THE VERB
There are two Conjugations. They are called in Hungarian the =ikes=
(pronounced ik-ash), _having_ =ik=, and the =iktelen=, _without_ =ik=,
conjugations, because verbs belonging to the ikes conjugation have the
termination ik in the _third person singular present indicative_, while
those belonging to the iktelen conjugation have not.
Every Hungarian dictionary puts (ik) after ikes verbs, to show
that they belong to the ikes conjugation; thus, dolgozni (ik).
Verbs not so distinguished belong to the iktelen conjugation.
The Hungarian verb has only one difficulty, and when the student has
mastered that he will have very little trouble.
_Every transitive verb has two forms, called the definite and the
indefinite forms, according to whether the object is determinate, or more
or less indefinite._
I am writing _this letter_, ezt a levelet =irom=.
I am writing _letters_, leveleket =irok=.
Irom is the definite form, because the object is a clearly marked-out one.
Irok is the indefinite form, because the object is not so clearly marked
out.
The _definite_ form is used when the object governed by the transitive
verb is a certain determinate object. For example:—
1. When the _substantive_ is a _proper noun_.
Pétert váro=m=, I am expecting Peter.
2. When the _article_ =az= or =a= _precedes the substantive_.
A levelet iro=m=, I am writing the letter.
3. When the substantive is used with a personal suffix.
Házamat elado=m=, I am selling my house.
4. When the _object_ of the sentence is a _demonstrative pronoun_, the
_third personal pronoun_, or the _reflexive pronoun_, magam, &c.
Azt láto=m=, I see that.
Őt hívo=m=, I am calling him.
Nem hallo=m= magamat, I do not hear myself.
The _indefinite_ form is used when the object is less determinate.
Sok levelet iro=k=, I am writing several letters.
Embert láto=k=, I see a man.
It is used even when the substantive is preceded by a cardinal numeral.
Nyolcz embert láto=k=, I see eight men.
But if, by a demonstrative, or by the article alone, we point to some
particular man or men, we must use the definite form.
Ezt az embert láto=m=, I see _this_ man.
A nyolcz embert láto=m=, I see _the_ eight men.
The _indefinite_ is used when the _object_ is an _infinitive verb_ (such
verb itself having no further object), or a _relative pronoun_.
Szerete=k= dolgozni, I like to work.
A levelek, amelyeket iro=k=, the letters which I write.
Az emberek, akiket láto=k=, the men whom I see.
_Note._—_Intransitive verbs_ naturally have but one form, the
_indefinite_—_e.g._ járok, I walk.
IKTELEN VERBS.
_Example._—=Vágni=, to cut.
Indicative.
_Indefinite Form._ _Definite Form._
_Present._
vág-ok, I cut vág-om, I cut (it)
vág-sz, thou cuttest vág-od, thou cuttest (it)
vág, he cuts vág-ja, he cuts (it)
vág-unk, we cut vág-juk, we cut (it)
vág-tok, you cut vág-játok, you cut (it)
vág-nak, they cut vág-ják, they cut (it)
_Imperfect._
vág-ék, I was cutting vág-ám, I was cutting (it)
vág-ál, thou wast cutting vág-ád, thou wast cutting (it)
vág-a, he was cutting vág-á, he was cutting (it)
vág-ánk, we were cutting vág-ók, we were cutting (it)
vág-átok, you were cutting vág-átok, you were cutting (it)
vág-ának, they were cutting vág-ák, they were cutting (it)
_N.B._—This tense is obsolete; see page 46.
_Past._
vág-tam, I have cut vág-tam, I have cut (it)
vág-tál, thou hast cut vág-tad, thou hast cut (it)
vág-(o)t(t)[7], he has cut vág-ta, he has cut (it)
vág-tunk, we have cut vág-tuk, we have cut (it)
vág-tatok, you have cut vág-tátok, you have cut (it)
vág-tak, they have cut vág-ták, they have cut (it)
_Pluperfect._
This is the same as the past tense, followed by =volt=.
vág-tam volt, I had cut.
vág-tál volt, thou hadst cut, &c.
_Future._
fogok vágni, I shall cut fogom vágni, I shall cut (it)
fogsz ” thou wilt cut fogod ” thou wilt cut (it)
fog ” he will cut fogja ” he will cut (it)
fogunk ” we shall cut fogjuk ” we shall cut (it)
fogtok ” you will cut fogjátok ” you will cut (it)
fognak ” they will cut fogják ” they will cut (it)
Imperative.
vág-j, do thou cut vág-d, cut thou (it)
vág-jon, let him cut vag-ja, let him cut (it)
vág-junk, let us cut vág-juk, let us cut (it)
vág-jatok, cut you vág-játok, cut you (it)
vág-janak, let them cut vág-ják, let them cut (it)
Subjunctive.
(hogy-) (that) (hogy-) (that)
vág-ják, I may or might cut vág-jam, I may or might cut
vag-j, thou mayest or vág-d, (it), &c.
vág-jon mightest cut, &c. vág-ja
vág-junk vág-juk
vág-jatok vág-játok
vág-janak vág-ják
Conditional.
_Present._
vág-nék, I should cut vág-nám, I should cut (it)
vág-nál, thou shouldst cut vág-nád, thou shouldst cut (it)
vág-na, he should cut vág-ná, he should cut (it)
vág-nánk, we should cut vág-nók, we should cut (it)
vág-nátok, you should cut vág-nátok, you should cut (it)
vág-nának, they should cut vág-nák, they should cut (it)
_Past._
This is formed from the past indicative, with =volna=.
vág-tam volna, I should have cut.
vág-tál volna, thou shouldst have cut, &c.
Infinitive.
vág-ni, to cut.
With the personal suffixes (see pages 59 and 60):—
Sing.: vág-nom, vág-nod, vág-nia.
Plural: vág-nunk, vág-notok, vág-niok.
Participles.
Present: vág-ó, cutting.
Past: vág-ott, cut.
Future: vág-andó, to be cut.
Adverbial Participles: vág-va, vág-ván.
_Notes on above example._
All regular iktelen verbs whose vowels are flats (see page 2) are
conjugated like vágni.
_Imperfect Indicative._—This tense is never used now in prose, though it
was so used formerly. It is occasionally to be met with in poetry.
_Past Indicative._—This is equivalent to both the perfect and the
preterite in English. Thus, vágtam means both “I have cut,” and “I cut.”
_Future Indicative._—Instead of fogok (I will), with the infinitive, it
is customary to use the present indicative with some adverb indicating
futurity. Thus instead of holnap =fogom vágni= a tüzelő fát, it would be
better to say holnap =vágom= a tüzelő fát, to-morrow I (shall) cut the
firewood. Hamar elmegyek, I (shall) go soon.
There is no form of future perfect now in use. Its place is taken
by either the present or the past tense, together with some adverb
indicating futurity.
I shall have finished soon = nemsokára bevégzem (literally, soon I
finish).
I shall soon have written the letter = hamar megirtam a levelet
(literally, soon I have written the letter).
_Note._—The particle =meg=, in this instance prefixed to irtam, strongly
emphasises the completion of an act. It occurs along with
very many verbs, and always has this force. Sometimes it
is prefixed to the verb, and sometimes it follows separately.
Sokat irtam a feladatból de még nem irtam =meg=, I have written much of
the task, but I have not yet finished writing.
This meg (which must not be confused with the adverb még = as yet) has no
equivalent in English.
_Subjunctive Mood._—A past tense of the subjunctive was formerly in use,
formed from the past indicative followed by legyen, _e.g._ hogy vágtam
legyen. This is never used now, its place being taken by the present
subjunctive.
_Conditional Mood._—The present tense is identical with the Imperative.
_Infinitive._—The use of the infinitive with personal suffixes will be
explained in the paragraph relating to the verb kelleni (page 59).
_Participles._—_Examples_:—
Present: Az iró ember, the writing man.
Past: Az irott könyv, the written book.
Future: Az irandó levél, the letter to be written.
Adverbial:
-va or -ve. A hegyen állva, beszélt, standing on the hill,
he spoke.
A ház fel van épitve, the house is built.
-ván or -vén. A munkát elvégezvén, haza ment, having finished
the work, he went home.
A lármát hallván, az udvarra sietett, hearing
the noise, he hastened to the courtyard.
-ván, -vén, is used more frequently than -va, -ve, but only in cases
similar to the above examples, where one clause is dependent on another.
VERBS WITH SHARP VOWELS.
The rules of euphony which regulate nouns and their suffixes (see page
2), apply also to verbs and their endings.
Hence, while vágni, a “flat” word, gives vág=ok=, vág=om=, &c., “sharp”
words like verni (to beat), törni (to break), give ver=ek=, ver=em=, &c.,
tör=ök=, tör=öm=, &c.
_Present Indicative._
_Indefinite._ _Definite._ _Indefinite._ _Definite._
ver-ek ver-em tör-ök tör-öm
ver-sz ver-ed tör-sz tör-öd
ver ver-i[8] tör tör-i[8]
ver-ünk ver-jük tör-ünk tör-jük
ver-tek ver-itek tör-tök tör-itek
ver-nek ver-ik[8] tör-nek tör-ik[8]
_Past Indicative._
_Indefinite._ _Definite._ _Indefinite._ _Definite._
ver-tem ver-tem tör-tem tör-tem
ver-tél ver-ted tör-tél tör-ted
ver-t ver-te tör-t tör-te
ver-tünk ver-tük tör-tünk tör-tük
ver-tetek ver-tétek tör-tetek tör-tétek
ver-tek ver-ték tör-tek tör-ték
In this tense, as in the other tenses and moods, these verbs resemble
vágni, except that as the vowel of the stem is a “sharp,” the vowel of
the ending must also be a sharp.
IKES VERBS
Many ikes verbs are transitive, and such verbs, like those of the iktelen
conjugation, have both the definite and indefinite forms.
_The definite form of the_ =ikes= _verbs is exactly the same as that of
the_ =iktelen= _verbs_.
lak-om, I inhabit
lak-od, thou inhabitest
lak-ja, he inhabits
lak-juk, we inhabit
lak-játok, you inhabit
lak-ják, they inhabit
It is in the _indefinite form_ that =ikes= _verbs differ from_ =iktelen=
_verbs_.
_Examples._
lakni, to dwell vétkezni, to sin ütközni, to encounter
Indicative.
_Present._
lak-om vétkez-em ütköz-öm
lak-ol vétkez-el ütköz-öl
lak-ik vétkez-ik ütköz-ik
lak-unk vétkez-ünk ütköz-ünk
lak-tok vétkez-tek ütköz-tök
lak-nak vétkez-nek ütköz-nek
The _imperfect_ indicative is _never used_.
The _past_, _pluperfect_, and _future_ tenses are the same as in the
indefinite form of the iktelen verbs.
Imperative and Subjunctive.
lak-jam vétkez-zem ütköz-zem
lak-jál vétkez-zél ütköz-zél
lak-jék vétkez-zék ütköz-zék
lak-junk vétkez-zünk ütköz-zünk
lak-jatok vétkez-zetek ütköz-zetek
lak-janak vétkez-zenek ütköz-zenek
Conditional.
lak-nám vétkez-ném ütköz-ném
lak-nál vétkez-nél ütköz-nél
lak-nék vétkez-nék ütköz-nék
lak-nánk vétkez-nénk ütköz-nénk
lak-nátok vétkez-nétek ütköz-nétek
lak-nának vétkez-nének ütköz-nének
Infinitive.
lak-ni vétkez-ni ütköz-ni
which take personal suffixes like those of the iktelen verbs.
Participles.
lak-ó vétkez-ő ütköz-ő
lak-ott vétkez-ett ütköz-ött
lak-andó vétkez-endő ütköz-endő
lak-va vétkez-ve ütköz-ve
lak-ván vétkez-vén ütköz-vén
It will be noticed that it is only in the singular number that the
indefinite form of the ikes verbs differs from that of the iktelen verbs;
the _first person_ always ending in =m= (thus resembling the definite
form), and the _second person_ in =l=, while the _third person_ present
indicative ends in =ik=.
NOTES ON THE VERB IN GENERAL.
_The Passive Voice._ — There is in Hungarian _no passive voice_,
although certain grammarians attempted to introduce one. The only parts
of the verb which have a passive significance are the past and future
participles. Where, in English, we should say, “I am loved,” in Hungarian
it is necessary to say “szeretnek engem” (they love me), or “valaki
szeret engem” (one loves me).
_Construction of First Person._—If the first person acts on the second
person, the distinguishing termination of the verb will be, in all moods
and tenses, =-lak= (for flat words), or =-lek= (for sharp words). Whereas
“I see the dog” would be lát=-om= a kutyát, “I see thee” is lát=-lak=; “I
saw thee,” látta=-lak=; “I love thee,” szeret=-lek=.
_Verbs ending with_ =s=, =sz=, _or_ =z=, double their final letter instead
of taking a j in the imperative and subjunctive moods; also in the present
indicative, definite form.
hoz-zak, not hoz-jak
hoz-za, ” hoz-ja, &c.
_Verbs ending in_ =t=, _preceded by_ =i= or a liquid consonant, take, in
the imperative and subjunctive moods, an s instead of a j; as gyüjteni, to
collect:—
gyüjtsek, not gyüjtjek
gyüjts, ” gyüjtj
gyüjtsön, ” gyüjtjön
But in the present indicative these verbs retain the j.
_Verbs ending in_ =t= _preceded by a vowel other than_ =i=, and all causal
verbs, change their final t into s in the imperative and subjunctive
present tense, _e.g._ látni, to see.
láss, not látj.
_In verbs ending in_ =t=, _preceded by_ =sz=, the final t is dropped in
the imperative and subjunctive, and sz is doubled, _e.g._ veszt-eni, to
lose.
vessz, not vesztj.
_The Infinitive Ending._—If a verb ends in a double consonant, or a
single hard consonant, that would not admit an easy pronunciation of the
usual infinitive ending =-ni=, this ending is joined to the stem by means
of the vowel =a= or =e=.
hall-a-ni (to hear), instead of hall-ni.
tanit-a-ni (to teach) ” tanit-ni.
In the case of such verbs, all inflections beginning with a consonant are
joined to the verb by means of a vowel; _e.g._ hall-o-tt, not hall-t. The
ending t in such cases is always doubled.
_Compound Verbs._—Hungarian abounds with compound verbs, as well as
with compound words in general. They are made by prefixing to the verb
adverbs, postpositions, or affixes for place and direction, which modify
the action expressed by the verb accordingly; as, venni, to take;
el-venni, to take away; föl-venni, to take up; le-venni, to take down.
The verb is inflected in the same manner as when it stands by itself.
_Note._—These particles or adverbs can also be written separately;
as, el akarta venni, he wished to take it away. This
construction is always used when the verb containing
the affix is dependent upon some other verb.
Also, if the verb is modified by some adverb in such a way
that the stress is on the adverb rather than on the verb,
the affix is written separately.
Nemsokara elmegyek, I _shall go out_ soon; but =ma= megyek el, _to-day_
I shall go out.
_Formation of New Verbal Roots._—The Hungarian language forms new verbal
roots by means of the addition of one or more syllables.
1. _Factitive._—=at=, =et=, =tat=, =tet=, to cause to do something.
ir-ni, to write; ir=-at=-ni, to cause to write.
olvas-ni, to read; olvas=-tat=-ni, to cause to read.
The object influenced usually takes the suffix -val or -vel.
A tanitó a fiu=-val= ir=-at=-ja a leveleket, the teacher makes the boy
write the letters.
Sometimes, however, it is put in the accusative.
Vár=-at=-om az inas=-t=, I make the footman wait.
2. _Frequentative._—=ogat=; indicates a repetition of the action.
ir-ok, I write; ir=-ogat=-ok, I keep on taking up my pen.
3. _Diminutive._—=kál=, or =gál=, =gél=.
ir, he writes; ir=-kál=, he is scribbling.
nevet, he laughs; nevet=-gél=, he giggles.
4. _Potential._—=hat=; indicates permission or power to do something.
ir=-hat=-ok, I may write.
_Note._—“I can write,” in the sense of “I have the ability to
write,” would be tudok irni.
More than one of these syllables may be added to the original root.
ir=-at-hat=-ok, I am able to make (some one) write.
IRREGULAR VERBS
The most important is =lenni=, to be.
Indicative.
_Present._ _Past._
vagyok, I am voltam, I was
vagy, thou art voltál, thou wast
van, he is volt, he was
vagyunk, we are voltunk, we were
vagytok, you are voltatok, you were
vannak, they are voltak, they were
_Note._—The imperfect, valék, valál, vala, valánk, valátok,
valának, is never used now, and is only met with in
old books, particularly in the Bible.
_Pluperfect._ _Future._
voltam vala, I had been leszek, I shall be
voltál ” thou hadst been léssz, thou wilt be
volt ” he had been lesz, he will be
voltunk ” we had been leszünk, we shall be
voltatok ” you had been lesztek, you will be
voltak ” they had been lesznek, they will be
Imperative.
légy, be thou
legyen, let him be
legyünk, let us be
legyetek, be you
legyenek, let them be
Subjunctive.
_Present._ _Past._
(hogy) (hogy)
legyek, that I shall be voltam legyén, that I have been
légy, that thou shalt be voltál ” that thou hast been
legyen, that he shall be volt ” that he has been
legyünk, that we shall be voltunk ” that we have been
legyetek, that you shall be voltatok ” that you have been
legyenek, that they shall be voltak ” that they have been
Conditional.
_Present._ _Past._
volnék, I should be voltam volna, I should have been
volnál, thou wouldst be voltál ” thou wouldst have been
volna, he would be volt ” he would have been
volnánk, we should be voltunk ” we should have been
volnátok, you would be voltatok ” you would have been
volnának, they would be voltak ” they would have been
Infinitive.
lenni, _to be_.
With the personal suffixes.
lennem, lenned, lennie lennünk, lennetek, lenniök
Participles.
_Present._ való, levö, lévő
_Past._ volt
_Future._ leendő
Adverbial Participles.
levén, being, having been.
=hinni=, _to believe_.
Indicative.
_Present._
_Indefinite._ _Definite._
hiszek, I believe hiszem, I believe (it)
hiszesz, thou believest hiszed, thou believest (it)
hisz, he believes hiszi, he believes (it)
hiszünk, we believe hisszük, we believe (it)
hisztek, you believe hiszitek, you believe (it)
hisznek, they believe hiszik, they believe (it)
_Past._
hittem, I believed, &c. hittem, I believed (it), &c.
hittél hitted
hitt hitte
hittünk hittük
hittetek hittétek
hittek hitték
_Future._
fogok hinni, &c. fogom hinni, &c.
Imperative and Subjunctive.
_Present._
_Indefinite._ _Definite._
higyjek higyjem
higyj higyjed
higyjen higyje
higyjünk higyjük
higyjetek higyjétek
higyjenek higyjék
_Past._
hittem légyen hittem légyen
hittél ” &c. hitted ” &c.
Conditional.
_Present._
hinnék, &c. hinném, &c.
_Past._
hittem volna hittem volna
hittél ” &c. hitted ” &c.
Infinitive.
hinni.
With personal suffixes.
hinnem, hinned, hinnie hinnünk, hinnetek, hinniök
Participles.
_Present._ hivő
_Past._ hitt
_Future._ hiendő
Adverbial Participles.
hive hívén
=enni=, _to eat_.
Indicative.
_Present._
_Indefinite._ _Definite._
eszem eszem
eszel eszed
eszik, &c. eszi, &c.
_Past._
ettem ettem
ettél etted
evett ette, &c.
ettünk, &c.
Imperative and Subjunctive.
_Indefinite._ _Definite._
egyem egyem
egyél edd
egyék, &c. egye, &c.
Conditional.
_Indefinite._ _Definite._
enném enném
ennél ennéd
ennék, &c. enné, &c.
Participles.
_Present._ evő
_Past._ evett
_Future._ evendő or eendő
=inni=, to drink, resembles enni.
Indicative. Indicative. Imperative Conditional.
Present. Past. and
Subjunctive. Participles.
aludni alszom aludtam aludjam aludnám alvó
(_ik_), alszol aludtál aludjál aludnál
to sleep alszik, aludt, aludjék, aludnék,
&c. &c. &c. &c.
feküdni fekszem, feküdtem, feküdjem, feküdném, fekvő
(_ik_), &c. &c. &c. &c.
to lie down
haragudni haragszom, haragudtam, haragudjam, haragudnám, haragvó
(_ik_), &c. &c. &c. &c.
to be angry
jönni, jövök jöttem jöjjek jönnék, jövő
to come jösz jöttél, jöjj &c. jött
jön &c. jöjjön jövendő
jövünk jöjjünk or
jöttök jerünk
jönnek jöjjetek or
jertek
jöjjenek
menni, megyek mentem menjek mennék, menő
to go mész mentél, menj &c.
megy &c. menjen,
megyünk &c.
mentek
mennek
tenni, teszek or tettem tegyek or tennék or tevő
to do teszem tegyem tenném tett
teendő
venni, to buy }
vinni, to carry } like tenni throughout
IMPERSONAL VERBS
esik, it rains.
villámlik, it lightens.
dörög, it thunders.
havazik, it snows.
Some impersonal verbs require to be constructed with either a dative or
an accusative.
illik nekem, it is becoming for me.
engem illet, it concerns me.
Among impersonal verbs may be reckoned the verb
=kelleni=, _to be necessary_.
This verb need not be used impersonally. Thus, a person may say kellek, I
am needed, but its most frequent use is an impersonal one.
kell, it is necessary; (or, kellett, it was necessary, fog kelleni,
kellene, &c.) is constructed either with the simple infinitive, or with
the infinitive with personal endings. Thus, one may say—
nekem kell irni or kell irnom, I must write.
neked kell irni or kell irnod, thou must write, &c.
If the speaker is merely thinking of the necessity of some action,
without referring it to any particular person, the infinitive with kell
is alone used.
Vigyázni kell, one must be careful.
Levelet kell irni, a letter must be written.
If the action is referred to some person, it is better to use the
infinitive with personal endings, than such a construction as nekem kell
irni.
_Examples._
Tanulnia fog kelleni, he will have to learn.
Dolgozniok kellene, they would have to work.
Olvasnotok kellett, you had to read.
=Szabad= (it is permitted), and =lehet= (it is possible), take a similar
construction.
Szabad dohányozni, smoking is allowed.
Szabad dohányoznom, I may smoke.
Nem lehet két urnak szolgálni, one cannot serve two masters.
Nem lehet irnom, I cannot write.
DEFECTIVE VERBS
(1) =Nincs= or =nincsen=, is not.
Plural: =nincsenek=, are not.
Atyám nincs itt, my father is not here.
Nincsenek itt a fiuk, the boys are not here.
Nincs must be translated by “have” or “has” when used with a noun or
pronoun in the genitive case.
Az atyám=-nak= nincs lova, my father has not a horse.
Nekem nincs, I have not.
Neked nincs, thou hast not, &c.
Nincs is a contraction of nem (not), and van (is).
(2) =Sincs=, =sincsen=; plural: =sincsenek=, are contractions of sem
(neither), and nincs, nincsen, or nincsenek.
A bátyám nincs itthon, my elder brother is not at home.
Az atyám sincs, neither is my father.
(3) =Jer= (come thou along), =jerünk= (let us go), =jertek= (come you
along), are the only forms of this verb.
EXERCISE IX.
Mindennap két órát sétálok. Másold le a költeményt a könyvből. Ha tudnám,
hogy találkozom vele, várnék. A két művész zongorázni és hegedülni fog.
Kérlek, ülj le. Álljatok fel, gyermekeim. Köszönjünk a vendégeknek. Anyám
virágot hozat és koszorút köttet belőle. Tavaly két lovunk volt, a nyáron
négy lesz.
I have written a long letter to my father. I told him what (amit) you
said to me. He will be very angry, but I hope soon to conciliate him.
Come into the garden. Sit here and drink a cup of tea. I would read to
you if you would like it. Do not go out of the house. I am going for a
walk until four o’clock.
mindennap, every day
óra, hour
sétálni, to walk
lemásolni, to copy
költemény, poem
tudni, to know
hogy, that
találkozni, to meet
várni, to wait for
művész, artist
zongorázni, to play the piano
hegedülni, to play the violin
kérni, to ask
leülni, to sit down
állni, to stand
gyermek, child
köszönni, to thank, to greet
vendég, guest
hozni, to bring
koszoru, wreath
kötni, to bind
tavaly, last year
nyár, summer
hosszu, long
remélni, to hope
megbékíteni, to conciliate
csésze, cup (a cup of tea, acc. csésze teát)
szeretni, to love, to like
FOOTNOTES:
[7] The regular ending is -t; _e.g._ várni (to wait for), which makes
vár-t; but a connecting vowel often has to be used, and the -t is then
doubled; _e.g._ ad-ni (to give) makes ad-ott.
[8] Note that the third person, present indicative, singular and plural,
of sharp-sounding verbs takes =-i=, =-ik=, instead of =-ja=, =-ják=. In
other tenses, however, sharp verbs resemble flat verbs.