ADMINISTRATIONS OF HAYES, GARFIELD, AND ARTHUR, 1877-1885.
R.B. Hayes--The Telephone--Railway Strikes--Elevated Railroads--War with
the Nez Perce Indians--Remonetization of Silver--Resumption of Specie
Payments--A Strange Fishery Award--The Yellow Fever Scourge--Presidential
Election of 1878--James A. Garfield--Civil Service Reform--Assassination
of President Garfield--Chester A. Arthur--The Star Route Frauds--The
Brooklyn Bridge--The Chinese Question--The Mormons--Alaska Exploration
--The Yorktown Centennial--Attempts to Reach the North Pole by Americans
--History of the Greely Expedition.
THE NINETEENTH PRESIDENT.
[Illustration: RUTHERFORD BIRCHARD HAYES (1823-1893) One term,
1877-1881.]
Rutherford Birchard Hayes was born in Delaware County, Ohio, October 4,
1822, and was graduated from Kenyon College at the age of twenty years.
In 1845 he completed his legal studies at Harvard University, and
practiced law, first at Marietta, in his native State, then at Fremont,
and finally in Cincinnati. He entered the military service, at the
beginning of the war, as major, and rose to the rank of brevet
major-general. His career as a soldier was creditable. While still in
the service, in 1864, he was elected to Congress, and was governor of
Ohio in 1867, 1869, and again in 1875. His popularity as chief
magistrate of one of the leading States led to his nomination to the
presidency, to which, however, it must be conceded, he had not a clear
title. He died at Fremont, Ohio, January 17, 1893.
President Hayes proved his desire to strengthen the fraternal feeling
between the North and South by appointing as a member of his cabinet
David McKey, his postmaster-general. Mr. McKey was from Tennessee, and
had served the Confederacy during the Civil War. Hayes' administration
on the whole was uneventful, though marked by a number of incidents
which deserve mention. It was in 1877 that the first telephone for
business purposes was put into use. It connected the residence of
Charles Williams, in Somerville, Massachusetts, with his business office
in Boston, three miles distant. Alexander Bell, of the latter city, was
the inventor of the instrument, which is now in general use throughout
the country, and serves to connect points more than a thousand miles
apart.
RAILWAY STRIKES.
In the summer of 1877 occurred one of the most violent outbreaks among
labor men that has ever been known in this country. There was unrest in
the mining districts over the question of wages, and the dissatisfaction
spread to the principal manufacturing points. When the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad made a reduction of 10 per cent. in the pay of its
employees it was followed, July 14th, by a partial strike on their line.
The men had the sympathy of workmen throughout the country, and the
strike spread to the Pennsylvania, Erie, New York Central, and their
western connections, including the Missouri and Pacific, and a number of
less important lines west of the Mississippi.
The Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers is one of the most intelligent
and conservative labor organizations in the country. It has won the
respect of corporations as well as of the community-at-large by its
fairness and its refusal to engage in strikes, except as a last resort
against grievances. Its members are located in all parts of the country,
and include a good many thousands. In the strike named the Brotherhood
took the lead, and the firemen, brakemen, and other railroad employees
joined them. The result was the stoppage of the wheels of commerce and
the ruin of vast amounts of perishable freight, to say nothing of the
expensive delays of all kinds. The railroad companies called upon the
various State authorities for protection in operating their lines, but,
as is generally the case, the militia were either in sympathy with the
strikers or were afraid of them. As a final resort, an appeal was made
to the United States government, whose soldiers understand only one
duty, that of obeying orders.
The strikers stopped all trains in Baltimore and Martinsburg, West
Virginia, and defied the authorities. The militia were scattered, but a
few regulars were sufficient to raise the blockade. On the 20th of July,
in an attempt of the rioters to resist the clearing of the streets in
Baltimore, nine persons were killed and a score wounded. The strike
extended until it included the whole country, with the exception of the
cotton-growing States.
The most dangerous outbreak was in Pittsburg, where an immense mob held
control of the city for two days. Disorder and violence reigned, and the
authorities were powerless. When on the 21st soldiers appeared on the
streets they were assailed with stones and pistol-shots, and they
replied with several volleys which killed and wounded a number of
rioters. This only added fuel to the flames, and the mob became more
savage than ever. The soldiers were attacked so furiously that they ran
into a roundhouse of the railway company for protection. There they were
besieged, and oil cars were rolled against the building and fired with
the purpose of burning the soldiers to death. The firemen were not
allowed to put out the flames, and it was several days before the
defenders were rescued.
The infuriated mob applied the torch to the buildings of the railroad
company, gutted cars, scattered or carried off the contents, burst open
and drank barrels of whiskey, and raged like so many wild beasts. Before
the terrific outbreak subsided, the Union Depot and all the machine
shops and railway buildings in the city were burned. Among the losses
were 126 locomotives and 2,500 cars laden with valuable freight. The
regular troops finally subdued the rioters, but not until a hundred
people had been killed and property destroyed to the value of five
million dollars.
There was rioting accompanied with violence in Chicago, Buffalo,
Columbus, Ohio, and at many other points. In Chicago, on the 26th of
July, nineteen persons were killed. St. Louis was disturbed, but there
was no special outbreak. In San Francisco a savage attack was made on
the Chinese and the managers of the lumber yards. At one period, on
6,000 miles of railroad not a wheel was turned, and 100,000 laborers
were idle or assisting in the rioting. Such violent ebullitions soon
expend themselves. By-and-by the men began returning to their work, and
within two or three weeks all the railroads were operating as usual.
About this time the elevated railway system was adopted in New York
City. It has proved so convenient that many lines have been added in the
metropolis, and the same means of travel is used in other cities, though
of late years electric trolley cars have been widely introduced.
THE NEZ PERCE WAR.
When Lewis and Clark journeyed across the upper part of our country, at
the beginning of the century, they made a treaty with the Nez Perce
Indians, whose home was in the northwest. They were visited afterward by
missionaries, and no trouble occurred with them until after our war with
Mexico. A large section of their land was bought by the United States
government in 1854, and a reservation was set apart for them in
northwestern Idaho and northeastern Oregon. As in the case of the
Seminoles of Florida however, many of the chiefs were opposed to the
sale of their lands, and, when the date came for their departure,
refused to leave.
Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces was one of the most remarkable Indians of
the century. He was shrewd, sagacious, brave, and remarkably
intelligent. General Wesley Merritt, of the United States army, has
pronounced his military genius of the highest order, and, in the
incidents we are about to narrate, his exploit in its way has never been
surpassed. A good many people will recall seeing Joseph at the
ceremonies at the tomb of General Grant in 1897, where his fine military
appearance attracted much attention.
In 1877, General Howard, commanding the department of the Columbia,
marched against the troublesome Nez Perces with a small force of
regulars. Being too weak to fight the soldiers, Chief Joseph, at the
head of his band, repeatedly eluded them with masterly skill. This
strange chase continued for hundreds of miles, Joseph keeping his women,
children, and impedimenta not only intact, but beyond reach of the
pursuers, who were filled with admiration of his genius. In the autumn
of 1877, the Nez Perces passed through the mountains of northern
Montana, where they were confronted by Colonel Miles and the regulars.
Even then Joseph could not be brought to battle, and crossed the
Missouri near the mouth of the Mussel Shell. In the Bear Paw Mountains,
however, his camp was surrounded and he was brought to bay. The Nez
Perces fought with great bravery, but were defeated. Joseph faced the
inevitable, and, walking forward to where General Howard was sitting on
his horse, handed him his rifle. Then, pointing to the sun in the sky,
he said: "From where the sun is in yonder heavens, I fight the white man
no more."
General Howard admired the valiant and chivalrous warrior, who had
conducted his campaign not only with rare skill, but without any of the
outrages and cruelties which seem natural to the American race. He took
his hand, and promised to be his friend. General Howard was able to keep
his promise, and secured such a favorable location for Joseph and his
band that they have been peaceable and satisfied ever since.
REMONETIZATION OF SILVER.
The money or currency question has long been a disturbing factor in
politics. During the war the silver currency had been out of
circulation, its place being taken for awhile by postage stamps and
afterward by "shinplasters," which were paper fractional parts of a
dollar. In 1873, Congress made gold the exclusive money standard. Silver
depreciated some ten per cent., and the "hard money" people opposed the
measures that were set on foot to remonetize silver; that is, to bring
it into circulation again. Such a bill was passed, then vetoed by the
President, promptly repassed over his veto, and it was ordered that the
coinage of silver should proceed at a rate not to exceed $2,000,000 a
month. About this time (December 18, 1878), gold and paper money for the
first time in seventeen years was of equal value.
In accordance with the law of 1875, specie payments by the United States
government was effected January 1, 1879. At that time there was an
accumulation of $138,000,000 in the United States treasury, nearly all
of it gold, representing forty per cent. of the outstanding bonds. The
mere knowledge of this fact so strengthened the public credit that,
instead of the anticipated rush on the 1st of January, only $11,000,000
was offered for redemption. The problem of specie payment proved to be a
bugbear.
[Illustration: GRANT AT WINDSOR CASTLE.]
THE FISHERY AWARD.
By the treaty of Washington, signed in 1872, Americans were allowed to
take fish of every kind, except shellfish, on the seacoasts and shores
and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of the provinces of Quebec, Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward's Island, and the adjacent islands,
without restriction as to the distance from shore. In return for this
privilege, our government agreed to charge a duty upon certain kinds of
fish brought by British subjects into American harbors. There were other
mutual concessions, and, in order to balance matters and make everything
smooth, the whole question was placed in the hands of an arbitration
commission, which began its sessions in the summer of 1877, at Halifax.
The commission included a member appointed by the Queen, one by the
President, and the third by the Austrian ambassador at the Court of St.
James. Our country was astounded by the verdict of this commission,
which was that the United States should pay the sum of $5,000,000 to the
British government. Even England was surprised, and our government was
disposed to refuse to accept the verdict; but to do that would have
established a bad precedent, and the sum named was paid to Great Britain
in the autumn of 1878.
THE YELLOW FEVER SCOURGE.
Yellow fever has been one of the most dreadful scourges that our country
has suffered. It first appeared on this continent in 1780, when Boston
was ravaged in the summer of that year. It afterward appeared in New
York and Philadelphia, especially in 1793 and 1797, after which its
visitations have been mainly confined to the South, where the sanitation
measures have been less rigid than in the North. It has been proven that
strict quarantine and absolute cleanliness are safeguards against its
entrance, though, after the frightful plague has once appeared in a
place, it is impossible to stamp it out. It subsides before the approach
of frost and cold weather, and the cure for those smitten is to carry
them to cool elevations. Thus far science has not been able to discover
the real nature of yellow fever, nor to provide a remedy. It has been
established, however, that it is due to bacilli or disease germs, as is
the case with cholera, consumption, and many other diseases, and there
is reason to believe a specific remedy will soon be brought to light.
One of the most destructive visitations of yellow fever was in the
summer and autumn of 1873. Memphis and New Orleans suffered the most,
and at one time those cities were abandoned by all who could leave them.
Other portions of the country contributed every possible assistance in
the way of medical help, nurses, and money, but before the scourge was
extirpated by cool weather fully 15,000 persons had succumbed.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1878.
The Republican National Convention was held in Chicago at the opening of
June. As General Grant had returned from his memorable tour round the
world, having been received everywhere with the highest honors, a
determined effort was now made to renominate him for a third term.
Roscoe Conkling, United States senator from New York, was the leader in
the movement, and the whole number of Grant's supporters was 306, who
without a break cast their vote for him thirty-six times in succession.
They failed because of the widespread opposition to any man holding the
exalted office for a longer period than Washington, the Father of his
Country.
The principal rivals of General Grant were James G. Blaine, of Maine,
and John Sherman, of Ohio. There being a deadlock, the supporters of
these two candidates united and thereby nominated James A. Garfield, of
Ohio, with Chester A. Arthur, of New York, as the nominee for
Vice-President.
[Illustration: GRANT IN JAPAN.]
The Democratic Convention, which met in Cincinnati in the latter part of
June, placed in nomination General Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and
William H. English, of Indiana. The prospect of Hancock's election was
excellent, but he destroyed it by one of those unfortunate expressions
which more than once have defeated candidates for high office. When
questioned concerning the tariff he expressed the opinion that it was a
"local issue," a remark which many accepted as displaying ignorance of
the important subject, and they, therefore, voted against him. The
result was as follows: James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, 214
electoral votes; W.S. Hancock and W.H. English, 155; James B. Weaver and
B.J. Chambers, the Greenback candidates, received 307,306 popular votes;
Neal Dow and H.A. Thompson, the Prohibition, 10,305; and John W. Phelps
and S.C. Pomeroy, American, 707; but none of the three secured an
electoral vote.
James A. Garfield was born at Orange, Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November
19, 1831. While he was an infant his father died and he was left to the
care of his noble mother, to whom he was devotedly attached.
[Illustration: THE BOY JAMES GARFIELD BRINGING HIS FIRST DAY'S EARNINGS
TO HIS MOTHER.]
Garfield spent his boyhood in the backwoods, and at one time was the
driver of a canal-boat. He became strong, rugged, and a fine athlete,
and at the same time obtained the rudiments of an English education. At
the age of seventeen he attended the high school at Chester, and by hard
study acquired an excellent knowledge of Latin, Greek, and algebra. He
was a student at Hiram College, and became an instructor in 1854. The
same year he entered Williams College, from which he was graduated with
honor in 1856. He returned to Ohio, and was appointed a professor in
Hiram College. He indulged his taste for politics and law, and served
for a time in the State Senate, but was president of the college when
the war broke out. He at once volunteered, and was appointed
lieutenant-colonel and afterward colonel of the Forty-second Regiment of
Ohio Volunteers.
Garfield displayed remarkable ability in the military service, and had
he remained would have won high distinction. As a brigadier-general he
did fine work in Kentucky and Tennessee. He was chief-of-staff to
General Rosecrans, and showed great gallantry in the tremendous battle
of Chickamauga. He was in the field when elected to Congress in 1862.
His desire was to remain, but, at the personal request of President
Lincoln, he entered Congress, where it was felt his help was needed in
the important legislation before the country. The estimate in which he
was held by his fellow-citizens is shown by the fact that he served as a
member of Congress for seventeen years. In 1879 he was chosen United
States senator, but did not take his seat because of his nomination for
the presidency.
CIVIL SERVICE REFORM.
The question of "civil service reform," as it is termed, assumed
prominence during the term of Hayes. This, as all understand, means that
the public offices should be filled not in accordance with politics, but
be determined by fitness. The charge has been made with reason that,
when public servants have become skilled in the discharge of their
duties, they are turned out to make room for the friends of the new
administration, where politics are different. In that way public service
is injured.
[Illustration: JAMES A. GARFIELD (1831-1881.) One partial term, 1881.]
The opponents of civil service reform maintain, on the other hand, that
there are thousands out of office who are just as capable as those in
office, and that the party ought to reward those that have helped it to
success. "To the victor belong the spoils" was the policy of Andrew
Jackson, and it has been followed in a greater or less degree ever
since. The cry of civil service reform was long a well-sounding motto
with which to catch votes, but no serious effort was made to enforce it.
Hayes tried his hand, but the clamor for political rewards was so
insistent that he gave it up, and matters dropped back into their old
ruts. The vexatious question was inherited by Garfield, and the hope was
general that he would not only make a determined effort, but would
succeed in carrying out the principles of real civil service reform.
The task soon proved beyond the capacity of himself or any human being.
It seemed as if nearly every man in the country had been the deciding
factor in the election of the President, while the "original Garfield
man" would have formed a full regiment. The executive threw up his
hands, and decided to pass over the plague to the next administration.
The quarrel produced a split in the Republican party itself, and two
wings were formed, known as "Half-breeds" and "Stalwarts." At the head
of the latter was the brilliant New York senator, Roscoe Conkling, who
had been so persistent in his efforts to renominate General Grant for a
third term. The leader of the Half-breeds was James G. Blaine, as
brilliant as Conkling, while both were strong personal opponents. The
Stalwarts claimed the right of dividing the offices, as had been the
custom for a century, the senators and representatives apportioning the
plums among the horde of claimants. The President was supported by the
Half-breeds in his claim that it was his province to bestow these gifts
as he saw fit.
The collectorship of the port of New York is one of the best offices at
the disposal of the administration. The President nominated Judge
William Robertson. He was personally distasteful to Conkling, and, when
he found himself unable to prevent his confirmation by the Senate, he
and Thomas C. Platt, the junior senator from New York, resigned their
seats. Both afterward sought and failed to secure a re-election from the
Legislature. Congress adjourned in June.
[Illustration: THE AGED MOTHER OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.]
ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.
Relieved from the pressure of his duties, the President now made his
arrangements for placing his two sons in Williams College and joining
his invalid wife at the seashore. On the 2d of July, 1881, accompanied
by Secretary Blaine and several friends, he rode to the Baltimore
Railroad station to board the cars. He had just entered the building and
was chatting with his secretary, when a miscreant named Charles Julias
Guiteau stepped up behind him and shot him with a pistol in the back.
The wounded President sank to the floor and was carried to the executive
mansion, while the assassin was hurried to prison before he could be
lynched, as he assuredly would have been but for such prompt action by
the authorities.
The shock to the country was scarcely less than when Abraham Lincoln was
shot in Ford's Theatre. Although the wound of the President was severe,
it was not believed to be necessarily fatal. He received the best
medical attention, and prayers for his recovery were sent up from every
quarter of the land and across the sea. Daily bulletins of his condition
were issued and messages of sympathy were received from many crowned
heads on the other side of the Atlantic. The sufferer was removed on the
6th of September to Elberon, New Jersey, where it was hoped the
invigorating sea-air would bring back strength to his wasted frame.
These hopes were vain, and, on the 19th of September, he quietly
breathed his last. It may be noted that this date was the anniversary of
the battle of Chickamauga, where General Garfield performed his most
brilliant service in the war. Amid universal expressions of sympathy the
remains were borne to Cleveland, where a fine monument has been erected
to his memory.
[Illustration: ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD.]
Guiteau was a miserable "crank," who had long dogged the President for
an appointment, failing to obtain which he shot him. That his brain was
partly awry, with perhaps a taint of insanity, cannot be questioned,
but, none the less, it was shown that he clearly knew the difference
between right and wrong and was morally responsible for his unspeakable
crime. He was given a fair trial, and, having been found guilty, was
hanged on the 30th of June, 1882.
THE TWENTY-FIRST PRESIDENT.
Chester Alan Arthur, who was immediately sworn in as President, was born
in Vermont, October 5, 1830. He received his education at Union College,
from which he was graduated in 1849. He taught school for a time in his
native State, and then removed to the City of New York, where he studied
law and was admitted to the bar. His ability speedily brought him to the
front and gave him a lucrative practice. He was quartermaster-general of
the State of New York during the war and displayed fine executive
ability. When the war ended, he resumed the practice of law and was made
collector of customs for the port of New York in 1871. Seven years later
he was removed by President Hayes, and shortly after he entered the
presidential canvass of 1880. He died November 18, 1886.
Arthur took the oath of office in New York, on the day succeeding the
death of Garfield, and left at once for Washington. Chief Justice Waite
administered the oath again to him in the vice-president's room. Among
those present were General Grant, General Sherman, Senator Sherman, and
ex-President Hayes.
[Illustration: TABLET IN THE WAITING-ROOM OF THE RAILWAY STATION WHERE
GARFIELD WAS SHOT.]
While President Arthur showed slight disposition to change the policy of
the administration, he inherited many vexatious matters from his
predecessor. One of the worst of these was the "Star Route Frauds."
The rapid settlement of the West naturally created a demand for improved
mail facilities. In a number of places, fast mail routes had been
organized by the postoffice department, and these were designated on the
official documents by the figures of stars. The authorized expenditures
of the postoffice department were clearly defined, but a clause in the
law permitted it to "expedite" such routes as proved to be inefficient.
This opened the door for fraud, and, as is always the case, it lost no
time in entering.
The contracts were let at the legal rates, and then, availing themselves
of the legal authority, the same routes were "expedited" at immense
profits. The money thus stolen--and it amounted to immense sums--was
divided among the parties letting the contracts and the contractors.
Stephen W. Dorsey, John W. Dorsey, and Thomas J. Brady--formerly
second-assistant postmaster-general--were indicted for a conspiracy to
defraud the government and enrich themselves. All were prominent
politicians, and their trial attracted national attention. Although the
testimony seemed to establish the guilt of the parties accused, all
three escaped, the miscarriage of justice causing a qualm of disgust and
indignation among right-minded citizens.
One of the famous structures in the country is the Brooklyn Bridge,
which was completed and opened for traffic May 24, 1883. Operations on
it were begun January 3, 1870, and the towers were finished six years
later. The first wire reaching from tower to tower was strung August 14,
1876. Each of the four cables contains 5,296 wires, untwisted, lying
straight, and held in place by other wires coiled tightly around them.
The length of the main span is 1,595-1/2 feet; the two land spans are
930 feet each; the masonry approach on the New York side is 1,562 feet
long, and that on the Brooklyn side 971 feet. The total distance,
therefore, is about 6,000 feet, or more than a mile. The middle of the
main span is about 135 feet above the water in summer, and in winter,
owing to the contraction caused by cold, it is three feet more. The
height is such that nearly any ship can pass under the bridge without
lowering its top-mast. Twenty persons were killed during the
construction of the bridge. Although the day was inclement and
unfavorable, the opening of the structure to travel was attended with
many ceremonies, including civic and military processions, oratory,
salutes by naval vessels, and illuminations and fireworks in the
evening.
[Illustration: CHESTER ALAN ARTHUR.
(1830-1886.) One partial term, 1881-1885.]
THE CHINESE.
The State of California, on account of its situation, received thousands
of Chinese immigrants every year from across the Pacific. These people
live so meanly that they could afford to work for wages upon which a
white man would starve. Consequently they crowded out other laborers and
caused so much discontent that something in the nature of a revolt took
place against them. The grievance of the Californians was so
well-founded that Congress, while Hayes was President, passed a bill
which forbade the immigration of Chinese laborers to this country, and
requiring those already here to take out certificates, if they left the
United States, so as to identify themselves before being allowed to
return. President Hayes vetoed the bill, but it was passed in 1882. The
amazing ingenuity of the Chinese has enabled them to evade the law in
many instances, but their immigration was substantially checked.
Probably there is no more degraded community on the face of the earth
than the part in San Francisco known as "Chinatown." Most of the yellow
celestials live underground, where their unspeakable villainies are a
flaming reproach to the authorities that permit them.
[Illustration: THE BROOKLYN BRIDGE.]
THE MORMONS.
The Mormons proved a thorn in the side of the body politic. Their
polygamous practices led to the passage in 1882 of Senator Edmunds' bill
which excluded polygamists from holding office. A good many persons
were convicted and sentenced for violation of the law, which was upheld
by the Supreme Court.
While this legislation did much to abate the crime, it cannot be said
that it effectually ended it, for, at this writing, one of the
representatives from the new State of Utah is the husband of several
wives, and it is apparent that still more severe legislation will be
required to stamp out the evil.
[Illustration: SCENE IN CHINATOWN, SAN FRANCISCO.]
EXPLORATION OF ALASKA.
Attention was so generally directed toward Alaska, our recent purchase
from Russia, that an exploring expedition visited that country in 1883,
under the command of Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka. It should be stated
that the party, which was a small one, went thither without authority
from the government, its departure from Portland, Oregon, May 22d, being
secret. It was gone for several months, and brought back interesting and
valuable information. One bit of knowledge was new. The explorers
learned that the length of the great river Yukon is 2,044 miles, which
makes it the third in length in the United States, the fourth in North
America, the seventh in the western hemisphere, and the seventeenth in
the world. The area drained by this immense stream is 200,000 square
miles.
THE YORKTOWN CENTENNIAL.
We have learned of the centennial celebration of the birth of our
republic in Philadelphia. Many other celebrations of important events
were held in different parts of the country, the most important of which
was the commemoration of the great victory at Yorktown, which brought
the Revolution to a close and secured the independence of our country.
As was befitting, preparations were made on a grand scale for this
celebration. Thousands journeyed thither days before the exercises
opened. President Arthur arrived at ten o'clock on the morning of
October 18, 1881, in a government steamer, his approach being announced
by salute after salute, each of twenty-one guns, from the different
ships of the fleet.
The exercises were opened with prayer by Rev. Robert Nelson, grandson of
Governor Nelson, who commanded the Virginia militia at Yorktown and
directed the fire so as to destroy his own home, in which Cornwallis had
his headquarters, after which Governor Holliday, of Virginia, made the
address. At its conclusion, the sword was held up to view which was
presented to the horseman who rode at high speed to Philadelphia with
the news of the surrender of Cornwallis. Another interesting fact was
that W.W. Henry, the grandson of Patrick Henry, was sitting at that
moment on the platform.
The corner-stone of the monument was laid with Masonic ceremonies. The
chair in which the Grand Master for the occasion sat was one that had
been used by Washington when he was Grand Master of the Virginia Masons.
The sash and apron were presented to him at Mount Vernon in 1784, and
had been worked by Mrs. Lafayette. The gavel was made from a portion of
the quarter-deck of the United States frigate _Lawrence_, flagship of
Commodore Perry, when he won his great victory on Lake Erie in
September, 1813. Space cannot be given to enumerate the notables who
were present nor the eloquent addresses that were made. Among the guests
were descendants of Rochambeau, Steuben, and many German and French
friends. The centennial ode was written by Paul H. Hayne, the Southern
poet (who died in 1886), and the oration of the day was by Robert C.
Winthrop.
It was a graceful tribute to the friendly course of England, when
Secretary Blaine, at the reception which followed the ceremonies, read
the following order:
"In recognition of the friendly relations so long and so happily
existing between Great Britain and the United States, in the trust
and confidence of peace and good-will between the two countries for
all centuries to come, and especially as a mark of the profound
respect entertained by the American people for the illustrious
sovereign and gracious lady who sits upon the British throne, it is
hereby ordered that at the close of these services, commemorative of
the valor and success of our forefathers in their patriotic struggle
for independence, the British flag shall be saluted by the forces of
the army and navy of the United States now at Yorktown. The secretary
of war and the secretary of the navy will give orders accordingly.
"CHESTER A. ARTHUR.
"By the PRESIDENT.
"JAMES G. BLAINE, Secretary of State."
The final ceremonies of Yorktown occurred on the 20th of October, at
which time 9,000 sailors, regulars, and militia made an impressive
spectacle. They were under the command of General Hancock, and
represented all of the thirteen original States, including a number of
others. They passed in review before the President, both branches of
Congress, governors of the States and their staffs, and the French and
German guests of the government.
ATTEMPTS TO REACH THE NORTH POLE.
One of these days the North Pole will be reached, but no one can say
when. For hundreds of years the attempt has been made again and again,
and daring navigators have penetrated far into those icy regions, where
the temperature for months at a time registers forty, fifty, and sixty
degrees below zero, only to perish or be turned back disappointed.
The first American expedition into the Arctic regions was conducted by
Dr. Elisha Kent Kane. He sailed from New York in the steamer _Advance_,
May 30, 1853. He reached Smith Strait, as far as Cape George Russell,
and then returned to Van Rensselaer Harbor for the winter. A number of
excursions were made from that point, and 125 miles of coast were traced
to the north and east. Two of the men penetrated to Washington Land in
latitude 82 deg. 27', and discovered an open channel, which they named
Kennedy. Kane came home in 1855, having been further north than any
other explorer. He was obliged to abandon his ship and proceed overland
to the Danish settlements in the south, where he was met by a relief
party.
One of the members of this expedition was Dr. Isaac I. Hayes, who, in
1860, attained 81 deg. 35' north latitude, when he was forced to return
without having accomplished anything of importance. Sir John Franklin,
an English navigator, had been lost in the Arctic regions a number of
years before, and several expeditions had been sent in search of him,
but all failed to secure any definite information. In 1860, Dr. Charles
F. Hall, of Connecticut, led an expedition in quest of the lost
explorer. He was unfortunate enough to lose his boat and was obliged to
return. The most interesting discoveries made by Dr. Hall were a number
of relics of Frobisher's expedition to those dismal regions fully 300
years before. A second party, under Hall, found the same year several
relics of Franklin, and dissipated all possible hope that he or any of
his men were still living.
Dr. Hall was an enthusiastic explorer of those inhospitable regions and
spent five years among the Eskemos. Coming home, he organized a third
party, for, cheerless and dismal as are those frozen solitudes, they
seemed to hold a resistless fascination to all who have visited them.
This expedition reached 80 deg. north latitude, where Hall died.
THE GREELY EXPEDITION.
In 1880, the proposal was made by an international polar commission that
the leading countries should unite in establishing meteorological
stations in the polar region. This was with no intention of helping
explorations toward the North Pole, but to permit the study of weather
phenomena and the actions of the magnetic needle, respecting which much
remains to be learned.
Congress appropriated funds with which to establish a scientific colony
for Americans, one at Point Barrow in Alaska and the other at Lady
Franklin Bay in Grinnell Land. These stations were to be occupied for
periods varying from one to three years.
The party designed for Lady Franklin Bay consisted of First Lieutenant
Adolphus W. Greely, U.S.A., Commander; Lieutenants F.S. Kislingbury and
James B. Lockwood, U.S.A., as assistants; and Dr. O. Pavy as surgeon and
naturalist. In addition, there were twenty-two sergeants, corporals, and
privates, all belonging to the army, and two Eskemos. All the other
attempts to establish circumpolar stations, numbering about a dozen,
were successful.
The steamer _Proteus_ conveyed the expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, the
start being made from the harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland. It would
seem that every needed precaution had been taken to avert disaster.
Since the expedition had an attainable point fixed upon as its
destination, it would seem that it had only to establish a base, where
the government would deposit abundant supplies, to which Greely could
return when he chose or when he found himself compelled to retreat. Then
he could carry forward supplies on his sleds and leave them at different
points along his route, so that he would be sure of finding them on his
return. This scheme is so simple that it would seem that there was no
possible, or at least probable, way of going wrong. Yet misfortune has
been the fate of most of the Arctic expeditions.
It was arranged that two ships were to go to Lady Franklin Bay in the
summer of 1883 to bring back the explorers. These ships were to be the
steam whaler _Proteus_ and the United States gunboat _Yantic_, commanded
by Lieutenant E.A. Garlington; but the _Proteus_, when near Cape Sabine
and before she had landed her supplies, was crushed by the ice and sunk.
With great difficulty, Garlington and his men escaped from the wreck in
small boats and made their way to Upernavik, where they had left the
_Yantic_. The party then returned to the United States, without having
left an ounce of supplies at Lady Franklin Bay, where Greely expected to
find all he needed on his return.
Now let us follow the exploring party under Greely which left St.
John's, Newfoundland, July 7, 1881, in the _Proteus_, that was afterward
lost. Icebergs were soon encountered, but seven hundred miles were
passed without any land appearing. The days had lengthened, light
appearing shortly after midnight and lasting until ten o'clock the
succeeding night, but the fog was dense and all-pervading. On July 16th,
the _Proteus_ was steaming cautiously through the mist, when the icy
coast of Disco Island, several hundred feet in height, loomed up
directly ahead.
The most interesting sight was a vast iceberg in two parts, joined by an
immense overhanging arch, under which it would have been easy for the
ship to sail. The captain was too wise to make any such attempt. He
steamed to one side of it, and, when some distance beyond, fired a
signal gun for a pilot. The report was followed by a thunderous
rumbling, and, looking back, the crew saw the vast arch, weighing
thousands of tons, descend to the water with a crash that caused the
steamer to rock to and fro for several minutes. Had she been caught
beneath the mass, she would have been crushed like a tiny insect.
A landing was made at the settlement of Disco. In this squalid town all
the dwellings were mere huts, with the exception of those of the
inspector and governor. It was a strange sight to find in one of these
dwellings in the North a piano, billiard table, carpets, and many of the
luxuries of civilized life. The visitors were treated with the utmost
hospitality and took part in a dance in progress.
Returning to the _Proteus_ the party steamed through the fog to
Upernavik, which was reached on the 23d of July. They were never out of
sight of icebergs, but they caused no trouble, and were easily avoided.
By means of the steam launch, several men made a passage through inner
waters to Proven, a sparse settlement, where they procured some clothing
suitable for the high latitudes.
These settlements, far beyond the Arctic Circle, belong to Denmark,
which exercises a nominal control over them. One of the industries of
Proven is the furnishing of supplies to Arctic explorers. A liberal
quantity of fresh food was secured, beside two native guides and
thirty-two Eskemo dogs. It was near here that McClintock, the explorer,
was frozen in for an entire year; but the weather continued unusually
mild. A mountainous iceberg while drifting slowly with the current
sloughed off so much from one side that its centre of gravity was
displaced and the mountain of ice turned a complete somersault before it
settled to rest.
There is hardly any limit to the time in which provisions can be
preserved in the polar regions. A cache was found among the Gary Islands
which had been left by Sir George Nares years before, and nearly all was
in as good condition as when placed there. One of the strange phenomena
of the Arctic regions is the red snow, mentioned by Sir John Ross, which
was seen by the Greely party. This color is found to be due to myriads
of tiny plants deposited on the crust. That most eminent botanist,
Robert Brown, subjected it to careful examination and pronounced it to
be a unicellular plant of the order _Algae_, and Dr. Greville, of
Edinburgh, gave it its name (_Protococcus nivalis_), by which it is now
known to the scientific world.
The steamer halted at Littleton Island on the 2d of August. A number of
articles were found at "Life-Boat Cove," that had been left by the
Polaris expedition in 1873. A quantity of coal was unloaded here to be
taken aboard on the return.
Steaming up Kennedy Channel, a deposit of provisions was made near
Franklin Island and Carl Ritter Bay. A short distance north, an immense
ice pack stopped the ship which repeatedly tried in vain to butt its way
through. It was compelled to drift with the pack until the 11th of
August, when an opening appeared and the _Proteus_ forced a passage to
Bellot Island, at the entrance to Discovery Harbor.
AT LADY FRANKLIN BAY.
The steamer had now reached Lady Franklin Bay, which was its
destination, and near which Fort Conger, a signal station, was to be
established. The ship was unloaded and a house built, the men living in
tents the meanwhile, and on the 19th of August, the _Proteus_ bade the
explorers good-by and started on her return to Newfoundland.
A number of musk oxen were shot in the vicinity, and now and then a
ptarmigan was bagged. The men moved into the house in the latter part of
August, and Lockwood directed the laying out of the observatory and the
digging of the foundation pier for the transit. The earth was frozen so
hard that it was like chipping solid ice. The house gave the men
comfortable quarters. On the first Sunday all work was stopped and
religious services held. The intention was to send an exploring
expedition along the northern coast of Greenland, and it was placed in
charge of Lockwood. It would have been given to Kislingbury, the senior
officer, but for the fact that he and Greely were not on good terms.
Men were sent to examine St. Patrick's Bay to the northeast, for a site
to establish a depot on the channel of exploration. Such a place was
found and the exploring parties were continually active, some of them
going a good many miles from camp. Game was plentiful, but the wolves
were fierce. Numbers were poisoned by means of arsenic mixed with meat
thrown in their way. It being the beginning of their Arctic experience,
the men enjoyed themselves to an extent that would hardly be supposed.
This was mainly because they were kept busy and the novelty of their
life had not yet worn off. One pleasant custom was that of celebrating
the birthdays of different members of the party, which was done with a
vigor that sometimes reached good-natured boisterousness.
When the sun sank far from sight on the 16th of October, every one knew
that it would not show itself again for four months. It will be
admitted, too, that the weather had become keen, for it registered forty
degrees below zero most of the time and the moisture within the house
was frozen to the depth of an inch on the window-panes.
With the coming of the long, dismal night the wolves became fiercer, and
prowled so closely around the building that no one dared venture far
from the door without firearms in his hands, and the men generally went
in company, ready for an attack that was liable to be made at any
minute.
INTOLERABLE LONELINESS.
Time always hangs heavy when one is forced to remain idle and the dismal
night stretches through a third or half of the year. On the 1st of
November, Lieutenant Lockwood, accompanied by seven men, left the
dwelling to try the passage of the straits, hoping to push his way to
the place where Captain Hall made his winter quarters. They dragged a
heavily loaded sled after them, upon which rested a boat, which they
expected to use in case they reached open water. The men set out bravely
and toiled hard, but were compelled to turn back, finding it impossible
to make any progress.
No one can describe the horrible loneliness of such a life as the party
were now compelled to lead. They played cards and games, told stories,
and held discussions until all such things palled on their taste. Then
they grew weary of one another's company, and hours would pass without a
man speaking a word. Dr. Hayes has related that, when thus placed, he
has dashed out of the dwelling in desperation and wandered for miles
through the frozen solitudes, for no other reason than that the company
of his friends had become unbearable. He stated further that a rooster
on his ship deliberately flew overboard and committed suicide out of
sheer loneliness.
One means resorted to by the explorers for relieving the frightful
monotony was the publication of a paper called the _Arctic Moon_. The
contents were written and copies made by the hektograph process. Then
Greely formed a class in arithmetic, and Lockwood taught a class in
geography and grammar. Matters were quite lively on Thanksgiving Day
(the party being careful to note the passage of the regular days), when
foot-races were run and shooting matches indulged in, Greely
distributing the prizes.
One of the many curious facts regarding life in the Arctic regions is
that its rigors are often withstood better by the inexperienced than by
the experienced. The two Eskemo guides were the most depressed of the
whole party, and one of them wandered off in a dazed condition. When
found miles away, he was running as if in fear of his life, and it was
with great difficulty he was persuaded to return. The second native
would have run off had he not been closely watched.
In the middle of February, the thermometer fell to sixty-five degrees
below zero, an intensity of cold which few living men have experienced.
At such a terrible temperature pure brandy and glycerine freeze hard,
and a man, though heavily clothed, will perish in a few minutes. The
Eskemo dogs by choice slept in the snow outside rather than within the
building.
THE GRAVE OF DR. HALL.
On the last day of February, Lieutenant Lockwood, accompanied by
Brainard, Jewell, Long, the two Eskemos, and a couple of dog teams,
started on a journey to Thank God Harbor, seventy-five miles away. The
journey was made without accident and the observatory was found still
standing, while near at hand was the grave of the Arctic explorer,
Captain C.F. Hall. The grave was marked by a metallic headboard, put up
by the English and the other by Hall's comrades. On the British board
are these words: "To Captain Hall, who sacrificed his life in the
advancement of science, November 8, 1871. This tablet has been erected
by the British Polar Expedition of 1875, which followed in his footsteps
and profited by his experience." The American inscription is as follows:
IN MEMORY OF
CHARLES FRANCIS HALL,
LATE COMMANDER U.S. STEAMER POLARIS, NORTH POLE EXPEDITION,
DIED NOVEMBER 8, 1871.
"I AM THE RESURRECTION AND THE LIFE; HE THAT BELIEVETH IN ME,
THOUGH HE WERE DEAD, YET SHALL HE LIVE."
The great ambition of Lieutenant Lockwood was to lead an expedition
along the northern coast of Greenland, to which Arctic explorers
hitherto had paid comparatively slight attention. His intelligence,
daring, and skill caused Greely to give him his full confidence and to
leave the entire arrangement of the venture in his hands.
Lockwood's intention was to start about the 1st of April. Sergeant
Brainard was to go with the supporting parties in advance to Cape Sumner
and leave supplies. Then when Lockwood's party reached the same point,
with all the provisions they could carry with comfort, the explorers
would be well supplied.
LOCKWOOD'S EXPEDITION TO THE FAR NORTH.
Amid the firing of pistols, waving of flags, and cheers, the start was
made by Lockwood on the 2d of April. Three days later, the party
dragging a sled laden with pemmican reached a snow-house, where they
found Brainard and his friends returning. There were thirteen in all,
and they were crowded in their close quarters, but the fact gave them
additional warmth.
[Illustration: A FUNERAL IN THE ARTIC REGIONS.]
It will be remembered that the long Arctic night was about ended. In the
misty light, a dark object was discerned on the top of a neighboring
iceberg, which being scrutinized was recognized as an eagle. It was
accepted as a good omen by the men, who cheered the noble bird that
vividly reminded them of their distant home.
The direction was now to the northeast. They crossed the straits at Cape
Beechy, pushing to within a few miles of the eastern shore, whence they
were to proceed directly to Fort Sumner. In order to follow the course
of the party intelligently the reader needs to keep a reliable map of
the Arctic regions before him.
Fort Conger stood close to the intersection of sixty-fifth meridian and
the eighty-second parallel, being a little south of the latter and east
of the former. From this starting-point, the route of Lockwood was
slightly south of northeast to its termination. Almost from the
beginning, the traveling was so difficult that the bravest explorers
could not have been blamed for turning back.
The ice was tumbled together in irregular masses many feet in thickness,
through which they often had to cut the way with axes for their sledges.
The wind rose to a hurricane, and was of piercing coldness, and so
filled with fine particles that they cut the face like bird-shot. Most
of the time they could not see one another when separated by a few feet.
Muffled to their eyes, the brave explorers fought their-way onward,
often compelled to stop and turn their backs to the gale, which almost
swept them off their feet. Frequently they crouched behind the piles of
ice to regain their breath while the furious wind roared above their
heads.
Toughened, as were all the men, some of them succumbed under the fearful
work. These returned to camp, and the party was reduced to nine. This
occurred on the 10th of April, very near where the 82d parallel crosses
the 60th meridian. There Lieutenant Lockwood came to a halt, and turned
back with the dogs to Fort Conger. The round journey was a hundred
miles, but it was necessary to get supplies that could be obtained in no
other way, and to secure new runners for their sledges, which were
battered by their rough usage.
Accompanied by the two Eskemos, Lockwood made a new start on the 14th of
April, and averaged two miles an hour until he reached his new camp.
From that point the nine men had three sledges, which they dragged, and
a fourth that was drawn by the dogs. With indomitable pluck they
struggled onward, and all were thrilled on the 25th of the month by the
knowledge that they had reached a point further north than had ever been
attained by an American, and they hoped to surpass all others.
The heroic explorers had by no means finished their task. At regular
points they cached their provisions against the return. If the reader
will locate on his map the intersection of the 55th meridian with the
parallel of 82 deg. 20', he will have a point close to Cape Bryant, where
the supports of the party withdrew and started on their return to camp.
All who were now left were Lieutenant Lockwood, Sergeant Brainard, and
the Eskemo Frederick.
Lockwood apportioned rations for twenty-five days among the three.
Consequently the northward journey and the return must be made within
that time, since they believed it impossible to obtain food in that
fearful region. Shaking hands with their companions, who wished them
good-speed, the little party broke into two divisions, one tramping
southward, while the other resumed its laborious journey toward the
northeast.
Before Lockwood left Cape Sabine, Lieutenant Greely gave it as his
belief that his brave assistant might succeed in reaching Cape
Britannia, which lies about 40 deg. east and 82 deg. 45' north. The
explorer Beaumont saw this cape, but was unable to reach it. When
Lockwood and Brainard arrived there, however, they had no thought of
stopping. A cairn was built, a written account of their travels
deposited, and five days' rations left. Then the heroes bent to their
herculean task again.
The Eskemo was left with the dogs, while the two white men, wrapped in
their furs, laboriously climbed an adjoining mountain, half a mile in
height. From the crest they scanned the snowy landscape, the very
picture of desolation. Twenty miles to the northeast, the direction they
were traveling, they made out a dark promontory, terminating in a rocky
headland and penetrating the Polar Ocean, while between it and them a
number of islands reared their heads and were separated by fiords. Half
of the remaining horizon was filled with the dismal ice of the Frozen
Sea.
They had no expectation of meeting with animal life in this world of
desolation, but they fired several times (and missed) at ptarmigan, and,
having wounded a rabbit, succeeded in running it down. It was a mystery
to them how this little animal found the means of sustaining life so
near the Pole.
It may be wondered how far these three men would have gone had it been
possible to travel. They became accustomed to the exhaustive work, but
the end of the journey was reached on the 13th of May, when they paused
on the edge of an immense fissure in the ice, extending indefinitely to
the right and left, and too broad to be crossed. They searched for a
long time, only to learn that it was utterly out of their power to go a
foot further. Nothing remained but to learn their exact location.
While Lockwood was preparing to take an observation, the sun was
obscured by fog. All the next day so furious a storm raged that they
could do nothing but huddle in their tent and wait for it to pass.
Finally, the conditions became favorable and Lockwood made his
observations with the utmost care. When they were completed the
astounding truth was revealed that their latitude was 84 deg. 24-1/2'
north and 40 deg. 46-1/2' west from Greenwich. This surpassed the
achievement of the Nares expedition sent out by England, in 1875-76,
for the sole purpose of reaching the furthest northern point possible.
Lockwood and Brainard, therefore, had attained the highest point, which
up to that time had never been reached by man. On the 7th of April,
1895, however, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the Norwegian explorer, penetrated
to 86 deg. 15', which surpassed that of Lockwood and Brainard by 200
miles and was within 225 miles of the Pole itself.
The return journey was as exhausting and trying as the outward one, but
the little party never lost courage. Fort Conger was reached early in
June, and, as may be supposed, the explorers received a royal welcome
from their comrades. The three men were suffering from snow blindness,
rheumatism, and various ills brought on by their exposure and terrific
labors, but all were in high spirits, as they might well be, when they
recalled the wonderful achievement they had made.
WEARY WAITING.
The brief summer was at hand. The snow melted during the middle of the
day and the first rain they had seen fell. On the 4th of July they had
shooting matches and engaged in a game of baseball. It can hardly be
said, however, that the American game has gained much of a foothold
north of the Arctic Circle.
All suffered from intense depression of spirits which could not be
shaken off. Again hours would pass without a man speaking a word. They
seemed mutually repellent and miserable. This sad condition resulted
from purely physical causes and no one could be blamed for it.
The company were now waiting for the _Proteus_ which was due. Several
reports that she was in sight threw all into pleasurable excitement, but
it need not be said they were doomed to disappointment, since the relief
ship was at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. The little steam launch had
been repaired and enabled the party to explore the neighboring coasts
for a distance of several hundred miles. A number of musk oxen were
shot, but, except at certain seasons, their flesh is so strongly
impregnated with musk that it is unpalatable for food.
As the weary days passed without bringing the wished-for steamer, hope
sank. Many were sure some accident had befallen the ship and she would
never be seen again. If so (and of course such was the fact), more
months must pass before the news could be carried to the United States
and a new relief expedition be sent. It was hard thus to be forgotten by
their friends at home. As a last resort the party could retreat in their
boats, but all dreaded the almost hopeless recourse. Gradually the
summer drew to a close and once more they saw the low-sweeping sun dip
below the horizon not to appear again for months. The long, horrible
Arctic night again enveloped them in misery and gloom.
When the month of January came every member of the party, including
Greely himself, were convinced that their country had abandoned them and
they must look out for themselves. He announced that if no relief
appeared they would start for home not later than the 8th of August.
[Illustration: THE FARTHEST NORTH REACHED BY LIEUT. LOCKWOOD ON THE
GREELY EXPEDITION.]
Lieutenant Lockwood seems to have been about the only member of the
party who for a time kept up his high spirits. He was not satisfied with
what he had already done, and insisted upon another chance to push
northward. He had fixed upon the eighty-fourth parallel as the point
to reach, and he urged the matter so strongly that Greely, who greatly
admired his courage, gave his consent, though confident that he would
find it impossible to do as well as in the former instance.
A FAILURE.
Lockwood made his start on the morning of March 27, 1883, his companions
being the same as before. Two weeks later, as Greely was lying in his
tent, wondering how his friend was making out, Lockwood walked in with a
smile:
"Too much water," he said; "if it had only been ice, we could have
managed it, but we had no means of getting across the water. Better luck
next time."
The next time, however, never came. Greely, Lockwood, and Brainard
always remained on good terms, but it was not the case with some of the
others. Companionship, under such conditions, is a bore, and many a time
the three gentlemen named went off on explorations that occupied several
days, with no other object than to get away from those whose company was
distasteful beyond bearing.
THE START HOMEWARD.
Greely had given up all hope of receiving help from the United States
and determined to start for home as soon as his surroundings would
permit. His plan was to proceed to Littleton Island, where it was
possible they might find a vessel that would take them to Newfoundland.
The explorers, twenty-five in all, made their start southward, August 9,
1883. Their boats were the steam launch referred to, a whale boat, an
English boat, and a smaller one, which it was thought would prove useful
in the event of an accident.
For a time the progress was encouraging. The water was quite open, but
ice soon appeared. They saved their boats from being nipped by drawing
them up on a floe. When open water again showed, they took to the boats
and reached Sun Bay without mishap. Then they made their way to Cape
Lieber, twenty miles south from Fort Conger, where they were almost
overwhelmed in a blinding snowstorm. There they landed and waited for
the ice to move and open the way for them along the western shore of the
strait. A fog kept them there several days, and when they started again
it was in the midst of another blinding snowstorm. One of the incidents
of the struggle against ice and tempest was the falling overboard of
Lieutenant Greely and an accident to the launch. Scoresby Bay was
reached on the 22d of August, and found to be full of floating ice. It
was necessary again to save the boats by drawing them up on the floe. By
that time, too, the supply of coal had become so low that Greely held a
consultation with his officers over their situation, which was not only
dangerous but rapidly becoming more so. He proposed to abandon the
launch, and use the other boats with which to push along the western
shore, but the majority believed they had a chance of making Littleton
Island. Ere long it was found necessary to leave behind the smallest
boat, and when that was done most of the party believed all were doomed.
The elements and even the tides were against them.
The launch soon became useless and was abandoned. Resort was then had to
sledge travel, two carrying a boat between them, and all pulled by the
men. They had not gone far in this toilsome manner when another of the
boats had to be left behind, giving them only one. Even the courageous
Lockwood now expressed his belief that none of the party would escape
alive. Still it was better to die struggling than to sit down and fold
their hands.
Misfortunes crowded upon them. The current continued the wrong way and
the floe upon which they were drifting carried them toward Baffin Bay.
Sludge ice, the most troublesome of all, abounded, and their poor
rations grew scant. In the latter part of September enough of the floes
came in contact to permit the men to pass over them to solid land, some
twelve miles from Cape Sabine. A reconnoitering party in attempting to
reach that point was turned back by the open water. Another company,
however, got through and brought back important news. The _Proteus_ had
been wrecked and a couple of caches, left by English ships, together
with the stores brought from the wreck of the _Proteus_, were
discovered. As may be supposed, they formed a welcome addition to the
meagre stock of food.
THE LAST EXTREMITY.
It being inevitable that another winter must be passed in the land of
desolation, preparations were made for doing so. The spot selected was
between Cape Sabine and Cocked Hat Island. A hut was erected and the
supplies moved thither. Greely informed the men that he had decided to
reduce the rations so that they would last until the coming March. A
cairn was built at Cape Sabine in which was placed a record of what had
been done by the explorers.
All admitted the necessity of reducing the rations, but it was done to
that extent that the men suffered continually from hunger. They were
glad to eat mouldy potatoes, and, when, occasionally, a fox was shot,
nothing was left but the shining bones. If the preceding period was
horrible it was now more so, for all felt they had every reason for
depression, gloom, and despair. The meagre food made them more
susceptible to cold, and, although Greely strove to awaken an interest
in different educational subjects, the conditions were so woeful that he
accomplished little. It may seem strange, but it was natural that the
men's thoughts should dwell almost continually upon delicacies in the
way of eating. They talked about the choicest viands and smacked their
lips over tempting feasts which, alas! existed only in imagination.
Every man uttered a prayer of thanks when the 21st of December arrived,
for it meant that the appalling polar night was half over, but how
endless the other half seemed to them!
In the following month the feet of Corporal Ellison were so badly frozen
that they sloughed off, as did several of his fingers. Soon afterward
one of the men died. The brave Lockwood felt himself growing so weak
that he privately requested Greely to leave him behind, if he should be
alive, when the homeward start was made. Greely replied that under no
conceivable circumstances would he abandon any one if alive, provided he
himself survived the period of waiting.
An attempt was made in February to reach Littleton Island in the hope of
finding the relief ship or stores, but the open water compelled the men
to turn back. The same cause prevented their getting to the Greenland
shore, which could be seen when the weather was clear.
When the middle of March came all were placed on starvation rations.
None of the canned vegetables, coffee, or chocolate was left. The
straits remained open and shut them off from reaching Greenland, where
they might have found game. The bravest of the party lost heart and sank
into the apathy of despair. They felt themselves simply waiting for
death. Lockwood wrote in his diary: "I am glad that each day comes to an
end. It brings us nearer the end of this life, whatever that end may
be."
The fuel, which had been carefully husbanded, gave out in the latter
part of March. The famishing sufferers gathered their furs more tightly
around them and huddled together to secure the mutual warmth of their
emaciated bodies. The furs and shoes could be gnawed and eaten when the
last extremity arrived. Unexpectedly to all, Sergeant Lynn and one of
the Eskemos died at the beginning of April. When there was a chance to
shoot game the men were too weak to hunt for it.
Lieutenant Lockwood, the hero of the wonderful achievement narrated,
whose high spirits and exalted courage carried him through all manner of
perils, died early on the morning of April 9th, his death being due to
starvation. When the brave fellow had passed away there had not been a
mouthful of food within reach for several days.
Before this, it became evident that some one was stealing from the
scanty store. Investigation disclosed the wretched thief to be a man
named Henry. Greely warned him, for he was imperiling the lives of all.
He stole again, whereupon, by orders of Greely, he was shot. When the
final extremity came there is reason to believe that cannibalism was
indulged in, though not to much extent. There is no certainty, however,
on the matter, and the survivors denied having seen it.
THE RESCUE.
Though it may seem that the Greely party was forgotten at home, yet such
was not the fact. The loss of the _Proteus_ caused the gravest fears for
their safety, and, in the spring of 1884, the navy department fitted out
a new relief expedition, consisting of the _Thetis_, the _Bear_, and the
_Alert_, under Commander Winfield S. Schley, who made such a brilliant
record in our late war with Spain.
Commander Schley sailed from Brooklyn in May, and lost not an hour. He
left St. John's on the 12th, meeting a great deal of ice in Baffin Bay
and Smith Sound, but he fought his way through, and sent a strong party
ashore June 22d to hunt for signs of the missing explorers. The steam
launch of the _Bear_ took the party to Brevoort Island, where Lieutenant
Lockwood's letter was found, giving their location and stating that they
were nearly out of provisions. Since the letter was dated eight months
before, the dismayed commander and his officers believed it hardly
possible that any of the men would be found alive.
The _Bear_ was pushed on, and the launch started out again early the
next morning. Before sunset Greely's camp was discovered. Making all
haste forward, the relief party lifted the flap and breathlessly peered
in.
They saw Greely on his knees, muttering the prayers for the dying over
one of his comrades. He looked up, dazed, bewildered, and unable to read
the full meaning of what met his eyes. Around him, in different
postures, were stretched his comrades, some dead and the others close to
death. Those still living were Greely, Brainard, Biederbeck, Fredericks,
Long, Connell, and Ellison. A few days' later arrival on the part of the
_Bear_, and not one would have been breathing. As it was their lives
were still in great danger, and it was necessary to nurse them with the
utmost care. The remains of all who had died, with the exception of the
Eskemo, were brought back to the United States. During the halt in the
harbor of Disco, to leave the body of the Eskemo, Corporal Ellison, who
had been so badly frozen, died. The relief expedition reached St. John's
on July 17th and New York on the 8th of August.
In 1886 the prize of the Royal Geographical Society of Great Britain and
the back premium were awarded to Captain Adolphus W. Greely and Sergeant
David L. Brainard, for having attained the greatest results for the year
in adding to geographical knowledge by examinations or explorations. No
one can deny that this recognition and honor were well won.
The Greely expedition possesses so much interest that we have given
considerable space to the narration. Among the many explorations of the
far North, few or none equal this, not only in heroic daring but in
results accomplished. It may be said that the fate of the Sir John
Franklin party was made clear in 1880, by Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka,
of the United States army, who discovered the skeletons of several of
the unfortunate explorers, together with various relics of the
expedition.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION OF 1884.
In the presidential election of 1884 the Democratic candidates were
Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. The
Republican were James G. Blaine, of Maine, and General John A. Logan, of
Illinois. The chief issue with the Republicans was the tariff, while the
Democrats put forward that of civil service reform. There was much
bitter discussion, some of the leading Republican papers refusing to
support Blaine because of charges affecting his personal integrity. On
the other hand, Cleveland was attacked with scarcely less bitterness.
The quarrel between the leading parties caused some of the weaker ones
to put forward candidates, with a result as follows: Grover Cleveland
and T.A. Hendricks, 219; James G. Blaine and John A. Logan, 182; John P.
St. John and William Daniel, Prohibition, received 151,809 popular
votes; and Benjamin F. Butler and A.M. West, People's party, 133,825.