If a stimulus be repeated at uniform intervals of time, the action,

whether of our muscles or organs of sense, is produced with still

greater facility or energy; because the sensorial power of

association, mentioned above, is combined with the sensorial power of

irritation; that is in common language, the acquired habit assists the

power of the stimulus.

This not only obtains in the annual, lunar, and diurnal catenations of

animal motions, as explained in Zoonomia, Sect. XXXVI. which are thus

performed with great facility and energy; but in every less circle of

actions or ideas, as in the burden of a song, or the reiterations of a

dance. To the facility and distinctness, with which we hear sounds at

repeated intervals, we owe the pleasure, which we receive from musical

time, and from poetic time, as described in Botanic Garden, V. II.

Interlude III. And to this the pleasure we receive from the rhimes and

alliterations of modern versification; the source of which without

this key would be difficult to discover.

There is no variety of notes referable to the gamut in the beating of

a drum, yet if it be performed in musical time, it is agreeable to our

ears; and therefore this pleasurable sensation must be owing to the

repetition of the divisions of the sounds at certain intervals of

time, or musical bars. Whether these times or bars are distinguished

by a pause, or by an emphasis, or accent, certain it is, that this

distinction is perpetually repeated; otherwise the ear could not

determine instantly, whether the successions of sound were in common

or in triple time.

But besides these little circles of musical time, there are the

greater returning periods, and the still more distinct choruses;

which, like the rhimes at the end of verses, owe their beauty to

repetition; that is, to the facility and distinctness with which we

perceive sounds, which we expect to perceive or have perceived before;

or in the language of this work, to the greater ease and energy with

which our organ is excited by the combined sensorial powers of

association and irritation, than by the latter singly.

This kind of pleasure arising from repetition, that is from the

facility and distinctness with which we perceive and understand

repeated sensations, enters into all the agreeable arts; and when it

is carried to excess is termed formality. The art of dancing like that

of music depends for a great part of the pleasure, it affords, on

repetition; architecture, especially the Grecian, consists of one part

being a repetition of another, and hence the beauty of the pyramidal

outline in landscape-painting; where one side of the picture may be

said in some measure to balance the other. So universally does

repetition contribute to our pleasure in the fine arts, that beauty

itself has been defined by some writers to consist in a due

combination of uniformity and variety: Zoonomia, Vol. I. Sect. XXII.

2. 1.

Where these repetitions of form, and reiterations of colour, are

produced in a picture or a natural landscape, in an agreeable

quantity, it is termed simplicity, or unity of character; where the

repetition principally is seen in the disposition or locality of the

divisions, it is called symmetry, proportion, or grouping the separate

parts; where this repetition is most conspicuous in the forms of

visible objects, it is called regularity or uniformity; and where it

affects the colouring principally, the artists call it breadth of

colour.

There is nevertheless, an excess of the repetition of the same or

similar ideas, which ceases to please, and must therefore be excluded

from compositions of Taste in painted landscapes, or in ornamented

gardens; which is then called formality, monotony, or insipidity. Why

the excitation of ideas should give additional pleasure by the

facility and distinctness of their production for a certain time, and

then cease to give additional pleasure; and gradually to give less

pleasure than that, which attends simple exertion of them; is another

curious metaphysical problem, and deserves investigation.

In our waking hours a perpetual voluntary exertion, of which we are

unconscious, attends all our new trains of ideas, whether those of

imagination or of perception; which by comparing them with our former

experience preserves the consistency of the former, by rejecting such

as are incongruous; and adds to the credibility of the latter, by

their analogy to objects of our previous knowledge: and this exertion

is attended with pleasurable sensation. After very frequent repetition

these trains of ideas do not excite the exertion of this intuitive

analogy, and in consequence are not attended with additional pleasure

to that simply of perception; and by continued repetition they at

length lose even the pleasure simply of perception, and thence finally

cease to be excited; whence one cause of the torpor of old age, and of

death, as spoken of in Additional Note, No. VII. 3. of this work.

When there exists in any landscape a certain number and diversity of

forms and colours, or of their combinations or successions, so as to

produce a degree of novelty; and that with a certain repetition, or

arrangement of parts, so as to render them gradually comprehensible or

easily compared with the usual course of nature; if this agreeable

combination of visible objects be on a moderate scale, in respect to

magnitude, and form the principal part of the landscape, it is termed

PICTURESQUE by modern artists; and when such a combination of forms

and colours contains many easy flowing curves and smooth surfaces, the

delightful sentiment of BEAUTY becomes added to the pleasure of the

Picturesque.

If the above agreeable combination of novelty and repetition exists on

a larger scale with more projecting rocks, and deeper dells, and

perhaps with a somewhat greater proportion of novelty than repetition,

the landscape assumes the name of ROMANTIC; and if some of these forms

or combinations are much above the usual magnitude of similar objects,

the more interesting sentiment of SUBLIMITY becomes mixed with the

pleasure of the romantic.

III. _Melody of Colours._

A third source of pleasure arising from the inspection of visible

objects, besides that of simple perception, arises from what may be

termed melody of colours, as certain colours are more agreeable, when

they succeed each other; or when they are disposed in each other's

vicinity, so as successively to affect the organ of vision.

In a paper on the colours seen in the eye after looking for some time

on luminous objects, published by Dr. Darwin of Shrewsbury in the

Philos. Trans. Vol. 76, it is evidently shown, that we see certain

colours not only with greater ease and distinctness, but with relief

and pleasure, after having for some time inspected other certain

colours; as green after red, or red after green; orange after blue, or

blue after orange; yellow after violet, or violet after yellow; this,

he shows, arises from the ocular spectrum of the colour last viewed

coinciding with the irritation of the colour now under contemplation.

Thus if you make a dot with ink in the centre of a circle of red silk

the size of a letter-wafer, and place it on a sheet of white paper,

and look on it for a minute without moving your eyes; and then gently

turn them on the white paper in its vicinity, or gently close them,

and hold one hand an inch or two before them, to prevent too much

light from passing through the eyelids, a circular spot of pale green

will be seen on the white paper, or in the closed eye; which is called

the ocular spectrum of the red silk, and is formed as Dr. Darwin shows

by the pandiculation or stretching of the fine fibrils, which

constitute the extremities of the optic nerve, in a direction contrary

to that, in which they have been excited by previously looking at a

luminous object, till they become fatigued; like the yawning or

stretching of the larger muscles after acting long in one direction.

If at this time the eye, fatigued by looking long at the centre of the

red silk, be turned on paper previously coloured with pale green; the

circular spot or ocular spectrum will appear of a much darker green;

as now the irritation from the pale green paper coincides with the

pale green spectrum remaining in the eye, and thus excites those

fibres of the retina into stronger action; on this account some

colours are seen more distinctly, and consequently more agreeably

after others; or when placed in the vicinity of others; thus if

orange-coloured letters are painted on a blue ground, they may be read

at as great distance as black on white, perhaps at a greater.

The colours, which are thus more distinct when seen in succession are

called opposite colours by Sir Isaac Newton in his optics, Book I.

Part 2, and may be easily discovered by any one, by the method above

described; that is by laying a coloured circle of paper or silk on a

sheet of white paper, and inspecting it some time with steady eyes,

and then either gently closing them, or removing them on another part

of the white paper, and the ocular spectrum or opposite colour becomes

visible in the eye.

Sir Isaac Newton has observed, that the breadths of the seven primary

colours in the sun's image refracted by a prism, are proportioned to

the seven musical notes of the gamut; or to the intervals of the eight

sounds contained in an octave.

From this curious coincidence, it has been proposed to produce a

luminous music, consisting of successions or combinations of colours,

analogous to a tune in respect to the proportions above mentioned.

This might be performed by a strong light, made by means of Mr.

Argand's lamps, passing through coloured glasses, and falling on a

defined part of the wall, with moveable blinds before them, which

might communicate with the keys of a harpsichord, and thus produce at

the same time visible and audible music in unison with each other.

Now as the pleasure we receive from the sensation of melodious notes,

independent of musical time, and of the previous associations of

agreeable ideas with them, must arise from our hearing some

proportions of sounds after others more easily, distinctly, or

agreeably; and as there is a coincidence between the proportions of

the primary colours, and the primary sounds, if they may be so called;

the same laws must probably govern the sensations of both. In this

circumstance therefore consists the sisterhood of Music and Painting;

and hence they claim a right to borrow metaphors from each other:

musicians to speak of the brilliancy of sounds, and the light and

shade of a concerto; and painters of the harmony of colours, and the

tone of a picture.

This source of pleasure received from the melodious succession of

colours or of sounds must not be confounded with the pleasure received

from the repetition of them explained above, though the repetition, or

division of musical notes into bars, so as to produce common or triple

time, contributes much to the pleasure of music; but in viewing a

fixed landscape nothing like musical time exists; and the pleasure

received therefore from certain successions of colours must depend

only on the more easy or distinct action of the retina in perceiving

some colours after others, or in their vicinity, like the facility or

even pleasure with which we act with contrary muscles in yawning or

stretching after having been fatigued with a long previous exertion in

the contrary direction.

Hence where colours are required to be distinct, those which are

opposite to each other, should be brought into succession or vicinity;

as red and green, orange and blue, yellow and violet; but where

colours are required to intermix imperceptibly, or slide into each

other, these should not be chosen; as they might by contrast appear

too glaring or tawdry. These gradations and contrasts of colours have

been practically employed both by the painters of landscape, and by

the planters of ornamental gardens; though the theory of this part of

the pleasure derived from visible objects was not explained before the

publication of the paper on ocular spectra above mentioned; which is

reprinted at the end of the first part of Zoonomia, and has thrown

great light on the actions of the nerves of sense in consequence of

the stimulus of external bodies.

IV. _Association of agreeable sentiments with visible objects._

Besides the pleasure experienced simply by the perception of visible

objects, it has been already shown, that there is an additional

pleasure arising from the inspection of those, which possess novelty,

or some degree of it; a second additional pleasure from those, which

possess in some degree a repetition of their parts; and a third from

those, which possess a succession of particular colours, which either

contrast or slide into each other, and which we have termed melody of

colours.

We now step forward to the fourth source of the pleasures arising from

the contemplation of visible objects besides that simply of

perception, which consists in our previous association of some

agreeable sentiment with certain forms or combinations of them. These

four kinds of pleasure singly or in combination constitute what is

generally understood by the word Taste in respect to the visible

world; and by parity of reasoning it is probable, that the pleasurable

ideas received by the other senses, or which are associated with

language, may be traced to similar sources.

It has been shown by Bishop Berkeley in his ingenious essay on vision,

that the eye only acquaints us with the perception of light and

colours; and that our idea of the solidity of the bodies, which

reflect them, is learnt by the organ of touch: he therefore calls our

vision the language of touch, observing that certain gradations of the

shades of colour, by our previous experience of having examined

similar bodies by our hands or lips, suggest our ideas of solidity,

and of the forms of solid bodies; as when we view a tree, it would

otherwise appear to us a flat green surface, but by association of

ideas we know it to be a cylindrical stem with round branches. This

association of the ideas acquired by the sense of touch with those of

vision, we do not allude to in the following observations, but to the

agreeable trains or tribes of ideas and sentiments connected with

certain kinds of visible objects.

V. _Sentiment of Beauty._

Of these catenations of sentiments with visible objects, the first is

the sentiment of Beauty or Loveliness; which is suggested by

easy-flowing curvatures of surface, with smoothness; as is so well

illustrated in Mr. Burke's Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, and in

Mr. Hogarth's analysis of Beauty; a new edition of which is much

wanted separate from his other works.

The sentiment of Beauty appears to be attached from our cradles to the

easy curvatures of lines, and smooth surfaces of visible objects, and

to have been derived from the form of the female bosom; as spoken of

in Zoonomia, Vol. I. Section XVI. on Instinct.

Sentimental love, as distinguished from the animal passion of that

name, with which it is frequently accompanied, consists in the desire

or sensation of beholding, embracing, and saluting, a beautiful

object.

The characteristic of beauty therefore is that it is the object of

love; and though many other objects are in common language called

beautiful, yet they are only called so metaphorically, and ought to be

termed agreeable. A Grecian temple may give us the pleasurable idea of

sublimity; a Gothic temple may give us the pleasurable idea of

variety; and a modern house the pleasurable idea of utility; music and

poetry may inspire our love by association of ideas; but none of

these, except metaphorically, can be termed beautiful; as we have no

wish to embrace or salute them.

Our perception of beauty consists in our recognition by the sense of

vision of those objects, first which have before inspired our love by

the pleasure, which they have afforded to many of our senses: as to

our sense of warmth, of touch, of smell, of taste, hunger and thirst;

and secondly, which bear any analogy of form to such objects.

When the babe, soon after it is born into this cold world, is applied

to its mother's bosom, its sense of perceiving warmth is first

agreeably affected; next its sense of smell is delighted with the

odour of her milk; then its taste is gratified by the flavour of it,

afterwards the appetites of hunger and of thirst afford pleasure by

the possession of their objects, and by the subsequent digestion of

the aliment; and lastly, the sense of touch is delighted by the

softness and smoothness of the milky fountain, the source of such

variety of happiness.

ADDITIONAL NOTES. XIV.

THE THEORY AND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE

Next to each thought associate sound accords,

And forms the dulcet symphony of words.

CANTO III. l. 365.

Ideas consist of synchronous motions or configurations of the

extremities of the organs of sense; these when repeated by sensation,

volition, or association, are either simple or complex, as they were

first excited by irritation; or have afterwards some parts abstracted

from them, or some parts added to them. Language consists of words,

which are the names or symbols of ideas. Words are therefore properly

all of them nouns or names of things.

Little had been done in the investigation of the theory of language

from the time of Aristotle to the present aera, till Mr. Horne Tooke,

the ingenious and learned author of the Diversions of Purley,

explained those undeclined words of all languages, which had puzzled

the grammarians, and evinced from their etymology, that they were

abbreviations of other modes of expression. Mr. Tooke observes, that

the first aim of language was to communicate our thoughts, and the

second to do it with dispatch; and hence he divides words into those,

which were necessary to express our thoughts, and those which are

abbreviations of the former; which he ingeniously styles the wings of

Hermes.

For the greater dispatch of conversation many words suggest more than

one idea; I shall therefore arrange them according to the number and

kinds of ideas, which they suggest; and am induced to do this, as a

new distribution of the objects of any science may advance the

knowledge of it by developing another analogy of its constituent

parts. And in thus endeavouring to analyze the theory of language I

mean to speak primarily of the English, and occasionally to add what

may occur concerning the structure of the Greek and Latin.

I. _Conjunctions and Prepositions._

The first class of words consists of those, which suggest but one

idea, and suffer no change of termination; which have been termed by

grammarians CONJUNCTIONS and PREPOSITIONS; the former of which connect

sentences, and the latter words. Both which have been ingeniously

explained by Mr. Horne Tooke from their etymology to be abbreviations

of other modes of expression.

1. Thus the conjunction _if_ and _an_, are shown by Mr. Tooke to be

derived from the imperative mood of the verbs to give and to grant;

but both of these conjunctions by long use appear to have become the

name of a more abstracted idea, than the words give or grant suggest,

as they do not now express any ideas of person, or of number, or of

time; all which are generally attendant upon the meaning of a verb;

and perhaps all the words of this class are the names of ideas much

abstracted, which has caused the difficulty of explaining them.

2. The number of Prepositions is very great in the English language,

as they are used before the cases of nouns, and the infinitive mood of

verbs, instead of the numerous changes of termination of the nouns and

verbs of the Greek and Latin; which gives greater simplicity to our

language, and greater facility of acquiring it.

The prepositions, as well as the preceding conjunctions, have been

well explained by Mr. Horne Tooke; who has developed the etymology of

many of them. As the greatest number of the ideas, we receive from

external objects, are complex ones, the names of these constitute a

great part of language, as the proper names of persons and places;

which are complex terms. Now as these complex terms do not always

exactly suggest the quantity of combined ideas we mean to express,

some of the prepositions are prefixed to them to add or to deduct

something, or to limit their general meaning; as a house with a party

wall, or a house without a roof. These words are also derived by Mr.

Tooke, as abbreviations of the imperative moods of verbs; but which

appear now to suggest ideas further abstracted than those generally

suggested by verbs, and are all of them properly nouns, or names of

ideas.

II. _Nouns Substantive._

The second class of words consists of those, which in their simplest

state suggest but one idea, as the word man; but which by two changes

of termination in our language suggest one secondary idea of number,

as the word men; or another secondary idea of the genitive case, as

man's mind, or the mind of man. These words by other changes of

termination in the Greek and Latin languages suggest many other

secondary ideas, as of gender, as well as of number, and of all the

other cases described in their grammars; which in English are

expressed by prepositions.

This class of words includes the NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE, or names of

things, of common grammars, and may be conveniently divided into three

kinds. 1. Those which suggest the ideas of things believed to possess

hardness and figure, as a house or a horse. 2. Those which suggest the

ideas of things, which are not supposed to possess hardness and

figure, except metaphorically, as virtue, wisdom; which have therefore

been termed abstracted ideas. 3. Those which have been called by

metaphysical writers reflex ideas, and mean those of the operations of

the mind, as sensation, volition, association.

Another convenient division of these nouns substantive or names of

things may be first into general terms, or the names of classes of

ideas, as man, quadruped, bird, fish, animal. 2. Into the names of

complex ideas, as this house, that dog. 3. Into the names of simple

ideas, as whiteness, sweetness.

A third convenient division of the names of things may be into the

names of intire things, whether of real or imaginary being; these are

the nouns substantive of grammars. 2. Into the names of the qualities

or properties of the former; these are the nouns adjective of

grammars. 3. The names of more abstracted ideas as the conjunctions

and prepositions of grammarians.

These nouns substantive, or names of intire things, suggest but one

idea in their simplest form, as in the nominative case singular of

grammars. As the word a stag is the name of a single complex idea; but

the word stags by a change of termination adds to this a secondary

idea of number; and the word stag's, with a comma before the final s,

suggests, in English, another secondary idea of something appertaining

to the stag, as a stag's horn; which is, however, in our language, as

frequently expressed by the preposition _of_, as the horn of a stag.

In the Greek and Latin languages an idea of gender is joined with the

names of intire things, as well as of number; but in the English

language the nouns, which express inanimate objects, have no genders

except metaphorically; and even the sexes of many animals have names

so totally different from each other, that they rather give an idea of

the individual creature than of the sex, as bull and cow, horse and

mare, boar and sow, dog and bitch. This constitutes another

circumstance, which renders our language more simple, and more easy to

acquire; and at the same time contributes to the poetic excellence of

it; as by adding a masculine or feminine pronoun, as he, or she, other

nouns substantive are so readily personified.

In the Latin language there are five cases besides the nominative, or

original word, and in the Greek four. Whence the original noun

substantive by change of its termination suggests a secondary idea

either corresponding with the genitive, dative, accusative, vocative,

or ablative cases, besides the secondary ideas of number and gender

above mentioned. The ideas suggested by these changes of termination,

which are termed cases, are explained in the grammars of these

languages, and are expressed in ours by prepositions, which are called

the signs of those cases.

Thus the word Domini, of the Lord, suggests beside the primary idea a

secondary one of something appertaining to it, as templum domini, the

temple of the Lord, or the Lord's temple; which in English is either

effected by an addition of the letter s, with a comma before it, or by

the preposition _of_. This genitive case is said to be expressed in

the Hebrew language simply by the locality of the words in succession

to each other; which must so far add to the conciseness of that

language.

Thus the word Domino, in the dative case, to the Lord, suggests

besides the primary idea a secondary one of something being added to

the primary one; which is effected in English by the preposition _to_.

The accusative case, or Dominum, besides the primary idea implies

something having acted upon the object of that primary idea; as felis

edit murem, the cat eats the mouse. This is thus effected in the Greek

and Latin by a change of termination of the noun acted upon, but is

managed in a more concise way in our language by its situation in the

sentence, as it follows the verb. Thus if the mouse in the above

sentence was placed before the verb, and the cat after it, in English

the sense would be inverted, but not so in Latin; this necessity of

generally placing the accusative case after the verb is inconvenient

in poetry; though it adds to the conciseness and simplicity of our

language, as it saves the intervention of a preposition, or of a

change of termination.

The vocative case of the Latin language, or Domine, besides the

primary idea suggests a secondary one of appeal, or address; which in

our language is either marked by its situation in the sentence, or by

the preposition O preceding it. Whence this interjection O conveys the

idea of appeal joined to the subsequent noun, and is therefore

properly another noun, or name of an idea, preceding the principal one

like other prepositions.

The ablative case in the Latin language, as Domino, suggests a

secondary idea of something being deducted from or by the primary one.

Which is perhaps more distinctly expressed by one of those

prepositions in our language; which, as it suggests somewhat

concerning the adjoined noun, is properly another noun, or name of an

idea, preceding the principal one.

When to these variations of the termination of nouns in the singular

number are added those equally numerous of the plural, and the great

variety of these terminations correspondent to the three genders, it

is evident that the prepositions of our own and other modern languages

instead of the changes of termination add to the simplicity of these

languages, and to the facility of acquiring them.

Hence in the Latin language, besides the original or primary idea

suggested by each noun substantive, or name of an entire thing, there

attends an additional idea of number, another of gender, and another

suggested by each change of termination, which constitutes the cases;

so that in this language four ideas are suggested at the same time by

one word; as the primary idea, its gender, number, and case; the

latter of which has also four or five varieties. These nouns

therefore may properly be termed the abbreviation of sentences; as the

conjunctions and prepositions are termed by Mr. Tooke the abbreviation

of words; and if the latter are called the wings affixed to the feet

of Hermes, the former may be called the wings affixed to his cap.

III. _Adjectives, Articles, Participles, Adverbs._

1. The third class of words consists of those, which in their simplest

form suggest two ideas; one of them is an abstracted idea of the

quality of an object, but not of the object itself; and the other is

an abstracted idea of its appertaining to some other noun called a

substantive, or a name of an entire thing.

These words are termed ADJECTIVES, are undeclined in our language in

respect to cases, number, or gender; but by three changes of

termination they suggest the secondary ideas of greater, greatest, and

of less; as the word sweet changes into sweeter, sweetest, and

sweetish; which may be termed three degrees of comparison besides the

positive meaning of the word; which terminations of _er_ and _est_ are

seldom added to words of more than two syllables; as those degrees are

then most frequently denoted by the prepositions more and most.

Adjectives seem originally to have been derived from nouns

substantive, of which they express a quality, as a musky rose, a

beautiful lady, a stormy day. Some of them are formed from the

correspondent substantive by adding the syllable _ly_, or _like_, as a

lovely child, a warlike countenance; and in our language it is

frequently only necessary to put a hyphen between two nouns

substantive for the purpose of converting the former one into an

adjective, as an eagle-eye, a Mayday. And many of our adjectives are

substantives unchanged, and only known by their situation in a

sentence, as a German, or a German gentleman. Adjectives therefore are

names of qualities, or parts of things; as substantives are the names

of entire things.

In the Latin and Greek languages these adjectives possess a great

variety of terminations; which suggest occasionally the ideas of

number, gender, and the various cases, agreeing in all these with the

substantive, to which they belong; besides the two original or

primary ideas of quality, and of their appertaining to some other

word, which must be adjoined to make them sense. Insomuch that some of

these adjectives, when declined through all their cases, and genders,

and numbers, in their positive, comparative, and superlative degrees,

enumerate fifty or sixty terminations. All which to one, who wishes to

learn these languages, are so many new words, and add much to the

difficulty of acquiring them.

Though the English adjectives are undeclined, having neither case,

gender, nor number; and with this simplicity of form possess a degree

of comparison by the additional termination of ish, more than the

generality of Latin or Greek adjectives, yet are they less adapted to

poetic measure, as they must accompany their corresponding

substantives; from which they are perpetually separated in Greek and

Latin poetry.

2. There is a second kind of adjectives, which abound in our language,

and in the Greek, but not in the Latin, which are called ARTICLES by

the writers of grammar, as the letter _a_, and the word _the_. These,

like the adjectives above described, suggest two primary ideas, and

suffer no change of termination in our language, and therefore suggest

no secondary ideas.

Mr. Locke observes, that languages consist principally of general

terms; as it would have been impossible to give a name to every

individual object, so as to communicate an idea of it to others; it

would be like reciting the name of every individual soldier of an

army, instead of using the general term, army. Now the use of the

article _a_, and _the_ in English, and _o_ in Greek, converts general

terms into particular ones; this idea of particularity as a quality,

or property of a noun, is one of the primary ideas suggested by these

articles; and the other is, that of its appertaining to some

particular noun substantive, without which it is not intelligible. In

both these respects these articles correspond with adjectives; to

which may be added, that our article _a_ may be expressed by the

adjective one or any; and that the Greek article _o_ is declined like

other adjectives.

The perpetual use of the article, besides its converting general terms

into particular ones, contributes much to the force and beauty of our

language from another circumstance, that abstracted ideas become so

readily personified simply by the omission of it; which perhaps

renders the English language better adapted to poetry than any other

ancient or modern: the following prosopopoeia from Shakspeare is thus

beautiful.

She let Concealment like a worm i' th' bud

Feed on her damask cheek.

And the following line, translated from Juvenal by Dr. Johnson, is

much superior to the original, owing to the easy personification of

Worth and Poverty, and to the consequent conciseness of it.

Difficile emergunt, quorum virtutibus obstat

Res angusta domi.

Slow rises Worth by Poverty depress'd.

3. A third class of adjectives includes what are termed PARTICIPLES,

which are allied to the infinitive moods of verbs, and are formed in

our language by the addition only of the syllable _ing_ or _ed_; and

are of two kinds, active and passive, as loving, loved, from the verb

to love. The verbs suggest an idea of the noun, or thing spoken of;

and also of its manner of existence, whether at rest, in action, or in

being acted upon; as I lie still, or I whip, or I am whipped; and,

lastly, another idea of the time of resting, acting, or suffering; but

these adjectives called participles, suggest only two primary ideas,

one of the noun, or thing spoken of, and another of the mode of

existence, but not a third idea of time; and in this respect

participles differ from the verbs, from which they originate, or which

originated from them, except in their infinitive moods.

Nor do they resemble adjectives only in their suggesting but two

primary ideas; but in the Latin and Greek languages they are declined

through all the cases, genders, and numbers, like other adjectives;

and change their terminations in the degrees of comparison.

In our language the participle passive, joined to the verb _to be_,

for the purpose of adding to it the idea of time, forms the whole of

the passive voice; and is frequently used in a similar manner in the

Latin language, as I am loved is expressed either by amor, or amatus

sum. The construction of the whole passive voice from the verb _to be_

and the participles passive of other verbs, contributes much to the

simplicity of our language, and the ease of acquiring it; but renders

it less concise than perhaps it might have been by some simple

variations of termination, as in the active voice of it.

4. A fourth kind of adjective is called by the grammarians an ADVERB;

which has generally been formed from the first kind of adjectives, as

these were frequently formed from correspondent substantives; or it

has been formed from the third kind of adjectives, called participles;

and this is effected in both cases by the addition, of the syllable

_ly_, as wisely, charmingly.

This kind of adjective suggests two primary ideas, like the

adjectives, and participles, from which they are derived; but differ

from them in this curious circumstance, that the other adjectives

relate to substantives, and are declined like them in the Latin and

Greek languages, as a lovely boy, a warlike countenance; but these

relate to verbs, and are therefore undeclined, as to act boldly, to

suffer patiently.

IV. _Verbs._

The fourth class of words consists of those which are termed VERBS,

and which in their simplest state suggest three ideas; first an idea

of the noun, or name of the thing spoken of, as a whip. 2. An idea of

its mode of existence, whether at rest, or in action, or in being

acted upon. 3. An idea of the time of its existence. Thus "the beadle

whipped the beggar," in prolix language might be expressed, the beadle

with a whip struck in time past the beggar. Which three ideas are

suggested by the one word whipped.

Verbs are therefore nouns, or names of intire ideas, with the

additional ideas of their mode of existence and of time; but the

participles suggest only the noun, and the mode of existence, without

any idea of time; as whipping, or whipped. The infinitive moods of

verbs correspond in their signification with the participles; as they

also suggest only the noun, or name of the thing spoken of, and an

idea of its mode of existence, excluding the idea of time; which is

expressed by all the other moods and tenses; whence it appears, that

the infinitive mood, as well as the participle, is not truly a part of

the verb; but as the participle resembles the adjective in its

construction; so the infinitive mood may be said to resemble the

substantive, and it is often used as a nominative case to another

verb.

Thus in the words "a charming lady with a smiling countenance," the

participle acts as an adjective; and in the words "to talk well

commands attention," the infinitive mood acts as the nominative case

of a noun substantive; and their respective significations are also

very similar, as whipping, or to whip, mean the existence of a person

acting with a whip.

In the Latin language the verb in its simplest form, except the

infinitive mood, and the participle, both which we mean to exclude

from complete verbs, suggests four primary ideas, as amo, suggests the

pronoun I, the noun love, its existence in its active state, and the

present time; which verbs in the Greek and Latin undergo an uncounted

variation of termination, suggesting so many different ideas in

addition to the four primary ones.

We do not mean to assert, that all verbs are literally derived from

nouns in any language; because all languages have in process of time

undergone such great variation; many nouns having become obsolete or

have perished, and new verbs have been imported from foreign

languages, or transplanted from ancient ones; but that this has

originally been the construction of all verbs, as well as those to

whip and to love above mentioned, and innumerable others.

Thus there may appear some difficulty in analyzing from what noun

substantive were formed the verbs to stand or to lie; because we have

not properly the name of the abstract ideas from which these verbs

arose, except we use the same word for the participle and the noun

substantive, as standing, lying. But the verbs, to sit, and to walk,

are less difficult to trace to their origin; as we have names for the

nouns substantive, a seat, and a walk.

But there is another verb of great consequence in all languages, which

would appear, in its simplest form in our language to suggest but two

primary ideas, as the verb _to be_, but that it suggests three primary

ideas like other verbs maybe understood, if we use the synonymous term

to exist instead of to be. Thus "I exist" suggests first the abstract

idea of existence, not including the mode of existence, whether at

rest, or in action, or in suffering; secondly it adds to that

abstracted idea of existence its real state, or actual resting,

acting, or suffering, existence; and thirdly the idea of the present

time: thus the infinitive mood _to be_, and the participle, _being_,

suggest both the abstract idea of existence, and the actual state of

it, but not the time.

The verb _to be_ is also used irregularly to designate the parts of

time and actual existence; and is then applied to either the active or

passive participles of other verbs, and called an auxiliary verb;

while the mode of existence, whether at rest, or in action, or being

acted upon, is expressed by the participle, as "I am loving" is nearly

the same as "I love," amo; and "I am loved," amatus sum, is nearly the

same as amor. This mode of application of the verb _to be_ is used in

French as well as in English, and in the passive voice of the Latin,

and perhaps in many other languages; and is by its perpetual use in

conversation rendered irregular in them all, as I am, thou art, he is,

would not seem to belong to the infinitive mood _to be_, any more than

sum, fui, sunt, fuerunt, appear to belong to esse.

The verb _to have_ affords another instance of irregular application;

the word means in its regular sense to possess, and then suggests

three ideas like the above verb of existence: first the abstracted

idea of the thing spoken of, or possession; secondly, the actual

existence of possession, and lastly the time, as I have or possess.

This verb _to have_ like the verb _to be_ is also used irregularly to

denote parts of past time, and is then joined to the passive

participles alone, as I have eaten; or it is accompanied with the

passive participle of the verb _to be_, and then with the active

participle of another verb, as I have been eating.

There is another word _will_ used in the same irregular manner to

denote the parts of future time, which is derived from the verb _to

will_; which in its regular use signifies to exert our volition. There

are other words used to express other circumstances attending upon

verbs, as may, can, shall, all which are probably the remains of

verbs otherwise obsolete. Lastly, when we recollect, that in the moods

and tenses of verbs one word expresses never less than three ideas in

our language, and many more in the Greek and Latin; as besides those

three primary ideas the idea of person, and of number, are always

expressed in the indicative mood, and other ideas suggested in the

other moods, we cannot but admire what excellent abbreviations of

language are thus achieved; and when we observe the wonderful

intricacy and multiplicity of sounds in those languages, especially in

the Greek verbs, which change both the beginning and ending of the

original word through three voices, and three numbers, with uncounted

variations of dialect; we cannot but admire the simplicity of modern

languages compared to these ancient ones; and must finally perceive,

that all language consists simply of nouns, or names of ideas,

disposed in succession or in combination, all of which are expressed

by separate words, or by various terminations of the same word.

_Conclusion._

The theory of the progressive production of language in the early

times of society, and its gradual improvements in the more civilized

ones, may be readily induced from the preceding pages. In the

commencement of Society the names of the ideas of entire things,

which, it was necessary most frequently to communicate, would first be

invented, as the names of individual persons, or places, fire, water,

this berry, that root; as it was necessary perpetually to announce,

whether one or many of such external things existed, it was soon found

more convenient to add this idea of number by a change of termination

of the word, than by the addition of another word.

As many of these nouns soon became general terms, as bird, beast,

fish, animal; it was next convenient to distinguish them when used for

an individual, from the same word used as a general term; whence the

two articles _a_ and _the_, in our language, derive their origin.

Next to these names of the ideas of entire things, the words most

perpetually wanted in conversation would probably consist of the

names of the ideas of the parts or properties of things; which might

be derived from the names of some things, and applied to others which

in these respects resembled them; these are termed adjectives, as rosy

cheek, manly voice, beastly action; and seem at first to have been

formed simply by a change of termination of their correspondent

substantives. The comparative degrees of greater and less were found

so frequently necessary to be suggested, that a change of termination

even in our language for this purpose was produced; and is as

frequently used as an additional word, as wiser or more wise.

The expression of general similitude, as well as partial similitude,

becomes so frequently used in conversation, that another kind of

adjective, called an adverb, was expressed by a change of termination,

or addition of the syllable ly or like; and as adjectives of the

former kind are applied to substantives, and express a partial

similitude, these are applied to verbs and express a general

similitude, as to act heroically, to speak boldly, to think freely.

The perpetual chain of causes and effects, which constitute the

motions, or changing configurations, of the universe, are so

conveniently divided into active and passive, for expressing the

exertions or purposes of common life, that it became particularly

convenient in all languages to substitute changes of termination,

instead of additional nouns, to express, whether the thing spoken of

was in a state of acting or of being acted upon. This change of

termination betokening action or suffering constitutes the participle,

as loving, loved; which, as it expresses a property of bodies, is

classed amongst adjectives in the preceding pages.

Besides the perpetual allusions to the active or passive state of

things, the comparative times of these motions, or changes, were also

perpetually required to be expressed; it was therefore found

convenient in all languages to suggest them by changes of terminations

in preference to doing it by additional nouns. At the same time the

actual or real existence of the thing spoken of was perpetually

required, as well as the times of their existence, and the active or

passive state of that existence. And as no conversation could be

carried on without unceasingly alluding to these circumstances, they

became in all languages suggested by changes of termination; which are

termed moods and tenses in grammars, and convert the participle above

mentioned into a verb; as that participle had originally been formed

by adding a termination to a noun, as chaining, and chained, from

chain.

The great variety of changes of termination in all languages consists

therefore of abbreviations used instead of additional words; and adds

much to the conciseness of language, and the quickness with which we

are enabled to communicate our ideas; and may be said to add

unnumbered wings to every limb of the God of Eloquence.

ADDITIONAL NOTES. XV.

ANALYSIS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

The tongue, the lips articulate; the throat

With soft vibration modulates the note.

CANTO III. l. 367.

Having explained in the preceding account of the theory of language

that it consists solely of nouns, or the names of ideas, disposed in

succession or combination; I shall now attempt to investigate the

number of the articulate sounds, which constitute those names of ideas

by their successions and combinations; and to show by what parts of

the organs of speech they are modulated and articulated; whence may be

deduced the precise number of letters or symbols necessary to suggest

those sounds, and form an alphabet, which may spell with accuracy the

words of all languages.

I. _Imperfections of the present Alphabet._

It is much to be lamented, that the alphabet, which has produced and

preserved almost all the improvements in other arts and sciences,

should have itself received no improvement in modern times; which have

added so much elucidation to almost every branch of knowledge, that

can meliorate the condition of humanity. Thus in our present alphabets

many letters are redundant, others are wanted; some simple articulate

sounds have two letters to suggest them; and in other instances two

articulate sounds are suggested by one letter. Some of these

imperfections in the alphabet of our own language shall be enumerated.

X. Thus the letter x is compounded of ks, or of gz, as in the words

excellent, example: eksellent, egzample.

C. is sometimes k, at other times s, as in the word access.

G. is a single letter in go; and suggests the letters d and the French

J in pigeon.

Qu is kw, as quality is kwality.

NG in the words long and in king is a simple sound like the French n,

and wants a new character.

SH is a simple sound, and wants a new character.

TH is either sibilant as in thigh; or semivocal as in thee; both of

which are simple sounds, and want two new characters.

J French exists in our words confu_si_on, and conclusion, judge,

pigeon, and wants a character.

J consonant, in our language, expresses the letters d, and the French

j conjoined, as in John, Djon.

CH is either k as in Arch-angel, or is used for a sound compounded of

Tsh, as in Children, Tshildren.

GL is dl, as Glove is pronounced by polite people dlove.

CL is tl, as Cloe is pronounced by polite speakers Tloe.

The spelling of our language in respect to the pronunciation is also

wonderfully defective, though perhaps less so than that of the French;

as the words slaughter and laughter are pronounced totally different,

though spelt alike. The word sough, now pronounced suff, was formerly

called sow; whence the iron fused and received into a sough acquired

the name of sowmetal; and that received into less soughs from the

former one obtained the name of pigs of iron or of lead; from the pun

on the word sough, into sow and pigs. Our word jealousies contains all

the vowels, though three of them only were necessary; nevertheless in

the two words abstemiously and facetiously the vowels exist all of

them in their usual order, and are pronounced in their most usual

manner.

Some of the vowels of our language are diphthongs, and consist of two

vocal sounds, or vowels, pronounced in quick succession; these

diphthongs are discovered by prolonging the sound, and observing, if

the ending of it be different from the beginning; thus the vowel i in

in our language, as in the word high, if drawn put ends in the sound

of the letter e as used in English; which is expressed by the letter i

in most other languages: and the sound of this vowel i begins with ah,

and consists therefore of ah and ee. Whilst the diphthong on in our

language, as in the word how, begins with ah also and ends in oo, and

the vowel u of our language, as in the word use, is likewise a

diphthong; which begins with e and ends with oo, as eoo. The French u

is also a diphthong compounded of a and oo, as aoo. And many other

defects and redundancies in our alphabet will be seen by perusing the

subsequent structure of a more perfect one.

II. _Production of Sounds._

By our organ of hearing we perceive the vibrations of the air; which

vibrations are performed in more or in less time, which constitutes

high or low notes in respect to the gammut; but the tone depends on

the kind of instrument which produces them. In speaking of articulate

sounds they may be conveniently divided first into clear continued

sounds, expressed by the letters called vowels; secondly, Into hissing

sounds, expressed by the letters called sibilants; thirdly, Into

semivocal sounds, which consist of a mixture of the two former; and,

lastly, Into interrupted sounds, represented by the letters properly

termed consonants.

The clear continued sounds are produced by the streams of air passing

from the lungs in respiration through the larynx; which is furnished

with many small muscles, which by their action give a proper tension

to the extremity of this tube; and the sounds, I suppose, are produced

by the opening and closing of its aperture; something like the trumpet

stop of an organ, as may be observed by blowing through the wind-pipe

of a dead goose.

These sounds would all be nearly similar except in their being an

octave or two higher or lower; but they are modulated again, or

acquire various tones, in their passage through the mouth; which thus

converts them into eight vowels, as will be explained below.

The hissing sounds are produced by air forcibly pushed through certain

passages of the mouth without being previously rendered sonorous by

the larynx; and obtain their sibilancy from their slower vibrations,

occasioned by the mucous membrane, which lines those apertures or

passages, being less tense than that of the larynx. I suppose the

stream of air is in both cases frequently interrupted by the closing

of the sides or mouth of the passages or aperture; but that this is

performed much slower in the production of sibilant sounds, than in

the production of clear ones.

The semivocal sounds are produced by the stream of air having received

quick vibrations, or clear sound, in passing through the larynx, or in

the cavity of the mouth; but apart of it, as the outsides of this

sonorous current of air, afterwards receives slower vibrations, or

hissing sound, from some other passages of the lips or mouth, through

which it then flows. Lastly the stops, or consonants, impede the

current of air, whether sonorous or sibilant, for a perceptible time;

and probably produce some change of tone in the act of opening and

closing their apertures.

There are other clear sounds besides those formed by the larynx; some

of them are formed in the mouth, as may be heard previous to the

enunciation of the letters b, and d, and ga; or during the

pronunciation of the semivocal letters, v. z. j. and others in

sounding the liquid letters r and l; these sounds we shall term

orisonance. The other clear sounds are formed in the nostrils, as in

pronouncing the liquid letters m, n, and ng, these we shall term

narisonance.

Thus the clear sounds, except those above mentioned, are formed in the

larynx along with the musical height or lowness of note; but receive

afterward a variation of tone from the various passages of the mouth:

add to these that as the sibilant sounds consist of vibrations slower

than those formed by the larynx, so a whistling through the lips

consists of vibrations quicker than those formed by the larynx.

As all sound consists in the vibrations of the air, it may not be

disagreeable to the reader to attend to the immediate causes of those

vibrations. When any sudden impulse is given to an elastic fluid like

the air, it acquires a progressive motion of the whole, and a

condensation of the constituent particles, which first receive the

impulse; on this account the currents of the atmosphere in stormy

seasons are never regular, but blow and cease to blow by intervals; as

a part of the moving stream is condensed by the projectile force; and

the succeeding part, being consequently rarefied, requires some time

to recover its density, and to follow the former part: this elasticity

of the air is likewise the cause of innumerable eddies in it; which

are much more frequent than in streams of water; as when it is

impelled against any oblique plane, it results with its elastic force

added to its progressive one.

Hence when a vacuum is formed in the atmosphere, the sides of the

cavity forcibly rush together both by the general pressure of the

superincumbent air, and by the expansion of the elastic particles of

it; and thus produce a vibration of the atmosphere to a considerable

distance: this occurs, whether this vacuity of air be occasioned by

the discharge of cannon, in which the air is displaced by the sudden

evolution of heat, which as suddenly vanishes; or whether the vacuity

be left by a vibrating string, as it returns from each side of the

arc, in which it vibrates; or whether it be left under the lid of the

valve in the trumpet stop of an organ, or of a child's play trumpet,

which continues perpetually to open and close, when air is blown

through it; which is caused by the elasticity of the currents, as it

occasions the pausing gusts of wind mentioned above.

Hence when a quick current of air is suddenly broken by any

intervening body, a vacuum is produced by the momentum of the

proceeding current, between it and the intervening body; as beneath

the valve of the trumpet-stop above mentioned; and a vibration is in

consequence produced; which with the great facility, which elastic

fluids possess of forming eddies, may explain the production of sounds

by blowing through a fissure upon a sharp edge in a common organ-pipe

or child's whistle; which has always appeared difficult to resolve;

for the less vibration an organ-pipe itself possesses, the more

agreeable, I am informed, is the tone; as the tone is produced by the

vibration of the air in the organ pipe, and not by that of the sides

of it; though the latter, when it exists, may alter the tone though,

not the note, like the belly of a harpsichord, or violin.

When a stream of air is blown on the edge of the aperture of an

organ-pipe about two thirds of it are believed to pass on the outside

of this edge, and one third to pass on the inside of it; but this

current of air on the inside forms an eddy, whether the bottom of the

pipe be closed or not; which eddy returns upwards, and strikes by

quick intervals against the original stream of air, as it falls on the

edge of the aperture, and forces outwards this current of air with

quick repetitions, so as to make more than two thirds of it, and less

than two thirds alternately pass on the outside; whence a part of this

stream of air, on each side of the edge of the aperture is perpetually

stopped by that edge; and thus a vacuum and vibration in consequence,

are reciprocally produced on each side of the edge of the aperture.

The quickness or slowness of these vibrations constitute the higher

and lower notes of music, but they all of them are propagated to

distant places in the same time; as the low notes of a distant ring of

bells are heard in equal times with the higher ones: hence in speaking

at a distance from the auditors, the clear sounds produced in the

larynx by the quick vibrations of its aperture, which form the vowels;

the tremulous sounds of the L. R. M. N. NG. which are owing to

vibrations of certain apertures of the mouth and nose, and are so

slow, that the intervals between them are perceived; the sibilant

sounds, which I suppose are occasioned by the air not rushing into a

complete vacuum, whence the vibrations produced are defective in

velocity; and lastly the very high notes made by the quickest

vibrations of the lips in whistling; are all heard in due succession

without confusion; as the progressive motions of all sounds I believe

travel with equal velocity, notwithstanding the greater or less

quickness of their vibrations.

III. STRUCTURE OF THE ALPHABET.

_Mute and antesonant Consonants, and nasal Liquids._

P. If the lips be pressed close together and some air be condensed in

the mouth behind them, on opening the lips the mute consonant P begins

a syllable; if the lips be closed suddenly during the passage of a

current of air through them, the air becomes condensed in the mouth

behind them, and the mute consonant P terminates a syllable.

B. If in the above situation of the lips a sound is previously

produced in the mouth, which may be termed orisonance, the semisonant

consonant B is produced, which like the letter P above described may

begin or terminate a syllable.

M. In the above situation of the lips, if a sound is produced through

the nostrils, which sound is termed narisonance, the nasal letter M is

formed; the sound of which may be lengthened in pronunciation like

those of the vowels.

T. If the point of the tongue be applied to the forepart of the

palate, at the roots of the upper teeth, and some air condensed in the

mouth behind, on withdrawing the tongue downwards the mute consonant T

is formed; which may begin or terminate a syllable.

D. If the tongue be placed as above described, and a sound be

previously produced in the mouth, the semisonant consonant D is

formed, which may begin or terminate a syllable.

N. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be

produced through the nostrils, the nasal letter N is formed, the sound

of which may be elongated like those of the vowels.

K. If the point of the tongue be retracted, and applied to the middle

part of the palate; and some air condensed in the mouth behind; on

withdrawing the tongue downwards the mute consonant K is produced,

which may begin or terminate a syllable.

Ga. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be

previously produced in the mouth behind, the semisonant consonant G is

formed, as pronounced in the word go, and may begin or terminate a

syllable.

NG. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be

produced through the nostrils; the nasal letter ng is produced, as in

king and throng; which is the french n, the sound of which may be

elongated like a vowel; and should have an appropriated character, as

thus _v_.

Three of these letters, P, T, K, are stops to the stream of vocal air,

and are called mutes by grammarians; three, B, D, Ga, are preceded by

a little orisonance; and three, M, N, NG, possess continued

narisonance, and have been called liquids by grammarians.

_Sibilants and Sonisibilants._

W. Of the Germans; if the lips be appressed together, as informing the

letter P; and air from the mouth be forced between them; the W

sibilant is produced, as pronounced by the Germans, and by some of the

inferiour people of London, and ought to have an appropriated

character as thus M.[TN: Upside down W.]

W. If in the above situation of the lips a sound be produced in the

mouth, as in the letter B, and the sonorous air be forced between

them; the sonisibilant letter W is produced; which is the common W of

our language.

F. If the lower lip be appressed to the edges of the upper teeth, and

air from the mouth be forced between them, the sibilant letter F is

formed.

V. If in the above situation of the lip and teeth a sound be produced

in the mouth, and the sonorous air be forced between them, the

sonisibilant letter V is formed.

Th. Sibilant. If the point of the tongue be placed between the teeth,

and air from the mouth be forced between them, the Th sibilant is

produced, as in thigh, and should have a proper character, as [TN: Looks

like the Greek 'phi'].

Th. Sonisibilant. If in the above situation of the tongue and teeth a

sound be produced in the mouth, and the sonorous air be forced between

them, the sonisibilant Th is formed, as in Thee; and should have an

appropriated character as [TN: Looks like the Greek 'theta'].

S. If the point of the tongue be appressed to the forepart of the

palate, as in forming the letter T, and air from the mouth be forced

between them, the sibilant letter S is produced.

Z. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound be

produced in the mouth, as in the letter D, and the sonorous air be

forced between them, the sonisibilant letter Z is formed.

SH. If the point of the tongue be retracted and applied to the middle

part of the palate, as in forming the letter K, and air from the mouth

be forced between them, the letter Sh is produced, which is a simple

sound and ought to have a single character, thus [TN: Looks like the

Greek 'lambda'].

J. French. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound

be produced in the mouth, as in the letter Ga; and the sonorous air

be forced between them; the J consonant of the French is formed; which

is a sonisibilant letter, as in the word conclusion, confusion,

pigeon; it should be called Je, and should have a different character

from the vowel i, with which it has an analogy, as thus _V_.

H. If the back part of the tongue be appressed to the pendulous

curtain of the palate and uvula; and air from behind be forced between

them; the sibilant letter H is produced.

Ch Spanish. If in the above situation of the tongue and palate a sound

be produced behind; and the sonorous air be forced between them; the

Ch Spanish is formed; which is a sonisibilant letter, the same as the

Ch Scotch in the words Bu_ch_anan and lo_ch_: it is also perhaps the

Welsh guttural expressed by their double L as in Lloyd, Lluellen; it

is a simple sound, and ought to have a single character as [TN: Looks

like an H on its side].

The sibilant and sonisibilant letters may be elongated in

pronunciation like the vowels; the sibilancy is probably occasioned by

the vibrations of the air being slower than those of the lowest

musical notes. I have preferred the word sonisibilants to the word

semivocal sibilants; as the sounds of these sonisibilants are formed

in different apertures of the mouth, and not in the larynx like the

vowels.

_Orisonant Liquids._

R. If the point of the tongue be appressed to the forepart of the

palate, as in forming the letters T, D, N, S, Z, and air be pushed

between them so as to produce continued sound, the letter R is formed.

L. If the retracted tongue be appressed to the middle of the palate,

as in forming the letters K, Ga, NG, Sh, J French, and air be pushed

over its edges so as to produce continued sound, the letter L is

formed.

The nasal letters m, n, and ng, are clear tremulous sounds like R and

L, and have all of them been called liquids by grammarians. Besides

the R and L, above described, there is another orisonant sound

produced by the lips in whistling; which is not used in this country

as a part of language, and has therefore obtained no character, but is

analogous to the R and L; it is also possible, that another orisonant

letter may be formed by the back part of the tongue and back part of

the palate, as in pronouncing H and Ch, which may perhaps be the Welch

Ll in Lloyd, Lluellin.

_Four pairs of Vowels._

A pronounced like au, as in the word call. If the aperture, made by

approximating the back part of the tongue to the uvula and pendulous

curtain of the palate, as in forming the sibilant letter H, and the

sonisibilant letter Ch Spanish, be enlarged just so much as to prevent

sibilancy; and a continued sound produced by the larynx be modulated

in passing through it; the letter A is formed, as in ball, wall, which

is sounded like aw in the word awkward; and is the most usual sound of

the letter A in foreign languages; and to distinguish it from the

succeeding A might be called A micron; as the aperture of the fauces,

where it is produced, is less than in the next A.

A pronounced like ah, as in the word hazard. If the aperture of the

fauces above described, between the back part of the tongue and the

back part of the palate, be enlarged as much as convenient, and a

continued sound, produced in the larynx, be modulated in passing

through it; the letter A is formed, as in animal, army, and ought to

have an appropriated character in our language, as thus [TN: Looks like

an A on its head]. As this letter A is formed by a larger aperture than

the former one, it may be called A mega.

A pronounced as in the words cake, ale. If the retracted tongue by

approximation to the middle part of the palate, as in forming the

letters R, Ga, NG, Sh, J French, L, leaves an aperture just so large

as to prevent sibilancy, and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated

in passing through it; the letter A is produced, as pronounced in the

words whale, sale, and ought to have an appropriated character in our

language, as thus [TN: Looks like a handwritten 9]; this is expressed by

the letter E in some modern languages, and might be termed E micron;

as it is formed by a less aperture of the mouth than the succeeding E.

E pronounced like the vowel a, when short, as in the words emblem,

dwelling. If the aperture above described between the retracted tongue

and the middle of the palate be enlarged as much as convenient, and

sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it, the

letter E is formed, as in the words egg, herring; and as it is

pronounced in most foreign languages, and might be called E mega to

distinguish it from the preceding E.

I pronounced like e in keel. If the point of the tongue by

approximation to the forepart of the palate, as in forming the letters

T, D, N, S, Z, R, leaves an aperture just so large as to prevent

sibilancy, and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing

through it; the vowel I is produced, which is in our language

generally represented by e when long, as in the word keel; and by i

when, short, as in the word it, which is the sound of this letter in

most foreign languages; and may be called E micron to distinguish it

from the succeeding E or Y.

Y, when it begins a word, as in youth. If the aperture above described

between the point of the tongue, and the forepart of the palate be

enlarged as much as convenient, and sonorous air from the larynx be

modulated in passing through it, the letter Y is formed; which, when

it begins a word, has been called Y consonant by some, and by others

has been thought only a quick pronunciation of our e, or the i of

foreign languages; as in the word year, yellow; and may be termed E

mega, as it is formed by a larger aperture than the preceding e or i.

O pronounced like oo, as in the word fool. If the lips by

approximation to each other, as in forming the letters P, B, M, W

sibilant, W sonisibilant, leave an aperture just so wide as to prevent

sibilancy; and sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing

through it; the letter O is formed, as in the words cool, school, and

ought to have an appropriated character as thus [TN: Looks like the

infinity symbol], and may be termed o micron to distinguish it from

the succeeding o.

O pronounced as in the word cold. If the aperture above described

between the approximated lips be enlarged as much as convenient; and

sonorous air from the larynx be modulated in passing through it, the

letter o is formed, as in sole, coal, which may be termed o mega, as

it is formed in a larger aperture than the preceding one.

_Conclusion._

The alphabet appears from this analysis of it to consist of thirty-one

letters, which spell all European languages.

Three mute consonants, P, T, K.

Three antesonant consonants, B, D, Ga.

Three narisonant liquids, M, N, NG.

Six sibilants, W German, F, Th, S, Sh, H.

Six sonisibilants, W, V, Th, Z, J French, Ch Spanish.

Two orisonant liquids, R, L.

Eight vowels, Aw, ah, a, e, i, y, oo, o.

To these thirty-one characters might perhaps be added one for the

Welsh L, and another for whistling with the lips; and it is possible,

that some savage nations, whose languages are said to abound with

gutturals, may pronounce a mute consonant, as well as an antesonant

one, and perhaps another narisonant letter, by appressing the back

part of the tongue to the back part of the palate, as in pronouncing

the H, and Ch Spanish.

The philosophical reader will perceive that these thirty-one sounds

might be expressed by fewer characters referring to the manner of

their production. As suppose one character was to express the

antesonance of B, D, Ga; another the orisonance of R, L; another the

sibilance of W, S, Sh, H; another the sonisibilance of W, Z, J French,

Ch Spanish; another to express the more open vowels; another the less

open vowels; for which the word micron is here used, and for which the

word mega is here used.

Then the following characters only might be necessary to express them

all; P alone, or with antesonance B; with narisonance M; with

sibilance W German; with sonisibilance W; with vocality, termed micron

OO; with vocality, termed mega O.

T alone, or with the above characters added to it, would in the same

manner suggest D, N, S, Z, EE, Y, and R with a mark for orisonance.

K alone, or with the additional characters, would suggest Ga, NG, Sh,

J French, A, E, and L, with a mark for orisonance.

F alone, or with a mark for sonisibilance, V.

Th alone, or with a mark for sonisibilance, Th.

H alone, or with a mark for sonisibilance, Ch Spanish, and with a mark

for less open vocality, aw, with another for more open vocality ah.

Whence it appears that six single characters, for the letters P, T, K,

F, Th, H, with seven additional marks joined to them for antesonance,

narisonance, orisonance, sibilance, sonisibilance, less open vocality,

and more open vocality; being in all but thirteen characters, may

spell all the European languages.

I have found more difficulty in analyzing the vowels than the other

letters; as the apertures, through which they are modulated, do not

close; and it was therefore less easy to ascertain exactly, in what

part of the mouth they were modulated; but recollecting that those

parts of the mouth must be more ready to use for the purpose of

forming the vowels, which were in the habit of being exerted in

forming the other letters; I rolled up some tin foil into cylinders

about the size of my finger; and speaking the vowels separately

through them, found by the impressions made on them, in what part of

the mouth each of the vowels was formed with somewhat greater

accuracy, but not so as perfectly to satisfy myself.

The parts of the mouth appeared to me to be those in which the letters

P, I, K, and H, are produced; as those, where the letters F and Th are

formed, do not suit the production of mute or antesonant consonants;

as the interstices of the teeth would occasion some sibilance; and

these apertures are not adapted to the formation of vowels on the same

account.

The two first vowels aw and ah being modulated in the back part of the

mouth, it is necessary to open wide the lips and other passages of the

mouth in pronouncing them; that those passages may not again alter

their tone; and that more so in pronouncing ah, than aw; as the

aperture of the fauces is opened wider, where it is formed, and from

the greater or less size of these apertures used in forming the vowels

by different persons, the tone of all of them may be somewhat altered

as spoken by different orators.

I have treated with greater confidence on the formation of articulate

sounds, as I many years ago gave considerable attention to this

subject for the purpose of improving shorthand; at that time I

contrived a wooden mouth with lips of soft leather, and with a valve

over the back part of it for nostrils, both which could be quickly

opened or closed by the pressure of the fingers, the vocality was

given by a silk ribbon about an inch long and a quarter of an inch

wide stretched between two bits of smooth wood a little hollowed; so

that when a gentle current of air from bellows was blown on the edge

of the ribbon, it gave an agreeable tone, as it vibrated between the

wooden sides, much like a human voice. This head pronounced the p, b,

m, and the vowel a, with so great nicety as to deceive all who heard

it unseen, when it pronounced the words mama, papa, map, and pam; and

had a most plaintive tone, when the lips were gradually closed. My

other occupations prevented me from proceeding in the further

construction of this machine; which might have required but thirteen

movements, as shown in the above analysis, unless some variety of

musical note was to be added to the vocality produced in the larynx;

all of which movements might communicate with the keys of a

harpsichord or forte piano, and perform the song as well as the

accompaniment; or which if built in a gigantic form, might speak so

loud as to command an army or instruct a crowd.

I conclude this with an agreeable hope, that now war is ceased, the

active and ingenious of all nations will attend again to those

sciences, which better the condition of human nature; and that the

alphabet will undergo a perfect reformation, which may indeed make it

more difficult to trace the etymologies of words, but will much

facilitate the acquisition of modern languages; which as science

improves and becomes more generally diffused, will gradually become

more distinct and accurate than the ancient ones; as metaphors will

cease to be necessary in conversation, and only be used as the

ornaments of poetry.

THE END.

CONTENTS OF THE ADDITIONAL NOTES.

NOTE I. SPONTANEOUS VITALITY OF MICROSCOPIC ANIMALS.

I. Spontaneous vital production not contrary to scripture; to be

looked for only in the simplest organic beings; supposed want of

analogy no argument against it, as this equally applies to all new

discoveries. II. The power of reproduction distinguishes organic

beings; which are gradually enlarged and improved by it. III.

Microscopic animals produced from all vegetable and animal infusions;

generate others like themselves by solitary reproduction; not produced

from eggs; conferva fontinalis; mucor. IV. Theory of spontaneous

vitality. Animal nutrition; vegetable; some organic particles have

appetencies to unite, others propensities to be united; buds of trees;

sexual reproduction: analogy between generation and nutrition; laws of

elasticity not understood; dead animalcules recover life by heat and

moisture; chaos redivivum; vorticella; shell-snails; eggs and seeds:

hydra. Classes of microscopic animals; general remarks.

NOTE II. FACULTIES OF THE SENSORIUM.

Fibres possess a power of contraction; spirit of animation immediate

cause of their contracting; stimulus of external bodies the remote

cause; stimulus produces irritation; due contraction occasions

pleasure; too much, or too little, pain; sensation produces desire or

aversion, which constitute volition: associated motions; irritation;

sensation; volition; association; sensorium.

NOTE III. VOLCANOES.

Their explosions occasioned by water falling on boiling lava; primeval

earthquakes of great extent; more elastic vapours might raise islands

and continents, or even throw the moon from the earth; stones falling

from the sky; earthquake at, Lisbon; subterraneous fires under this

island.

NOTE IV. MUSQUITO.

The larva lives chiefly in water; it may be driven away by smoke;

gnats; libelulla; aestros bovis; bolts: musca chamaeleon; vomitoria.

NOTE V. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS.

Diodon has both lungs and gills; some amphibious quadrupeds have the

foramen ovale open; perhaps it may be kept open in dogs by frequent

immersion so as to render them amphibious; pearl divers; distinctions

of amphibious animals; lamprey, leech; remora; whale.

NOTE VI. HIEROGLYPHIC CHARACTERS.

Used by the magi of Egypt to record discoveries in science, and

historical events; astrology an early superstition; universal

characters desirable; Grey's Memoria Technica; Bergeret's Botanical

Nomenclature; Bishop Wilkins's Real Character and Philosophical

Language.

NOTE VII. OLD AGE AND DEATH.

I. Immediate cause of the infirmities of age not yet well ascertained;

must be sought in the laws of animal excitability; debility induced by

inactivity of many parts of the system; organs of sense become less

excitable; this ascribed to habit; may arise from deficient secretion

of sensorial power; all parts of the system not changed as we advance

in life. II. Means of preventing old age; warm bath; fishes;

cold-blooded amphibious animals; fermented liquors injurious; also

want of heat, food, and fresh air; variation of stimuli; volition;

activity. III. Theory of the approach of age; surprise: novelty; why

contagious diseases affect a person but once; debility; death.

NOTE VIII. REPRODUCTION.

I. Distinguishes animation from mechanism; solitary and sexual; buds

and bulbs; aphises; tenia; volvox; polypus; oyster; eel;

hermaphrodites. II. Sexual. III. Inferior vegetables and animals

propagate by solitary generation only; next order by both; superior by

sexual generation alone. IV. Animals are improved by reproduction;

contagious diseases; reproduction a mystery.

NOTE IX. STORGE.

Pelicans; pigeons; instincts of animals acquired by a previous state,

and transmitted by tradition; parental love originates from pleasure.

NOTE X. EVE FROM ADAM'S RIB.

Mosaic history of Paradise supposed by some to be an allegory;

Egyptian philosophers, and others, supposed mankind to have been

originally of both sexes united.

NOTE XI. HEREDITARY DISEASES.

Most affect the offspring of solitary reproduction: grafted trees,

strawberries, potatoes; changing seed; intermarriages; hereditary

diseases owing to indulgence in fermented liquors; immoderate use of

common salt; improvement of progeny; hazardous to marry an heiress.

NOTE XII. CHEMICAL THEORY OF ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

I. Attraction and repulsion. II. Two kinds of electric ether;

atmospheres of electricity surround all separate bodies; atmospheres

of similar kinds repel, of different kinds attract each other

strongly; explode on uniting; nonconductors; imperfect conductors;

perfect conductors; torpedo, gymnotus, galvanism. III. Effect of

metallic points. IV. Accumulation of electric ethers by contact. V. By

vicinity; Volta's electrophorus and Rennet's doubler. VI. By heat and

by decomposition; the tourmalin; cats; galvanic pile; evaporation of

water. VII. The spark from the conductor; electric light; not

accounted for by Franklin's theory. VIII. Shock from a coated jar;

perhaps an unrestrainable ethereal fluid yet unobserved; electric

condensation. IX. Galvanic electricity. X. Two magnetic ethers;

analogy between magnetism and electricity; differences between them.

XI. Conclusion.

NOTE XIII. ANALYSIS OF TASTE.

Taste may signify the pleasures received by any of the senses, but not

those which simply attend perception; four sources of pleasure in

vision. I. Novelty or infrequency of visible objects; surprise. II.

Repetition; beating of a drum; dancing; architecture; landscapes;

picturesque; beautiful; romantic; sublime. III. Melody of colours. IV.

Association of agreeable sentiments with visible objects; vision the

language of touch; sentiment of beauty.

NOTE XIV. THEORY AND STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE.

Ideas; words the names or symbols of ideas. I. Conjunctions and

prepositions; abbreviations of other words. II. Nouns substantive.

III. Adjectives, articles; participles, adverbs. IV. Verbs;

progressive production of language.

NOTE XV. ANALYSIS OF ARTICULATE SOUNDS.

I. Imperfections of the present alphabet; of our orthography. II.

Production of sounds. III. Structure of the alphabet; mute and

antesonant consonants, and nasal liquids; sibilants and sonisibilants;

orisonant liquids; four pairs of vowels; alphabet consists of

thirty-one letters; speaking figure.

ERRATUM.

Additional Notes, p. 43, l. 3, for Canto II, l. 129, read Canto II, l.

165.

T. Bensley, Printer, Bolt Court; Fleet Street, London.