturgeon in

1837 constructed a similar coil, and provided the primary circuit with a

mercury interrupter operated by hand. Various other experimentalists

took up the construction of the induction coil, and to G. H. Bachhoffner

is due the suggestion of employing an iron core made of a bundle of fine

iron wires. At a somewhat later date Callan constructed a very large

induction coil containing a secondary circuit of very great length of

wire. C. G. Page and J. H. Abbot in the United States, between 1838 and

1840, also constructed some large induction coils.[1] In all these cases

the primary circuit was interrupted by a mechanically worked

interrupter. On the continent of Europe the invention of the automatic

primary circuit interrupter is generally attributed to C. E. Neeff and

to J. P. Wagner, but it is probable that J. W. M'Gauley, of Dublin,

independently invented the form of hammer break now employed. In this

break the magnetization of the iron core by the primary current is made

to attract an iron block fixed to the end of a spring, in such a way

that two platinum points are separated and the primary circuit thus

interrupted. It was not until 1853 that H. L. Fizeau added to the break

the condenser which greatly improved the operation of the coil. It 1851

H. D. Rühmkorff (1803-1877), an instrument-maker in Paris, profiting by

all previous experience, addressed himself to the problem of increasing

the electromotive force in the secondary circuit, and induction coils

with a secondary circuit of long fine wire have generally, but

unnecessarily, been called Rühmkorff coils. Rühmkorff, however, greatly

lengthened the secondary circuit, employing in some coils 5 or 6 m. of

wire. The secondary wire was insulated with silk and shellac varnish,

and each layer of wire was separated from the next by means of varnished

silk or shellac paper; the secondary circuit was also carefully

insulated from the primary circuit by a glass tube. Rühmkorff, by

providing with his coil an automatic break of the hammer type, and

equipping it with a condenser as suggested by Fizeau, arrived at the

modern form of induction coil. J. N. Hearder in England and E. S.

Ritchie in the United States began the construction of large coils, the

last named constructing a specially large one to the order of J. P.

Gassiot in 1858. In the following decade A. Apps devoted great attention

to the production of large induction coils, constructing some of the

most powerful coils in existence, and introduced the important

improvement of making the secondary circuit of numerous flat coils of

wire insulated by varnished or paraffined paper. In 1869 he built for

the old Polytechnic Institution in London a coil having a secondary

circuit 150 m. in length. The diameter of the wire was 0.014 in., and

the secondary bobbin when complete had an external diameter of 2 ft. and

a length of 4 ft. 10 ins. The primary bobbin weighed 145 lb., and

consisted of 6000 turns of copper wire 3770 yds. in length, the wire

being .095 of an inch in diameter. Excited by the current from 40 large

Bunsen cells, this coil could give secondary sparks 30 in. in length.

Subsequently, in 1876, Apps constructed a still larger coil for William

Spottiswoode, which is now in the possession of the Royal Institution.

The secondary circuit consisted of 280 m. of copper wire about 0.01 of

an inch in diameter, forming a cylinder 37 in. long and 20 in. in

external diameter; it was wound in flat disks in a large number of

separate sections, the total number of turns being 341,850. Various

primary circuits were employed with this coil, which when at its best

could give a spark of 42 in. in length.

Construction.

A general description of the mode of constructing a modern induction

coil, such as is used for wireless telegraphy or Röntgen ray apparatus,

is as follows: The iron core consists of a bundle of soft iron wires

inserted in the interior of an ebonite tube. On the outside of this tube

is wound the primary circuit, which generally consists of several

distinct wires capable of being joined either in series or parallel as

required. Over the primary circuit is placed another thick ebonite tube,

the thickness of the walls of which is proportional to the

spark-producing power of the secondary circuit. The primary coil must be

wholly enclosed in ebonite, and the tube containing it is generally

longer than the secondary bobbin. The second circuit consists of a

number of flat coils wound up between paraffined or shellaced paper,

much as a sailor coils a rope. It is essential that no joints in this

wire shall occur in inaccessible places in the interior. A machine has

been devised by Leslie Miller for winding secondary circuits in flat

sections without any joints in the wire at all (British Patent, No.

5811, 1903). A coil intended to give a 10 or 12 in. spark is generally

wound in this fashion in several hundred sections, the object of this

mode of division being to prevent any two parts of the secondary circuit

which are at great differences of potential from being near to one

another, unless effectively insulated by a sufficient thickness of

shellaced or paraffined paper. A 10-in. coil, a size very commonly used

for Röntgen ray work or wireless telegraphy, has an iron core made of a

bundle of soft iron wires No. 22 S.W.G., 2 in. in diameter and 18 in. in

length. The primary coil wound over this core consists of No. 14 S.W.G.

copper wire, insulated with white silk laid on in three layers and

having a resistance of about half an ohm. The insulating ebonite tube

for such a coil should not be less than ¼ in. in thickness, and should

have two ebonite cheeks on it placed 14 in. apart. This tube is

supported on two hollow pedestals down which the ends of the primary

wire are brought. The secondary coil consists of No. 36 or No. 32

silk-covered copper wire, and each of the sections is prepared by

winding, in a suitable winding machine, a flat coiled wire in such a way

that the two ends of the coil are on the outside. The coil should not be

wound in less than a hundred sections, and a larger number would be

still better. The adjacent ends of consecutive sections are soldered

together and insulated, and the whole secondary coil should be immersed

in paraffin wax. The completed coil (fig. 1) is covered with a sheet of

ebonite and mounted on a base board which, in some cases, contains the

primary condenser within it and carries on its upper surface a hammer

break. For many purposes, however, it is better to separate the

condenser and the break from the coil. Assuming that a hammer break is

employed, it is generally of the Apps form. The interruption of the

primary circuit is made between two contact studs which ought to be of

massive platinum, and across the break points is joined the primary

condenser. This consists of a number of sheets of paraffined paper

interposed between sheets of tin foil, alternate sheets of the tin foil

being joined together (see Leyden Jar). This condenser serves to quench

the break spark. If the primary condenser is not inserted, the arc or

spark which takes place at the contact points prolongs the fall of

magnetism in the core, and since the secondary electromotive force is

proportional to the rate at which this magnetism changes, the secondary

electromotive force is greatly reduced by the presence of an arc-spark

at the contact points. The primary condenser therefore serves to

increase the suddenness with which the primary current is interrupted,

and so greatly increases the electromotive force in the secondary

circuit. Lord Rayleigh showed (_Phil. Mag._, 1901, 581) that if the

primary circuit is interrupted with sufficient suddenness, as for

instance if it is severed by a bullet from a gun, then no condenser is

needed. No current flows in the secondary circuit so long as a steady

direct current is passing through the primary, but at the moments that

the primary circuit is closed and opened two electromotive forces are

set up in the secondary; these are opposite in direction, the one

induced by the breaking of the primary circuit being by far the

stronger. Hence the necessity for some form of circuit breaker, by the

continuous action of which there results a series of discharges from one

secondary terminal to the other in the form of sparks.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.]

Interrupters or Breaks.

The hammer break is somewhat irregular in action and gives a good deal

of trouble in prolonged use; hence many other forms of primary circuit

interrupters have been devised. These may be classified as (1) hand- or

motor-worked dipping interrupters employing mercury or platinum

contacts; (2) turbine mercury interrupters; (3) electrolytic

interrupters. In the first class a steel or platinum point, operated by

hand or by a motor, is periodically immersed in mercury and so serves to

close the primary circuit. To prevent oxidation of the mercury by the

spark and break it must be covered with oil or alcohol. In some cases

the interruption is caused by the continuous rotation of a motor either

working an eccentric which operates the plunger, or, as in the

Mackenzie-Davidson break, rotating a slate disk having a metal stud on

its surface, which is thus periodically immersed in mercury in a vessel.

A better class of interrupter is the mercury turbine interrupter. In

this some form of rotating turbine pump pumps mercury from a vessel and

squirts it in a jet against a copper plate. Either the copper plate or

the jet is made to revolve rapidly by a motor, so that the jet by turns

impinges against the plate and escapes it; the mercury and plate are

both covered with a deep layer of alcohol or paraffin oil, so that the

jet is immersed in an insulating fluid. In a recent form the chamber in

which the jet works is filled with coal gas. The current supplied to the

primary circuit of the coil travels from the mercury in the vessel

through the jet to the copper plate, and hence is periodically

interrupted when the jet does not impinge against the plate. Mercury

turbine breaks are much employed in connexion with large induction coils

used for wireless telegraphy on account of their regular action and the

fact that the number of interruptions per second can be controlled

easily by regulating the speed of the motor which rotates the jet. But

all mercury breaks employing paraffin or alcohol as an insulating medium

are somewhat troublesome to use because of the necessity of periodically

cleaning the mercury. Electrolytic interrupters were first brought to

notice by Dr A. R. B. Wehnelt in 1898 (_Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift_,

January 20th, 1899). He showed that if a large lead plate was placed in

dilute sulphuric acid as a cathode, and a thick platinum wire protruding

for a distance of about one millimetre beyond a glass or porcelain tube

into which it tightly fitted was used as an anode, such an arrangement

when inserted in the circuit of a primary coil gave rise to a rapid

intermittency in the primary current. It is essential that the platinum

wire should be the anode or positive pole. The frequency of the Wehnelt

break can be adjusted by regulating the extent to which the platinum

wire protrudes through the porcelain tube, and in modern electrolytic

breaks several platinum anodes are employed. This break can be employed

with any voltage between 30 and 250. The Caldwell interrupter, a

modification of the Wehnelt break, consists of two electrodes immersed

in dilute sulphuric acid, one of them being enclosed by a glass vessel

which has a small hole in it capable of being more or less closed by a

tapered glass plug. It differs from the Wehnelt break in that there is

no platinum to wear away and it requires less current; hence finer

regulation of the coil to the current can be obtained. It will also work

with either direct or alternating currents. The hammer and mercury

turbine breaks can be arranged to give interruptions from about 10 per

second up to about 50 or 60. The electrolytic breaks are capable of

working at a higher speed, and under some conditions will give

interruptions up to a thousand per second. If the secondary terminals of

the induction coils are connected to spark balls placed a short distance

apart, then with an electrolytic break the discharge has a flame-like

character resembling an alternating current arc. This type of break is

therefore preferred for Röntgen ray work since it makes less flickering

upon the screen, but its advantages in the case of wireless telegraphy

are not so marked. In the Grisson interrupter the primary circuit of the

induction coil is divided into two parts by a middle terminal, so that a

current flowing in at this point and dividing equally between the two

halves does not magnetize the iron. This terminal is connected to one

pole of the battery, the other two terminals being connected alternately

to the opposite pole by means of a revolving commutator which (1) passes

a current through one half of the primary, thus magnetizing the core;

(2) passes a current through both halves in opposite directions, thus

annulling the magnetization; (3) passes a current through the second

half of the primary, thus reversing the magnetization of the core; and

(4) passes a current in both halves through opposite directions, thus

again annulling the magnetization. As this series of operations can be

performed without interrupting a large current through the inductive

circuit there is not much spark at the commutator, and the speed of

commutation can be regulated so as to obtain the best results due to a

resonance between the primary and secondary circuits. Another device due

to Grisson is the electrolytic condenser interrupter. If a plate of

aluminium and one of carbon or iron is placed in an electrolyte yielding

oxygen, this aluminium-carbon or aluminium-iron cell can pass current in

one direction but not in the other. Much greater resistance is

experienced by a current flowing from the aluminium to the iron than in

the opposite direction, owing to the formation of a film of aluminic

hydroxide on the aluminium. If then a cell consisting of a number of

aluminium plates alternating with iron plates or carbon in alkaline

solution is inserted in the primary circuit of an induction coil, the

application of an electromotive force in the right direction will cause

a transitory current to flow through the coil until the electrolytic

condenser is charged. By the use of a proper commutator the position of

the electrolytic cell in the circuit can be reversed and another

transitory primary current created. This interrupted flow of electricity

through the primary circuit provides the intermittent magnetization of

the core necessary to produce the secondary electromotive force. This

operation of commutation can be conducted without much spark at the

commutator because the circuit is interrupted at the time when there is

no current in it. In the case of the electrolytic condenser no

supplementary paraffined paper condenser is necessary as in the case of

the hammer or mercury interrupters.

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Arrangements for producing High Frequency

Currents.

T, Transformer or induction coil.

Q, Q, Choking coils.

D, Spark balls.

C, Condenser.

L, Inductance.

P, Primary circuit of high frequency coil.

S, Secondary circuit.]

High Frequency Coils.

An induction coil for the transformation of alternating current is

called a transformer (q.v.). One type of high frequency current

transformer is called an _oscillation transformer_ or sometimes a _Tesla

coil_. The construction of such a coil is based on different principles

from that of the coil just described. If the secondary terminals of an

ordinary induction coil or transformer are connected to a pair of spark

balls (fig. 2), and if these are also connected to a glass plate

condenser or Leyden jar of ordinary type joined in series with a coil of

wire of low resistance and few turns, then at each break of the primary

circuit of the ordinary induction coil a secondary electromotive force

is set up which charges the Leyden jar, and if the spark balls are set

at the proper distance, this charge is succeeded by a discharge

consisting of a movement of electricity backwards and forwards across

the spark gap, constituting an oscillatory electric discharge (see

ELECTROKINETICS). Each charge of the jar may produce from a dozen to a

hundred electric oscillations which are in fact brief electric currents

of gradually decreasing strength. If the circuit of few turns and low

resistance through which this discharge takes place is overlaid with

another circuit well insulated from it consisting of a large number of

turns of finer wire, the inductive action between the two circuits

creates in the secondary a smaller series of electric oscillations of

higher potential. Between the terminals of this last-named coil we can

then produce a series of discharges each of which consists in an

extremely rapid motion of electricity to and fro, the groups of

oscillations being separated by intervals of time corresponding to the

frequency of the break in the primary circuit of the ordinary induction

coil charging the Leyden jar or condenser. These high frequency

discharges differ altogether in character from the secondary discharges

of the ordinary induction coil. Theory shows that to produce the best

results the primary circuit of the oscillation transformer should

consist of only one thick turn of wire or, at most, but of a few turns.

It is also necessary that the two circuits, primary and secondary,

should be well insulated from one another, and for this purpose the

oscillation transformer is immersed in a box or vessel full of highly

insulating oil. For full details N. Tesla's original Papers must be

consulted (see _Journ. Inst. Elect. Eng._ 21, 62).

In some cases the two circuits of the Tesla coil, the primary and

secondary, are sections of one single coil. In this form the arrangement

is called a _resonator_ or _auto transformer_, and is much used for

producing high frequency discharges for medical purposes. The

construction of a resonator is as follows: A bare copper wire is wound

upon an ebonite or wooden cylinder or frame, and one end of it is

connected to the outside of a Leyden jar or battery of Leyden jars, the

inner coating of which is connected to one spark ball of the ordinary

induction coil. The other spark ball is connected to a point on the

above-named copper wire not very far from the lower end. By adjusting

this contact, which is movable, the electric oscillations created in the

short section of the resonator coil produce by resonance oscillations in

the longer free section, and a powerful high frequency electric brush or

discharge is produced at the free end of the resonator spiral. An

electrode or wire connected with this free end therefore furnishes a

high frequency glow discharge which has been found to have valuable

therapeutic powers.

[Illustration: FIG. 3.

C1, Condenser in primary circuit.

C2, Condenser in secondary circuit.

L1, Inductance in primary circuit.

L2, Inductance in secondary circuit.]

Theory of Oscillation Transformers.

The general theory of an oscillation transformer containing capacity

and inductance in each circuit has been given by Oberbeck, Bjerknes

and Drude.[2] Suppose there are two circuits, each consisting of a

coil of wire, the two being superimposed or adjacent, and let each

circuit contain a condenser or Leyden jar in series with the circuit,

and let one of these circuits contain a spark gap, the other being

closed (fig. 3). If to the spark balls the secondary terminals of an

ordinary induction coil are connected, and these spark balls are

adjusted near one another, then when the ordinary coil is set in

operation, sparks pass between the balls and oscillatory discharges

take place in the circuit containing the spark gap. These oscillations

induce other oscillations in the second circuit. The two circuits have

a certain mutual inductance M, and each circuit has self inductance L1

and L2. If then the capacities in the two circuits are denoted by C1

and C2 the following simultaneous equations express the relation of

the currents, i1 and i2, and potentials, v1, and v2, in the primary

and secondary circuits respectively at any instant:--

di1 di2

L1 --- + M --- + R1 i1 + v1 = 0,

dt dt

di2 di1

L2 --- + M --- + R2 i2 + v2 = 0,

dt dt

R1 and R2 being the resistances of the two circuits. If for the moment

we neglect the resistances of the two circuits, and consider that the

oscillations in each circuit follow a simple harmonic law i = I sin pt

we can transform the above equations into a biquadratic

L1C1 + L2C2 1

p^4 + p² --------------- + --------------- = 0.

C1C2(L1L2 - M²) C1C2(L1L2 - M²)

The capacity and inductance in each circuit can be so adjusted that

their products are the same number, that is C1L1 = C2L2 = CL. The two

circuits are then said to be in resonance or to be tuned together. In

this particular and unique case the above biquadratic reduces to

1 1 ± k

p² = -- · ------,

CL 1 - k²

where k is written for M [root](L1L2) and is called the _coefficient

of coupling_. In this case of resonant circuits it can also be shown

that the maximum potential differences at the primary and secondary

condenser terminals are determined by the rule V1/V2 =

2[root]C2/[root]C1. Hence the transformation ratio is not determined

by the relative number of turns on the primary and secondary circuits,

as in the case of an ordinary alternating current transformer (see

TRANSFORMERS), but by the ratio of the capacity in the two oscillation

circuits. For full proofs of the above the reader is referred to the

original papers.

Each of the two circuits constituting the oscillation transformer

taken separately has a natural time period of oscillation; that is to

say, if the electric charge in it is disturbed, it oscillates to and

fro in a certain constant period like a pendulum and therefore with a

certain frequency. If the circuits have the same frequency when

separated they are said to be isochronous. If n stands for the natural

frequency of each circuit, where n = p/2[pi] the above equations show

that when the two circuits are coupled together, oscillations set up

in one circuit create oscillations of two frequencies in the secondary

circuit. A mechanical analogue to the above electrical effect can be

obtained as follows: Let a string be strung loosely between two fixed

points, and from it let two other strings of equal length hang down at

a certain distance apart, each of them having a weight at the bottom

and forming a simple pendulum. If one pendulum is set in oscillation

it will gradually impart this motion to the second, but in so doing it

will bring itself to rest; in like manner the second pendulum being

set in oscillation gives back its motion to the first. The graphic

representation, therefore, of the motion of each pendulum would be a

line as in fig. 4. Such a curve represents the effect in music known

as beats, and can easily be shown to be due to the combined effect of

two simple harmonic motions or simple periodic curves of different

frequency superimposed. Accordingly, the effect of inductively

coupling together two electrical circuits, each having capacity and

inductance, is that if oscillations are started in one circuit,

oscillations of two frequencies are found in the secondary circuit,

the frequencies differing from one another and differing from the

natural frequency of each circuit taken alone. This matter is of

importance in connexion with wireless telegraphy (see TELEGRAPH), as

in apparatus for conducting it, oscillation transformers as above

described, having two circuits in resonance with one another, are

employed.

[Illustration: FIG. 4.]

REFERENCES.--J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_ (2

vols., London, 1900), containing a full history of the induction coil;

id., _Electric Wave Telegraphy_ (London, 1906), dealing in chap. i.,

with the construction of the induction coil and various forms of

interrupter as well as with the theory of oscillation transformers; A.

T. Hare, _The Construction of Large Induction Coils_ (London, 1900);

J. Trowbridge, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1902), 3, p.

393; Lord Rayleigh, "On the Induction Coil," _Phil. Mag._ (1901), 2,

p. 581; J. E. Ives, "Contributions to the Study of the Induction

Coil," _Physical Review_ (1902), vols. 14 and 15. (J. A. F.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For a full history of the early development of the induction coil

see J. A. Fleming, _The Alternate Current Transformer_, vol. ii.,

chap. i.

[2] See A. Oberbeck, _Wied. Ann._ (1895), 55, p. 623; V. F. R.

Bjerknes, d. (1895), 55, p. 121, and (1891), 44, p. 74; and P. K. L.

Drude, _Ann. Phys._ (1904), 13, p. 512.

INDULGENCE (Lat. _indulgentia_, _indulgere_, to grant, concede), in

theology, a term defined by the official catechism of the Roman Catholic

Church in England as "the remission of the temporal punishment which

often remains due to sin after its guilt has been forgiven." This

remission may be either total (_plenary_) or partial, according to the

terms of the Indulgence. Such remission was popularly called a _pardon_

in the middle ages--a term which still survives, e.g. in Brittany.

The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the following

texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19 and xviii. 17,

18; 1 Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6-11; but the practice itself is

confessedly of later growth. As Bishop Fisher says in his Confutation of

Luther, "in the early church, faith in Purgatory and in Indulgences was

less necessary than now.... But in our days a great part of the people

would rather cast off Christianity than submit to the rigour of the

[ancient] canons: wherefore it is a most wholesome dispensation of the

Holy Ghost that, after so great a lapse of time, the belief in purgatory

and the practice of Indulgences have become generally received among the

orthodox" (_Confutatio_, cap. xviii.; cf. Cardinal Caietan, _Tract. XV.

de Indulg._ cap. i.). The nearest equivalent in the ancient Church was

the local and temporary African practice of restoring lapsed Christians

to communion at the intercession of confessors and prospective martyrs

in prison. But such reconciliations differed from later Indulgences in

at least one essential particular, since they brought no remission of

ecclesiastical penance save in very exceptional cases. However, as the

primitive practice of public penance for sins died out in the Church,

there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally equivalent, private

penances. Just as many of the punishments enjoined by the Roman criminal

code were gradually commuted by medieval legislators for pecuniary

fines, so the years or months of fasting enjoined by the earlier

ecclesiastical codes were commuted for proportionate fines, the

recitation of a certain number of psalms, and the like. "Historically

speaking, it is indisputable that the practice of Indulgences in the

medieval church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional

cases, of a certain proportion of this canonical penalty." At the same

time, according to Catholic teaching, such Indulgence was not a mere

permission to omit or postpone payment, but was in fact a _discharge_

from the debt of temporal punishment which the sinner owed. The

authority to grant such discharge was conceived to be included in the

power of binding and loosing committed by Christ to His Church; and when

in the course of time the vaguer theological conceptions of the first

ages of Christianity assumed scientific form and shape at the hands of

the Schoolmen, the doctrine came to prevail that this discharge of the

sinner's debt was made through an application to the offender of what

was called the "Treasure of the Church" (Thurston, p. 315). "What, then,

is meant by the 'Treasure of the Church'?... It consists primarily and

completely of the merit and satisfaction of Christ our Saviour. It

includes also the superfluous merit and satisfaction of the Blessed

Virgin and the Saints. What do we mean by the word 'superfluous'? In one

way, as I need not say, a saint has no superfluous merit. Whatever he

has, he wants it all for himself, because, the more he merits on earth

(by Christ's grace) the greater is his glory in heaven. But, speaking of

mere satisfaction for punishment due, there cannot be a doubt that some

of the Saints have done more than was needed in justice to expiate the

punishment due to their own sins.... It is this 'superfluous' expiation

that accumulates in the Treasure of the Church" (Bp. of Newport, p.

166). It must be noted that this theory of the "Treasure" was not

formulated until some time after Indulgences in the modern sense had

become established in practice. The doctrine first appeared with

Alexander of Hales (c. 1230) and was at once adopted by the leading

schoolmen. Clement VI. formally confirmed it in 1350, and Pius VI. still

more definitely in 1794.

The first definite instance of a _plenary_ Indulgence is that of Urban

II. for the First Crusade (1095). A little earlier had begun the

practice of _partial_ Indulgences, which are always expressed in terms

of days or years. However definite may have been the ideas originally

conveyed by these notes of time, their first meaning has long since been

lost. Eusebius Amort, in 1735, admits the gravest differences of

opinion; and the Bishop of Newport writes (p. 163) "to receive an

Indulgence of a year, for example, is to have remitted to one so much

temporal punishment as was represented by a year's canonical penance. If

you ask me to define the amount more accurately, I say that it cannot be

done. No one knows how severe or how long a Purgatory was, or is,

implied in a hundred days of canonical penance." The rapid extension of

these time-Indulgences is one of the most remarkable facts in the

history of the subject. Innocent II., dedicating the great church of

Cluny in 1132, granted as a great favour a forty days' Indulgence for

the anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any importance

had similar indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad even then to earn a

pardon of forty days by the laborious journey to the nearest cathedral,

and by making an offering there on one of a few privileged feast-days. A

century later again, Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand

years for a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation

of a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of 20,000

years for every such repetition (Glassberger in _Analecta Franciscana_,

ii. 368): "and at last Indulgences were so freely given that there is

now scarcely a devotion or good work of any kind for which they cannot

be obtained" (Arnold & Addis, _Catholic Dictionary_, s.v.). To quote

again from Father Thurston (p. 318): "In imitation of the prodigality of

her Divine Master, the Church has deliberately faced the risk of

depreciation to which her treasure was exposed.... The growing

effeminacy and corruption of mankind has found her censures unendurable

... and the Church, going out into the highways and the hedges, has

tried to entice men with the offer of generous Indulgence." But it must

be noted that, according to the orthodox doctrine, not only can an

Indulgence not remit future sins, but even for the past it cannot take

full effect unless the subject be truly contrite and have confessed (or

intend shortly to confess) his sins.

This salutary doctrine, however, has undoubtedly been obscured to some

extent by the phrase _a poena et a culpa_, which, from the 13th century

to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary Indulgences. The prima-facie

meaning of the phrase is that the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not

only from the temporal penalty (_poena_) but also from the guilt

(_culpa_) of all his sins: and the fact that a phrase so misleading

remained so long current shows the truth of Father Thurston's remark:

"The laity cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the

_a culpa et poena_ was the name for the biggest thing in the nature of

an Indulgence which it was possible to get" (_Dublin Review_, Jan.

1900). The phrase, however, was far from being confined to the

unlearned. Abbot Gilles li Muisis, for instance, records how, at the

Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in doubt about it,

and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did indeed take the occasion of

repeating (in the words of his Bull) that confession and contrition were

necessary preliminaries; but he neither repudiated the misleading words

nor vouchsafed any clear explanation of them. (_Chron. Aegidii li

Muisis_ ed. de Smet, p. 189.) His predecessor, Celestine V., had

actually used them in a Bull.

The phrase exercised the minds of learned canonists all through the

middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted modern theory

is that it is merely a catchword surviving from a longer phrase which

proclaimed how, during such Indulgences, ordinary confessors might

absolve from sins usually "reserved" to the Bishop or the Pope. Nobody,

however, has ventured exactly to reconstitute this hypothetical phrase;

nor is the theory easy to reconcile with (i.) the uncertainty of

canonists at the time when the locution was quite recent, (ii.) the fact

that Clement V. and Cardinal Cusanus speak of absolution _a poena et a

culpa_ as a separate thing from (a) plenary absolution and (b)

absolution from "reserved" sins (Clem. lib. v. tit. ix. c. 2, and Johann

Busch (d. c. 1480) _Chron. Windeshemense_, cap. xxxvi.). But, however it

originated, the phrase undoubtedly contributed to foster popular

misconceptions as to the intrinsic value of Indulgences, apart from

repentance and confession; though Dr Lea seems to press this point

unduly (p. 54 ff.), and should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p.

324 ff.).

These misconceptions were certainly widespread from the 13th to the 16th

century, and were often fostered by the "pardoners," or professional

collectors of contributions for Indulgences. This can best be shown by a

few quotations from eminent and orthodox churchmen during those

centuries. Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, "Fie, penny-preacher!

... thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere halfpenny or

penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and fondly dream to have atoned

for all their sins with the halfpenny or penny, and thus go to hell"

(ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393).[1] A century later, the author of _Piers

Plowman_ speaks of pardoners who "give pardon for pence poundmeal about"

(i.e. wholesale; B. ii. 222); and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX.,

complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners for ridiculously

small sums (_pro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula_, Raynaldus, _Ann.

Ecc._ 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the great Oxford Chancellor,

wrote: "Sinners say nowadays 'I care not how many or how great sins I

commit before God, for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission

of any guilt and penalty whatsoever (_cujusdam culpae et poenae_) by

absolution and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing and

grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis'"--or

sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain (_pro actu

meretricio_, _Lib._ Ver. p. 123, cf. 126). In 1523 the princes of

Germany protested to the Pope in language almost equally strong (Browne,

_Fasciculus_, i. 354). In 1562 the Council of Trent abolished the office

of "pardoner."

The greatest of all Plenary Indulgences is of course the Roman Jubilee.

This was instituted in 1300 by Boniface VIII., who pleaded a popular

tradition for its celebration every hundredth year, though no written

evidence could be found. Clement VI. shortened the period to 50 years

(1350): it was then further reduced to 33, and again in 1475 to 25

years.

See also the article on LUTHER. The latest and fullest authority on

this subject is Dr H. C. Lea, _Hist, of Auricular Confession and

Indulgences in the Latin Church_ (Philadelphia, 1896); his standpoint

is frankly non-Catholic, but he gives ample materials for judgment.

The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort, _De Origine, &c.,

indulgentiarum_ (1735). More popular and more easily accessible are

Father Thurston's _The Holy Year of Jubilee_ (1900), and an article by

the Bishop of Newport in the _Nineteenth Century_ for January 1901,

with a reply by Mr Herbert Paul in the next number. (G. G. Co.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Equally strong assertions were made by the provincial council of

Mainz in 1261; and Lea (p. 287) quotes the complaints of 36 similar

church councils before 1538.

INDULINES, a series of dyestuffs of blue, bluish-red or black shades,

formed by the interaction of para-amino azo compounds with primary

monamines in the presence of a small quantity of a mineral acid. They

were first discovered in 1863 (English patent 3307) by J. Dale and H.

Caro, and since then have been examined by many chemists (see O. N.

Witt, _Ber._, 1884, 17, p. 74; O. Fischer and E. Hepp, _Ann._, 1890,

256, pp. 233 et seq.; F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1891, 24, pp. 584, 2167 et

seq.). They are derivatives of the eurhodines (aminophenazines,

aminonaphthophenazines), and by means of their diazo derivatives can be

de-amidated, yielding in this way azonium salts; consequently they may

be considered as amidated azonium salts. The first reaction giving a

clue to their constitution was the isolation of the intermediate

_azophenin_ by O. Witt (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1883, 43, p. 115), which was

proved by Fischer and Hepp to be dianilidoquinone dianil, a similar

intermediate compound being found shortly afterwards in the naphthalene

series. _Azophenin_, C30H24N4, is prepared by warming quinone dianil

with aniline; by melting together quinone, aniline and aniline

hydrochloride; or by the action of aniline on para-nitrosophenol or

para-nitrosodiphenylamine. The indulines are prepared as mentioned above

from aminoazo compounds:

// N------\

NH2·C6H4N2·C6H5 + C5H5NH2 -> HN:C6H3 // \ C6H4,

\ N·C6H5 /

(aposafranine)

or by condensing oxy- and amido-quinones with phenylated ortho-diamines

(F. Kehrmann, _Ber._, 1895, 28, p. 1714):

HO\ // O H2N \

\ C6H2 // + \ C6H4 =

O// \ OH C6H5NH /

O \\ / N·C6H5 \

2H2O + \\ C6H2 / \ C6H4.

HO / \\ N------//

The indulines may be subdivided into the following groups:-- (1)

benzindulines, derivatives of phenazine; (2) isorosindulines; and (3)

rosindulines, both derived from naphthophenazine; and (4)

naphthindulines, derived from naphthazine.

// N------\ // N------\

NH:C6H3 // \ C6H4 NH:C6H3 // \ C10H6

\ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 /

I. Benzindulines. II. Isorosindulines.

// N------\ // N------\

NH:C10H5 // \ C6H4 NH:C10H5 // \ C10H6

\ N·C6H5 / \ N·C6H5 /

III. Rosindulines. IV. Naphthindulines.

The rosindulines and naphthindulines have a strongly basic character,

and their salts possess a marked red colour and fluorescence.

_Benzinduline_ (aposafranine), C18H13N3, is a strong base, but cannot

be diazotized, unless it be dissolved in concentrated mineral acids.

When warmed with aniline it yields anilido-aposafranine, which may

also be obtained by the direct oxidation of ortho-aminodiphenylamine.

_Isorosinduline_ is obtained from quinone dichlorimide and

phenyl-[beta]-naphthylamine; _rosinduline_ from

benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and aniline and _naphthinduline_

from benzene-azo-[alpha]-naphthylamine and naphthylamine.

INDULT (Lat. _indultum_, from _indulgere_, grant, concede, allow), a,

papal licence which authorizes the doing of something not sanctioned by

the common law of the church; thus by an indult the pope authorizes a

bishop to grant certain relaxations during the Lenten fast according to

the necessities of the situation, climate, &c., of his diocese.

INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a regiment among the

Kaffir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa. It is formed from the

inflexional prefix _in_ and _duna_, a lord or master. Indunas originally

obtained and retained their rank and authority by personal bravery and

skill in war, and often proved a menace to their nominal lord. Where,

under British influence, the purely military system of government among

the Kaffir tribes has broken down or been modified, indunas are now

administrators rather than warriors. They sit in a consultative

gathering known as an indaba, and discuss the civil and military affairs

of their tribe.

INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India.

In the Himalaya.

The Shyok affluent.

The Gilgit affluent.

A considerable accession of exact geographical knowledge has been gained

of the upper reaches of the river Indus and its tributaries during those

military and political movements which have been so constant on the

northern frontiers of India of recent years. The sources of the Indus

are to be traced to the glaciers of the great Kailas group of peaks in

32° 20´ N. and 81° E., which overlook the Mansarowar lake and the

sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east.

Three great affluents, flowing north-west, unite in about 80° E. to form

the main stream, all of them, so far as we know at present, derived from

the Kailas glaciers. Of these the northern tributary points the road

from Ladakh to the Jhalung goldfields, and the southern, or Gar, forms a

link in the great Janglam--the Tibetan trade route--which connects

Ladakh with Lhasa and Lhasa with China. Gartok (about 50 m. from the

source of this southern head of the Indus) is an important point on this

trade route, and is now made accessible to Indian traders by treaty with

Tibet and China. At Leh, the Ladakh capital, the river has already

pursued an almost even north-westerly course for 300 m., except for a

remarkable divergence to the south-west which carries it across, or

through, the Ladakh range to follow the same course on the southern side

that had been maintained on the north. This very remarkable instance of

transverse drainage across a main mountain axis occurs in 79° E., about

100 m. above Leh. For another 230 m., in a north-westerly direction, the

Indus pursues a comparatively gentle and placid course over its sandy

bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north and Zaskar (the main

"snowy range" of the Himalaya) to the south, amidst an array of mountain

scenery which, for the majesty of sheer altitude, is unmatched by any in

the world. Then the river takes up the waters of the Shyok from the

north (a tributary nearly as great as itself), having already captured

the Zasvar from the south, together with innumerable minor glacier-fed

streams. The Shyok is an important feature in Trans-Himalayan

hydrography. Rising near the southern foot of the well-known Karakoram

pass on the high road between Ladakh and Kashgar, it first drains the

southern slopes of the Karakoram range, and then breaks across the axis

of the Muztagh chain (of which the Karakoram is now recognized as a

subsidiary extension northwards) ere bending north-westwards to run a

parallel course to the Indus for 150 m. before its junction with that

river. The combined streams still hold on their north-westerly trend for

another 100 m., deep hidden under the shadow of a vast array of

snow-crowned summits, until they arrive within sight of the Rakapushi

peak which pierces the north-western sky midway between Gilgit and

Hunza. Here the great change of direction to the south-west occurs,

which is thereafter maintained till the Indus reaches the ocean. At this

point it receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having dropped

from 15,000 to 4000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) after about 500

m. of mountain descent through the independent provinces of northern

Kashmir. (See GILGIT.) A few miles below the junction it passes Bunji,

and from that point to a point beyond Chilas (50 m. below Bunji) it runs

within the sphere of British interests. Then once again it resumes its

"independent" course through the wild mountains of Kohistan and Hazara,

receiving tribute from both sides (the Buner contribution being the most

noteworthy) till it emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband,

in 34° 10´ N. All this part of the river has been mapped in more or less

detail of late years. The hidden strongholds of those Hindostani

fanatics who had found a refuge on its banks since Mutiny days have been

swept clean, and many ancient mysteries have been solved in the course

of its surveying.

Indus of the plains.

From its entrance into the plains of India to its disappearance in the

Indian Ocean, the Indus of to-day is the Indus of the 'fifties--modified

only in some interesting particulars. It has been bridged at several

important points. There are bridges even in its upper mountain courses.

There is a wooden pier bridge at Leh of two spans, and there are native

suspension bridges of cane or twig-made rope swaying uneasily across the

stream at many points intervening between Leh and Bunji; but the first

English-made iron suspension bridge is a little above Bunji, linking up

the highroad between Kashmir and Gilgit. Next occurs the iron girder

railway bridge at Attock, connecting Rawalpindi with Peshawar, at which

point the river narrows almost to a gorge, only 900 ft. above sea-level.

Twenty miles below Attock the river has carved out a central trough

which is believed to be 180 ft. deep. Forty miles below Attock another

great bridge has been constructed at Kushalgarh, which carries the

railway to Kohat and the Kurram valley. At Mari, beyond the series of

gorges which continue from Kushalgarh to the borders of the Kohat

district, on the Sind-Sagar line, a boat-bridge leads to Kalabagh (the

Salt city) and northwards to Kohat. Another boat-bridge opposite Dera

Ismail Khan connects that place with the railway; but there is nothing

new in these southern sections of the Indus valley railway system except

the extraordinary development of cultivation in their immediate

neighbourhood. The Lansdowne bridge at Sukkur, whose huge cantilevers

stand up as a monument of British enterprise visible over the flat

plains for many miles around, is one of the greatest triumphs of Indian

bridge-making. Kotri has recently been connected with Hyderabad in Sind,

and the Indus is now one of the best-bridged rivers in India. The

intermittent navigation which was maintained by the survivals of the

Indus flotilla as far north as Dera Ismail Khan long after the

establishment of the railway system has ceased to exist with the

dissolution of the fleet, and the high-sterned flat Indus boats once

again have the channels and sandbanks of the river all to themselves.

Lower Indus and delta.

Within the limits of Sind the vagaries of the Indus channels have

necessitated a fresh survey of the entire riverain. The results,

however, indicate not so much a marked departure in the general course

of the river as a great variation in the channel beds within what may be

termed its outside banks. Collaterally much new information has been

obtained about the ancient beds of the river, the sites of ancient

cities and the extraordinary developments of the Indus delta. The

changing channels of the main stream since those prehistoric days when a

branch of it found its way to the Runn of Cutch, through successive

stages of its gradual shift westwards--a process of displacement which

marked the disappearance of many populous places which were more or less

dependent on the river for their water supply--to the last and greatest

change of all, when the stream burst its way through the limestone

ridges of Sukkur and assumed a course which has been fairly constant for

150 years, have all been traced out with systematic care by modern

surveyors till the medieval history of the great river has been fully

gathered from the characters written on the delta surface. That such

changes of river bed and channel should have occurred within a

comparatively limited period of time is the less astonishing if we

remember that the Indus, like many of the greatest rivers of the world,

carries down sufficient detritus to raise its own bed above the general

level of the surrounding plains in an appreciable and measurable degree.

At the present time the bed of the Indus is stated to be 70 ft. above

the plains of the Sind frontier, some 50 m. to the west of it.

Statistics.

The total length of the Indus, measured directly, is about 1500 m.

With its many curves and windings it stretches to about 2000 m., the

area of its basin being computed at 372,000 sq. m. Even at its lowest

in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near the Gilgit junction) and

9 or 10 ft. deep. The temperature of the surface water during the cold

season in the plains is found to be 5° below that of the air (64° and

69° F.). At the beginning of the hot season, when the river is

bringing down snow water, the difference is 14° (87° and 101° June).

At greater depths the difference is still greater. At Attock, where

the river narrows between rocky banks, a height of 50 ft. in the flood

season above lowest level is common, with a velocity of 13 m. per

hour. The record rise (since British occupation of the Punjab) is 80

ft. At its junction with the Panjnad (the combined rivers of the

Punjab east of the Indus) the Panjnad is twice the width of the Indus,

but its mean depth is less, and its velocity little more than

one-third. This discharge of the Panjnad at low season is 69,000 cubic

ft. per second, that of the Indus 92,000. Below the junction the

united discharge in flood season is 380,000 cubic ft., rising to

460,000 (the record in August). The Indus after receiving the other

rivers carries down into Sind, in the high flood season, turbid water

containing silt to the amount of 1/229 part by weight, or 1/410 by

volume--equal to 6480 millions of cubic ft. in the three months of

flood. This is rather less than the Ganges carries. The silt is very

fine sand and clay. Unusual floods, owing to landslips or other

exceptional causes, are not infrequent. The most disastrous flood of

this nature occurred in 1858. It was then that the river rose 80 ft.

at Attock. The most striking result of the rise was the reversal of

the current of the Kabul river, which flowed backwards at the rate of

10 m. per hour, flooding Nowshera and causing immense damage to

property. The prosperity of the province of Sind depends almost

entirely on the waters of the Indus, as its various systems of canals

command over nine million acres out of a cultivable area of twelve and

a half million acres.

See Maclagan, _Proceedings R.G.S._, vol. iii.; Haig, _The Indus Delta

Country_ (London, 1894); Godwin-Austen, _Proceedings R.G.S._ vol. vi.

(T. H. H.*)

INDUSTRIA (mod. Monteù da Po), an ancient town of Liguria, 20 m. N.E. of

Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was Bodincomagus, from the

Ligurian name of the Padus (mod. Po), Bodincus, i.e. bottomless (Plin.

_Hist. Nat._ iii. 122), and this still appears on inscriptions of the

early imperial period. It stood on the right bank of the river, which

has now changed its course over 1 m. to the north. It was a flourishing

town, with municipal rights, as excavations (which have brought to light

the forum, theatre, baths, &c.) have shown, but appears to have been

deserted in the 4th century A.D.

See A. Fabietti in _Atti della Società di Archeologia di Torino_, iii,

17 seq.; Th. Mommsen in _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._ v. (Berlin, 1877), p.

845; E. Ferrero in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1903), p. 43.

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, in England a school, generally established by

voluntary contributions, for the industrial training of children, in

which children are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught.

Industrial schools are chiefly for vagrant and neglected children and

children not convicted of theft. Such schools are for children up to the

age of fourteen, and the limit of detention is sixteen. They are

regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Industrial

Schools Act 1866, as amended by Acts of 1872, 1891 and 1901, and

parallel legislation in the various Elementary Education Acts, besides

some few local acts. The home secretary exercises powers of supervision,

&c. See JUVENILE OFFENDERS.

INDUSTRY (Lat. _industria_, from _indu_-, a form of the preposition

_in_, and either _stare_, to stand, or _struere_, to pile up), the

quality of steady application to work, diligence; hence employment in

some particular form of productive work, especially of manufacture; or a

particular class of productive work itself, a trade or manufacture. See

LABOUR LEGISLATION, &c.

INE, king of the West Saxons, succeeded Ceadwalla in 688, his title to

the crown being derived from Ceawlin. In the earlier part of his reign

he was at war with Kent, but peace was made in 694, when the men of Kent

gave compensation for the death of Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, whom they

had burned in 687. In 710 Ine was fighting in alliance with his kinsman

Nun, probably king of Sussex, against Gerent of West Wales and,

according to Florence of Worcester, he was victorious. In 715 he fought

a battle with Ceolred, king of Mercia, at Woodborough in Wiltshire, but

the result is not recorded. Shortly after this time a quarrel seems to

have arisen in the royal family. In 721 Ine slew Cynewulf, and in 722

his queen Aethelburg destroyed Taunton, which her husband had built

earlier in his reign. In 722 the South Saxons, previously subject to

Ine, rose against him under the exile Aldbryht, who may have been a

member of the West Saxon royal house. In 725 Ine fought with the South

Saxons and slew Aldbryht. In 726 he resigned the crown and went to Rome,

being succeeded by Aethelheard in Wessex. Ine is said to have built the

minster at Glastonbury. The date of his death is not recorded. He issued

a written code of laws for Wessex, which is still preserved.

See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (Plummer), iv. 15, v. 7; _Saxon Chronicle_

(Earle and Plummer), s.a. 688e, 694, 710, 715, 721, 722, 725, 728;

Thorpe, _Ancient Laws_, i. 2-25; Sehmid, _Gesetze der Angelsachsen_

(Leipzig, 1858); Liebermann, _Gesetzeder Angelsachsen_ (Halle,

1898-99).

INEBOLI, a town on the north coast of Asia Minor, 70 m. W. of Sinub

(Sinope). It is the first place of importance touched at by mercantile

vessels plying eastwards from Constantinople, being the port for the

districts of Changra and Kastamuni, and connected with the latter town

by a carriage road (see KASTAMUNI). The roadstead is exposed, having no

protection for shipping except a jetty 300 ft. long, so that in rough

weather landing is impracticable. The exports (chiefly wool and mohair)

are about £248,000 annually and the imports £200,000. The population is

about 9000 (Moslems 7000, Christians 2000). Ineboli represents the

ancient _Abonou-teichos_, famous as the birthplace of the false prophet

Alexander, who established there (2nd century A.D.) an oracle of the

snake-God Glycon-Asclepius. This impostor, immortalized by Lucian,

obtained leave from the emperor Marcus Aurelius to change the name of

the town to _Ionopolis_, whence the modern name is derived (see

ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN).

INEBRIETY, LAW OF. The legal relations to which inebriety (Lat. _in_,

intensive, and _ebrietas_, drunkenness) gives rise are partly civil and

partly criminal.

I. _Civil Capacity._--The law of England as to the civil capacity of the

drunkard is practically identified with, and has passed through

substantially the same stages of development as the law in regard to the

civil capacity of a person suffering from mental disease (see INSANITY).

Unless (see III. _inf._) a modification is effected in his condition by

the fact that he has been brought under some form of legal control, a

man may, in spite of intoxication, enter into a valid marriage or make a

valid will, or bind himself by a contract, if he is sober enough to know

what he is doing, and no improper advantage of his condition is taken

(cf. _Matthews_ v. _Baxter_, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 132; _Imperial Loan Co._

v. _Stone_, 1892, 1 Q.B. 599). The law is the same in Scotland and in

Ireland; and the Sale of Goods Act 1893 (which applies to the whole

United Kingdom) provides that where necessaries are sold and delivered

to a person who by reason of drunkenness is incompetent to contract, he

must pay a reasonable price for them; "necessaries" for the purposes of

this provision mean goods suitable to the condition in life of such

person and to his actual requirements at the time of the sale and

delivery.

Under the Roman law, and under the Roman Dutch law as applied in South

Africa, drunkenness, like insanity, appears to vitiate absolutely a

contract made by a person under its influence (_Molyneux_ v. _Natal Land

and Colonization Co._, 1905, A.C. 555).

In the United States, as in England, intoxication does not vitiate

contractual capacity unless it is of such a degree as to prevent the

person labouring under it from understanding the nature of the

transaction into which he is entering (Bouvier, _Law Dict._, s.v.

"Drunkenness"; and cf. _Waldron_ v. _Angleman_, 1004, 58 Atl. 568;

_Fowler_ v. _Meadow Brook Water Co._, 1904, 57 Atl. 959; 208 Penn.,

473). The same rule is by implication adopted in the Indian Contract Act

(Act ix. of 1872), which provides (s. 12) that "a person is ... of sound

mind for the purpose of making a contract if, at the time when he makes

it, he is capable of understanding it and of forming a rational judgment

as to its effect upon his interests." In some legal systems, however,

habitual drunkenness is a ground for divorce or judicial separation

(Sweden, Law of the 27th of April 1810; France, Code Civil, Art. 231,

_Hirt_ v. _Hirt_, Dalloz, 1898, pt. ii., p. 4, and n. 4).

II. _Criminal Responsibility._--In English law, drunkenness, unlike

insanity, was at one time regarded as in no way an excuse for crime.

According to Coke (Co. Litt., 247) a drunkard, although he suffers from

acquired insanity, _dementia affectata_, is _voluntarius daemon_, and

therefore has no privilege in consequence of his state; "but what hurt

or ill soever he doth, his drunkenness doth aggravate it." Sir Matthew

Hale (P.C. 32) took a more moderate view, viz. that a person under the

influence of this voluntarily contracted madness "shall have the same

judgment as if he were in his right senses"; and admitted the existence

of two "allays" or qualifying circumstances: (1) _temporary_ frenzy

induced by the unskilfulness of physicians or by drugging; and (2)

_habitual_ or fixed frenzy. Those early authorities have, however,

undergone considerable development and modification.

Although the general principle that drunkenness is not an excuse for

crime is still steadily maintained (see Russell, _Crimes_, 6th ed., i.

144; Archbold, _Cr. Pl._, 23rd ed., p. 29), it is settled law that where

a particular intent is one of the constituent elements of an offence,

the fact that a prisoner was intoxicated at the time of its commission

is relevant evidence to show that he had not the capacity to form that

intent. Drunkenness is also a circumstance of which a jury may take

account in considering whether an act was premeditated, or whether a

prisoner acted in self-defence or under provocation, when the question

is whether the danger apprehended or the provocation was sufficient to

justify his conduct or to alter its legal character. Moreover, _delirium

tremens_, if it produce such a degree of madness as to render a person

incapable of distinguishing right from wrong, relieves him from criminal

responsibility for any act committed by him while under its influence;

and in one case at _nisi prius_ (_R._ v. _Baines_, _The Times_, 25th

Jan. 1886) this doctrine was extended by Mr Justice Day to temporary

derangement occasioned by drink. The law of Scotland accepts, if it does

not go somewhat beyond, the later developments of that of England in

regard to criminal responsibility in drunkenness. Indian law on the

point is similar to the English (Indian Penal Code, Act. xlv. of 1860,

ss. 85, 86; Mayne, _Crim. Law of India_, ed. 1896, p. 391). In the

United States the same view is the prevalent legal doctrine (see Bishop,

_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i, ss. 397-416). The Criminal Code of Queensland

(No. 9 of 1899, Art. 28) provides that a person who becomes intoxicated

intentionally is responsible for any crime that he commits while so

intoxicated, whether his voluntary intoxication was induced so as to

afford an excuse for the commission of an offence or not. As in England,

however, when an intention to cause a specific result is an element of

an offence, intoxication, whether complete or partial, and whether

intentional or unintentional, may be regarded for the purpose of

ascertaining whether such intention existed or not. There is a similar

provision in the Penal Code of Ceylon (No. 2 of 1883, Art. 79). The

Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, c. 29, ss. 7 et seq.) and New Zealand

(No. 56 of 1893, ss. 21 et seq.) are silent on the subject of

intoxication as an excuse for crime. The Criminal Code of Grenada (No. 2

of 1897, Art. 51) provides that "a person shall not, on the ground of

intoxication, be deemed to have done any act involuntarily, or be exempt

from any liability to punishment for any act: and a person who does an

act while in a state of intoxication shall be deemed to have intended

the natural and probable consequences of his act." There is a similar

provision in the Criminal Code of the Gold Coast Colony (No. 12 of 1892,

s. 54). Under the French Penal Code (Art. 64), "_il n'y a ni crime, ni

délit, lorsque le prévenu était en état de démence au temps de l'action

ou lorsqu'il aura été contraint par une force à laquelle il n' a pu

résister_." According to the balance of authority (Dalloz, _Rép._ tit.,

Peine, ss. 402 et seq.) intoxication is not assimilated to insanity,

within the meaning of this article, but it may be and is taken account

of by juries as an extenuating circumstance (Ortolan, _Droit Pénal_ i.

s. 323: Chauveau et Hélie i. s. 360). A provision in the German Penal

Code (Art. 51) that an act is not punishable if its author, at the time

of committing it, was in a condition of unconsciousness, or morbid

disturbance of the activity of his mind which prevented the free

exercise of his will, has been held not to extend to intoxication

(Clunet, 1883, p. 311). But in Germany as in France, intoxication may

apparently be an extenuating circumstance. Under the Italian Penal Code

(Arts. 46-49) intoxication--unless voluntarily induced so as to afford

an excuse for crime--may exclude or modify responsibility.

So far only the question whether drunkenness is an excuse for offences

committed under its influence has been dealt with. There remains the

question how far drunkenness itself is a crime. Mere private

intoxication is not, either in England or in the United States (Bishop,

_Crim. Law_, 8th ed., i. s. 399) indictable as an offence at common law;

but in all civilized countries public drunkenness is punishable when it

amounts to a breach of the peace (see LIQUOR LAWS) or contravention of

public order; and modern legislation in many countries provides for

deprivation of personal liberty for long periods in case of a frequent

repetition of the offence. Reference may be made in this connexion to

the Inebriates Acts 1898, 1899 and 1900 (see iii. _inf._), and also to

similar legislation in the British colonies and in foreign legal systems

(e.g. Cape of Good Hope, No. 32 of 1896; Ceylon, Licensing Ordinance

1891, ss. 23, 24, 29; New South Wales, Vagrants Punishment Act 1866;

Massachusetts, Acts of 1891, c. 427, 1893, cc. 414, 44; France, Law of

23rd of Jan. 1873, Art. 6).

III. _State Action in Regard to Inebriety._--This assumes a variety of

forms. (a) Measures regulating the punishment of occasional or habitual

drunkenness by fines or short terms of imprisonment. (b) Control in

_penal_ establishments for lengthened periods. (c) Laws prohibiting the

sale of liquor to persons who are known inebriates: e.g. in England

(Licensing Act 1902); Ontario (Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 245, ss. 124, 125);

New South Wales (Liquor Act 1898, ss. 52, 53); Cape of Good Hope (No. 28

of 1883, s. 89); New York (Rev. Stats. 1889-1892, c. 20, Title iv.);

California (Act to prevent sale of liquor to drunkards, 1889);

Massachusetts (Pub. Stats., ed. 1902, c. 100, s. 9). (d) Laws regulating

the appointment of some person or persons to act as guardian or

guardians, or who may be endowed with legal powers over the person and

estate of an inebriate. Thus in France (Code Civil, Arts. 489 et seq.),

Germany (Civil Code, Art. 6 (39)) and Austria-Hungary (_Bürgerliches

Gesetz-Buch_, ss. 21, 269, 270, 273), an inebriate may be judicially

interdicted if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his

family to future destitution. Provision is also made for the

interdiction of inebriates by the laws of Nova Scotia (Rev. Stats. 1900,

c. 126, s. 2), Manitoba (Rev. Stat. 1902, c. 103, ss. 30 et seq.),

British Columbia (Rev. Stat. 1897, c. 66), New South Wales (Inebriates

Act 1900, s. 5), Tasmania (Inebriates Act 1885, No. 17, s. 23); Canton

of Bâle (Trustee Law of the 23rd of Feb. 1880, s. 11), Orange River

Colony (Code Laws, c. 108, s. 30), Maryland (Code General Laws, c. 474,

s. 47). (e) Control for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this

character provides reformatory treatment: (1) for the inebriate who

makes a voluntary application for admission; (2) by compulsory seclusion

for the inebriate who refuses consent to treatment and yet manages to

keep out of the reach of the law; (3) for the inebriate who is a

police-court recidivist, or who has committed crime, caused or

contributed to by drink. The legislation of the Cape of Good Hope

(Inebriates Act 1896) and of North Dakota (Habitual Drunkards Act 1895)

provides for the first of these methods of treatment alone. Compulsory

detention for ordinary inebriates only is provided for by the laws of

Delaware (Act of 1898), Massachusetts (Rev. Laws, c. 87), and of the

Cantons of Berne (Law of the 24th of Nov. 1883) and Bâle (Law of the

21st of Feb. 1901). All three methods of treatment are in force in New

South Wales (Inebriates Act 1900), Queensland (Inebriates Institutions

Act 1896) and South Australia (Inebriates Act 1881). Provision is made

only for voluntary application and compulsory detention of ordinary

inebriates in Victoria (Inebriates Act 1890), Tasmania (Inebriates Act

1885; Inebriates Hospitals Act 1892) and New Zealand (Inebriates

Institutions Act 1898). The legislation of the United Kingdom

(Inebriates Acts 1879-1900) deals both with voluntary application and

with the committal of criminal inebriates or of police-court

recidivists. A brief sketch of the English system must suffice.

The Inebriates Acts of 1870-1900 deal in the first place with

non-criminal, and in the second place with criminal, habitual drunkards.

For the purposes of the acts the term "habitual drunkard" means "a

person who, not being amenable to any jurisdiction in lunacy, is

notwithstanding, by reason of habitual intemperate drinking of

intoxicating liquor, at times dangerous to himself or herself, or

incapable of managing himself or herself and his or her affairs." A

person would become amenable to the lunacy jurisdiction not only where

habitual drunkenness made him a "lunatic" in the legal sense of the

term, but where it created, such a state of disease and consequential

"mental infirmity" as to bring his case within section 116 of the Lunacy