NORWAY.

I saw no flies in Lapland, but in Norway the houses are full of them. I

was however no longer infested with swarms of gnats.

At the place where I stopped to rest after my fatiguing journey, they

gave me Sword-fish (_Xiphias Gladius_) to eat, which very much resembled

Salmon in flavour. It was of a large size, with a dorsal fin continued

from the middle of the back to the tail.

_July 12._

The next day it blew so very hard that I did not venture to leave this

place by sea. I took a walk in the morning on the beach, it being low

water, and noticed various marine productions. Several species of

_Fucus_ were attached either to stones or shells, as well as _Ulvae_ and

_Confervae_. Barnacles (_Lepas Balanus_ and _L. Balanoides_) were seen

sticking to large stones, at present left by the tide. I noticed also

several univalve and bivalve shells of various sizes. The _Strombus_

(_Pes pelecani_) with and without its dilated lip; also some small

Crabs, and other things. I gathered a viviparous avenaceous grass (what

this was cannot be ascertained). Here likewise I noticed several

Zoophytes, and among them the three following _Medusae_.

1. _Medusa_ (_capillata_) of an octagonal shape, with notched angles.

The annexed figure shows its under side. The whole is transparent like

glass. There are eight pair of rays, within which the disk, and other

rays at the base of the former, are all covered with minute scaly

prickles, ranged in concentric circular rows. The outer feelers, which

look like the stamens of a flower, are sometimes snow-white, sometimes

of a reddish flesh-colour, and crisped. Within these is a central

cluster of longer feelers, resembling pistils.

[Illustration]

2. _Medusa_ (_aurita_) orbicular, with four little hearts in the middle.

This is also entirely pellucid like glass, except that the little

heart-shaped marks are red, each with a transparent cavity in its

centre. There are four crisped auricles, or feelers, between them.

[Illustration]

3. _Medusa_ (_cruciata_) orbicular, marked with a white cross. Entirely

of a glassy transparency, but marked with a white cross which completely

divides it into four parts. There are no feelers, nor could I discern

any vestige of a mouth. Can this be in the state of an egg?

[Illustration]

One object of the Laplanders who accompanied me hither, to Torfjorden,

was the purchase of brandy. They drank it in the first place as long as

they could stand on their legs, and having brought with them a number of

dried reindeer bladders, these were subsequently all filled with brandy,

tied up, and carried away by them. Their general custom is to use small

cups, about one third the size of a spoon, by means of which each

Laplander in his turn will often contrive to swallow a whole quartern of

brandy.

When the Laplanders mean to appear in full dress, they attire themselves

in white _walmal_ cloth, (see _p. 137_,) without any lining, and their

jacket is ornamented with a high blue collar with a brown edge, the

whole collar being stitched over and over with thread. The cloth for

this part costs a dollar, copper money, extraordinary for every ell, on

account of the brown edge. Eight ells make a jacket, so that the whole

comes to as much as a small garment of reindeer skin.

They complained to me about the sale of their manufactures, which they

are now obliged to dispose of at too low a rate. They would willingly

allow twenty per cent. profit to the merchants of Stockholm, giving them

a preference that they might be enabled to pay the duties, nor would

they then listen to applications from any other quarter.

The Lapland women are accustomed to sew all the clothes and shoes, and

to cook all such articles of food as are made of milk; but the men dress

the meat, fish, and fowl. If the housewife happens not to be at hand,

the preparation of the milk dishes falls upon the husband, but not

otherwise. The Laplanders in this part of Norway, who have become

cultivators of the ground, use scythes whose upper end rests on a

projecting piece of wood set on the ground, as on a pivot, another piece

opposite to it serving for a handle.

This was a very hot day, with a few drops of rain in the afternoon.

[Illustration]

The weather being now calm, we ventured to go out to sea in a boat, in

order to search for the natural productions of that element. We soon

caught, with a hook and line, plenty of Sey-fish (_Gadus virens_). These

were about ten inches long, very smooth, fat and tender, covered with

extremely minute scales. The back was of a darkish green, the belly

white. The mouth toothed, like that of a perch. Some of these fish had

sticking to them several _Remorae_, or rather _Pediculi marini_ of

Frisch, of which I preserved specimens. (_Lernaea Assellina?_) The fish

themselves were so numerous and so voracious, that we had no sooner

thrown out the hook, letting it float after the boat, than they

swallowed it so quick that we could hardly take them out fast enough.

The next day however, the sky being very clear, we had no such success.

The hook we used was of steel, without any kind of bait, and yet we

caught above sixty fish in all.

Torfiolme, where I now was, is entirely encompassed by lofty mountains

covered with snow. Between their summits dark grey clouds were stationed

here and there, so that the base of each mountain, as well as the summit

itself, was clear. These clouds, or vapours, at length gradually

subsided.

Close to the borders of the bay or creek, are many little sequestered

villages scattered among the hills. Each has but a small valley

adjoining, and consequently not above a cornfield or two within its

district, with a very small portion of pasture-ground attached to each

house, though possibly there might be more further off, which I could

not perceive. The inhabitants therefore would scarcely be able to

subsist, were it not for the vast plenty of fish within their reach,

which serves them for food and for sale. The sea here not only abounds

with a great variety of species, but the individuals of each are also

uncommonly numerous. The people were continually talking to me about the

whale fishery.

I had here an opportunity of seeing how salmon are caught. Some piles

are placed in the mouth of a little creek or cove, adjoining to a small

fence or row of pales. Close to this a perpendicular net is placed in

the water, in a curved position, one end being fastened to the shore,

the other to two cords, while the middle is floated out, by means of a

buoy in the mouth of the creek, towards the sea. When the fish swim up

the creek to a certain distance, they are entrapped in this net, the

cords being pulled by two people stationed in a hut adjoining, built for

the purpose of watching the net.

The plant here called _Missne_, and used for food by the people, is the

Water Dragons (_Calla palustris_); while that given to cattle is the

_Menyanthes_ (_trifoliata_). Horses are fed with the finest tops of the

twigs of spruce fir, chopped extremely small, and mixed with an equal

quantity of barley. Such feed is used only in times of great scarcity,

but it is very excellent provender.

The church of this place is but small.

The herbs I collected hereabouts were _Mesomora_ (_Cornus suecica_) with

a proliferous blossom. _Spergula marina_ with spatulate petals, ten

stamens, and three very short pistils. (_Arenaria peploides_). _Apium

palustre_ (_Ligusticum scoticum_). _Trifolium_ with a monopetalous

flower, of a white colour, (_T. pratense_). _Muscipula montana minima_

(perhaps _Gypsophila muralis_, see _Fl. Lapp. n. 171_). _Gramen

triticeum maritimum, flore glauco_, (_Elymus arenarius?_ see _Fl. Lapp.

ed. 2. n. 34_). _Glaux_ (_maritima_). A _Fucus_ in long strips,

resembling flax; with many other species of that genus. _Filum marinum,

in aqu[^a] villosum._ _Coronopus_ with dotted leaves (a variety of

_Plantago maritima_). There were numerous _Echini_ (Sea Urchins), as

well as _Patellae_ (Limpets), and _Balani_ (Barnacles); all so abundant

on the shore that we could scarcely walk without treading upon them. I

noticed likewise some kinds of Star-fish (_Asterias_), with many

Corallines, and petrified Corals. (See Linnaeus's dissertation, entitled

_Corallia Baltica, Am[oe]n. Acad. v. 1. 74_.)

In the evening we arrived at the parsonage house of Rorstad, the

residence of Mr. John Rask, _Pastor Secundarius_, and chaplain to the

king. He has been in the West Indies, as well as Africa, and has

published an account of his voyage, in which various fishes and plants

are described in a very interesting style. He gave me a friendly

reception. He has a handsome daughter named Sarah Rask, eighteen years

of age. She seemed to me uncommonly beautiful. I must not omit to write

to him hereafter; for, according to his account, he never expected to

see an honest Swede. I wish Mr. Ingerald[63] may come and visit our

neighbourhood, that I may have an opportunity of testifying my gratitude

for his kindness, which otherwise I can never repay.

[63] Who Mr. Ingerald was, does not appear. Perhaps the master of

the boat, or somebody whom Linnaeus met at the house of the good

curate.

_July 14._

In the morning I took leave of Mr. Rask, and returned with the master of

the boat to Torfjorden. I had now before me the whole of this western

Archipelago, and was told that, if we were to steer our course directly

westward, we should arrive at Greenland. The conversation on our passage

turned much upon a certain West Gothlander, who had been guilty of some

treacherous conduct, and told various falsehoods. (To this the above

conversation of Mr. Rask probably alluded).

Tun-bread, as it is called in Westbothnia, is made of barley and chaff

in the following manner. After threshing, they sift the corn through a

large cribble, which retains not only the grain and chaff, but not

unfrequently a small quantity of straw. This is dried and ground. The

rich grind the corn alone; others one third part barley, with two of

chaff; others again one of chaff to two of barley. The meal thus

procured is moistened with cold water into a paste or dough, without

being allowed to go into a state of fermentation, and without any yeast.

Cold water is preferred to warm, the latter rendering the dough too

brittle. The dough, being of a soft consistence, is then well kneaded on

a table. A handful of it is sufficient to make one cake, though no

person would suppose that so small a quantity could make so large a cake

as afterwards appears. This lump of dough is spread out flat on a table,

not with a rolling-pin, but with the hands and a flat trowel or shovel.

A considerable quantity of flour is sprinkled over the surface, and the

whole mass is extended till it becomes as thin as a skin of parchment.

It is then turned by means of a very large shovel, after being

previously pricked all over with an instrument made on purpose, and

composed of a large handful of the wing feathers of ptarmigans,

partridges, or some such birds. The other side, when turned uppermost,

is subsequently pricked in the same manner. The cake is then put into

the oven, only one being ever baked at a time. The attendance of a

person is necessary, to watch the cake, and move or lift it up

occasionally, that it may not burn. Much time indeed is not required for

the baking. When sufficiently done, the cake is hung over a bed-post, or

some kind of rail, and the two sides hang down parallel to each other.

Other cakes when baked are hung near to, or over, the first. When the

whole are finished, they are laid by, one upon another, in a large heap,

till wanted.

Some people make bread of the bark of fir-trees. For this purpose they

choose the bark of such trees as are of a large size, with but few

branches, because the branches, as well as the younger trees, are more

resinous, and therefore more strongly flavoured. The bark taken from the

lower part of the tree is esteemed the best. The hard external coats

require to be carefully removed. Stores of this bark are often laid by

for winter use. Previously to its being ground into four, it is laid

over a slow fire in order to be warmed thorough, and rendered more

friable, for it becomes by this means much thickened and very porous. It

is next ground and baked, in the same manner as the barley above

mentioned. The dough made of fir bark is more compact than barley dough,

and almost as much so as that made of rye; but the bread has a bitterish

taste.

_Missen bread_ is made of the Water Dragons (_Calla palustris_). The

roots of this plant are taken up in spring, before the leaves come

forth, and, after being extremely well washed, are dried either in the

sun or in the house. The fibrous parts are then taken away, and the

remainder dried in an oven. Afterwards it is bruised in a hollow vessel

or tub, made of fir wood, about three feet deep; as is also practised

occasionally with the fir bark. The dried roots are chopped in this

vessel, with a kind of spade, like cabbage for making sour kale (sour

crout), till they become as small as peas or oatmeal, when they acquire

a pleasant sweetish smell; after which they are ground. The meal is

boiled slowly in water, being continually kept stirring, till it grows

as thick as flummery. In this state it is left standing in the pot for

three or four days and nights. Some persons let it remain but

twenty-four hours; but the longer the better, for if used immediately it

is bitter and acrid; both which qualities go off by keeping. It is mixed

for use, either with the meal made of fir bark, or with some other kind

of flour, not being usually to be had in sufficient quantity by itself;

for the plant is, in many places, very scarce, though here in such

abundance that cart loads of it are collected at a time. This kind of

flummery, being mixed with flour, as I have just mentioned, is baked

into bread, which proves as tough as rye-bread, but is perfectly sweet

and white. It is really, when new, extremely well-flavoured. _Cattle

Misne_ (_Menyanthes trifoliata_) is very seldom used for making bread,

being too bitter; but the roots are given to domestic cattle, who devour

them fresh. This plant grows plentifully in all the rivers of this

country, as well as in the neighbouring marshes.

_Nordskbr[:o]d_, Norway bread, is made either entirely of rye flour, or of

barley with a third part rye. The dough is prepared with cold water, and

kneaded a long while, till it does not stick to the hands. Afterwards it

is flattened with a rolling-pin of a round shape, but furrowed

longitudinally, which is turned by the hands as fast as possible. The

edges of the dough, thus spread out, are repeatedly turned in, and the

whole, laid carefully on a table, makes a very even cake, as thin as

paper, though smoothed with such a rolling-pin. It is baked on an iron

made on purpose, being moved about and turned during the process, and

subsequently smoothed and polished with a bunch of the heads of rye

straw dipped in water.

In times of great scarcity, when nothing better is to be had than seeds

of Spurrey, (_Spergula arvensis_,) from the fields, these seeds, after

being dried, are ground and baked, along with a small proportion of

corn. The bread thus made proves blackish, but not bad.

A kind of cheese is made of sour milk in this part of Norway, for which

the following is the receipt.

Take any quantity of sour milk, and boil it till a thick sediment

subsides. Then strain it through a linen cloth, so as to get rid of the

thin watery part, when the remainder will be of the consistence of

flummery. This last must be put into a covered vessel, and allowed to

stand by eight days; after which it must be mixed with cream, and

stirred about in a plate, or some other convenient vessel; when it

should be moulded into an obtuse conical shape, and set by in a cool

place, covered up from the air. Should it happen to break, or fall in

pieces, it must be stirred up and moulded over again. Leave it till it

becomes sufficiently dry, which very often requires a month or two, when

a rugged and cellular crust will be formed on the surface, which must be

taken off before the cheese is eaten.

As I was rambling about among the hills and gathering strawberries, I

perceived a Laplander carrying a fowling-piece, who seemed in pursuit of

birds. Indeed I had scarcely noticed him till I heard the report of his

gun, when I turned about and observed him to be very near me, though

lower down on the hill. The ball struck against a large stone at a very

small distance from the spot where I stood. God be praised that it did

not hit me! The fellow ran away, and I never saw him after, but I

immediately returned home.

_July 15._

In this part of Norway the fields are not enclosed, wood for stakes or

pales being very scarce. There is no distinction between the meadow or

pasture grounds and the forests, except that the latter are rather more

bushy and besprinkled with a few trees, while the former are quite bare.

The meadows, and even the roads, are mown, as well as fed, and yet both

abound with tall grass. A woman always attends the cattle, which are not

driven home at night, nor when milked, but enclosed within a moveable

paling or pen. This is continually removed from one spot to another, in

order to manure the ground. Horses are permitted to range at large. Hogs

are yoked. The cows are milked thrice a day, morning, noon and evening.

Flocks of sheep and goats are allowed to follow the cows.

Some persons hereabouts use stoves made of _lapis ollaris_, (_Talcum

Ollaris_,) as well as boiling-pots of the same material. The stoves are

without chimneys, like a small flue with an oven. The fire is always

kindled in the oven, when the intention is to make the room warm, and

the people make use of burning coals when they are going to bake; but

they never bake in the oven. All the smoke mounts to the cieling, and

finds its way out by a hole made for the purpose in the centre; but this

renders the cieling perfectly black. When the smoke does not escape

readily, it is necessary to make a draught by opening the door of the

house. The reason given for this contrivance is, that if there were a

regular chimney, too much heat would escape that way. But surely such an

excuse is very lame, for much more heat must escape by opening the door.

The hole in the roof is closed at pleasure, by means of a square cover,

fixed transversely to the end of a pole, which is lifted up from within.

Clay and stone abound in this neighbourhood. The walls of the houses are

never built perpendicularly, although timbered; for every beam is

crooked, both withinside and without. The barns are small and low,

furnished with threshing-floors.

It is impossible to traverse the Lapland alps in winter, for the

following reasons. In the first place, the cold is so intense that

nobody could endure it. Next, no reindeer are, at that season, on the

alps, but in the forests, the only place where they can procure any

food. Thirdly, no reindeer could pass the alps at a stretch, the

distance being too great; and lastly, it would not be possible for a

traveller to carry with him the requisite supplies of clothes and

provisions. For these reasons it is generally the custom to travel over

this country either in summer or autumn.

There are numerous obstacles to the cultivation of this alpine tract.

The intense cold of its winters, which exceeds that of any other

country. From the snow lying so long on the ground, the parts exposed to

the north are incapable of any culture. Frosts are frequent even in

summer. The days are dark in winter. The weather is always moist. The

soil is of a turfy kind, composed of mosses decayed by frost,

impregnated with standing water. Good black vegetable mould is not to be

met with. Lofty trees cannot be raised, on account of the excessive

violence of the wind; hence there is a great scarcity of wood.

It is customary for those in our part of Sweden who fancy themselves

indisposed, to frequent watering-places, or mineral springs, during the

heat of summer. For my own part, I have, thank God! for several years

enjoyed tolerable health, except a slight languor, or other trifling

indisposition. But as soon as I got upon the alps, I seemed to have

acquired a new existence. I felt as if relieved from a heavy burthen;

and after having spent a few days in the low country of Norway, though

without having committed the least excess, I found my languor or

heaviness return. When I again ascended the alps, I revived as before,

to which the pure and well ventilated atmosphere did not a little

contribute. It is a prevailing opinion that, at a great elevation, the

air is so much thinner, as to render it necessary to breathe through wet

sponges held to the nose and mouth. I can aver that the difficulty of

breathing is only caused by the exertion of climbing the mountains, as a

person who runs fast, or uses any other violent exercise, oppresses his

lungs by accelerating the circulation of the blood.[64]

[64] This opinion of Linnaeus coincides with what M. de Saussure

observed in ascending Mont Blanc. We cannot say so much in favour of

his subsequent theory.

Did not the barometer show the pressure of the air to be less in such

elevated places, it would seem contrary to reason that it should be so,

upon the following principles. We know these alps to be higher than any

other hills, as no current runs across them. The streams on the western

side take their course down to the western ocean, while those on the

east run into the sea on that side. If we take into consideration the

abundance of cascades formed by these alpine torrents, in their way to

the sea, the stupendous elevation of the hills will be the more evident,

not only on that side but on the opposite one also. When therefore the

wind blows over this country, whether from the sea or the land, the air,

having to pass such great heights, must of course be more condensed by

meeting with such an obstruction. Thus moreover its force is increased,

as well as the sensation of cold which it gives. The air being rendered,

by whatever cause, more compact or dense, will account for its

frequently freezing in these places, during the hottest summer. Cold

consists in the compression, and heat in the rarefaction of the air[65],

hence it seems to follow that the air is not more rare upon mountains.

[65] Here the effects are mistaken for causes.

But, to return to the subject of watering-places, I am persuaded that

those who could undertake a journey to this alpine country, would derive

full as much benefit from coming hither to drink snow water, as from

frequenting mineral springs, especially such as are situated in low,

foggy, marshy places. One thing at least would be in their favour, that

they could not so readily find means to transgress the rules of

temperance, usually prescribed, if not observed, at a watering-place, by

being tempted to drink strong ale or other spirituous liquors after

dinner.

The exquisite purity and good flavour of water always depend on the

snow, which tends to preserve water as salt does meat. We all know how

soon water is spoiled by keeping in a warm place, and, on the contrary,

how long it may be preserved in a cold one. The Laplanders treasure up

the snow water as if it were the choicest wine. I have observed of late

that water-drinking is becoming more common in Stockholm, as among the

Portuguese; but how different is the water, as well as the climate! The

Lapland water is indeed uncommonly grateful to the palate.

When lately sailing on the coast of Norway, I was amused by observing my

Lapland attendant, who, as soon as he grew warm, dipped his _koxa_, or

ladle, into the sea, in order to drink as usual; but he was much

disappointed on finding the water salt instead of fresh. These people

always carry a large ladle about them, for the purpose of drinking

spring water, whenever they find themselves heated or thirsty, which

they do without apprehension of any bad consequences. I often practised

the same during my journey. Indeed, were it not for the abundance of

this fine water, nobody could travel in Lapland, for there are no houses

of refreshment. Bacchus and Ceres are both unknown there, though Venus

meets with due honours. The greater part of the springs and rivers

originate in the snow water of the alps; hence the latter are twice or

thrice as full when the weather is warm in that part of the country.

I one day showed a Laplander some of the drawings in my manuscript

journal. He was alarmed at the sight; took off his cap, made a bow, and

remained with his head inclined, and his hand clapt to his breast,

mumbling some words to himself, and trembling as if he was going to

faint away[66]. Many people are afraid of a Jack in a box.

[66] This simple Laplander certainly took Linnaeus for a conjurer,

and the book for something equivalent to the magical drum of his own

country, to which he resorts, in time of doubt or trouble, with as

much confidence as a devotee to the shrine of a saint, or any other

"Jack in a box."

A curious stratagem was related to me in Norway, as practised upon the

Laplanders, by a person commissioned to take from them their magical

drums and idols. Having procured information of any Laplander who kept

such things concealed, he first requested to have them brought forth.

This their owner refused. After having long used entreaties, to no

purpose, he laid hold of one of the Laplanders' arms, slipped up the

sleeve of his jacket, and so contrived at length as to open a vein. The

Laplander was near fainting, and, entreating him to spare his life,

promised to bring the drum required; upon which the arm was bound up

immediately. This plan has been frequently pursued with success[67].

[67] A notable method of converting these poor people from pagan

superstitions, and of exemplifying the mild and just spirit of the

Christian religion! This bleeding was as effectual as that practised

by the grand inquisitor upon a king of Spain, who showed symptoms of

humanity at an auto da f[e']; even without the flogging superadded in

the latter case, which the pious crusader against Lapland drums did

not find necessary.

In the course of my tour, my guide having one day conducted me to his

next neighbour, the latter was just about shifting his quarters, and

therefore could not take charge of me. The former would not attend me

any further, though I paid him well for his trouble, and entreated him

not to desert me. I was obliged therefore to menace him with my hanger,

upon which he took to his heels. He did not however succeed in his

attempt to escape, for my servant soon caught him. His fears overcame

him, and he promised, trembling, to accompany me as I wished. Observing

that he very often turned his head about, I made him walk before me. As

soon as we came to the residence of another Laplander, and before I had

well entered the hut, he set out running, not back again the way we had

come, but towards the mountains, so that the devil himself could not

have caught him, and leaving both his money and his civility behind him.

This is a proof that severity is not the best way of dealing here. My

interpreter told me, that if the man had seen a gun cocked and presented

at him, he would not have suffered a hundredth part of the alarm that he

did.

Many of the curious plants, of which I had in Lapmark found here and

there a solitary individual, as a great rarity, were common enough in

Norway. Hence I concluded that their seeds had been brought down by the

torrents, the chief of them being aquatics, as the (_Pedicularis_)

_Sceptrum-Carolinum_, _Astragalus_ (_alpinus_), _Acetosa_ with a notched

leaf (_Rumex digynus_), the white _Pedicularis_ (_sylvatica_) as well as

the purple, the Asphodel (_Tofieldia palustris_, _Fl. Brit. 397_,) &c.