and method of fastening. We read in Homer already of the Ἰάωνες
ἑλκεχίτωνες, “long-robed Ionians,” and Pollux tells us of the λινοῦς
χιτών ὅν Ἀθηναίοι ἐφόρουν ποδήρη, καὶ αὖθις Ἴωνες,[108] “the linen
tunic which the Athenians wore reaching to the feet, and the Ionians
too.” This χιτών ποδήρης is a long chiton reaching to the feet; that
its material was linen is testified by Thucydides and Pollux, as
well as other writers.[109] The story of Herodotus shows that its
fastening was different from that of the Doric, since the Athenian
women were forced to adopt it, ἱνα δὴ περόνῃσι μὴ χρεώνται, “so as
not to need brooches.” This expression is usually taken to mean that
the characteristic difference between the Doric and Ionic chitons is,
that the Doric is fastened by means of pins or brooches, the Ionic
is always sewn on the shoulders. That this is not invariably the
case is proved by many examples both in sculpture and vase-painting,
where a chiton is represented, which, from its length and fulness and
the fine texture of its material, is clearly Ionic, but which is not
sewn on the shoulders, but fastened together down the upper arm by a
series of small round brooches; this fastening forms a kind of loose
sleeve which reaches frequently to the elbow. It is the formation
of this sleeve, whether sewn or pinned, which, apart from size or
material, distinguishes the Ionic from the Doric chiton, which is
sleeveless. The Ionic chiton in its simplest form is cylindrical in
shape, and varies considerably in length, but is always longer than
the height of the wearer; the superfluous length is drawn up through
the girdle to form a kolpos, which varies in depth according to the
length of the chiton. The Mænad vase of Hieron gives a good idea of
the size to which this kolpos sometimes attained.[110] Being made of
a fine linen material, the Ionic chiton is naturally fuller than the
coarser woollen Doric garment, and its folds are consequently more
numerous and more delicate; it is the greater width of the garment
which necessitates the formation of the sleeve, as a single fastening
from the shoulder would leave too great a mass of material hanging
down under the arms. The sleeve is made by joining the two top
edges of the garment together and gathering them up so as to form
regular folds; an opening is left in the middle for the neck and one
at each end for the arms. The arm-holes were probably not formed,
as some believe, by lateral openings in the side-seams, since this
method produces a clumsy effect in practice; and moreover, in many
vase-paintings[111] the ornamental border which runs along the neck
and upper arm passes also round the arms without being continued down
the side, which shows that it was embroidered or woven along the top
edge of the chiton before the sleeves were made.
[108] _Poll._, vii., 49.
[109] Studniczka has pointed out that the word χιτών is of
Semitic origin, and connected with a root signifying “linen,”
_Beiträge_, p. 17 f.
[110] Cp. Fig. 14, the second figure to the right in the lower
band.
[111] _E.g._, B.M., E. 73; cp. Fig. 25, the two male figures.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.]
A diagram will best show how the sleeves were formed, and the
position of the openings for neck and arms: _ab_ represents the upper
edge of the chiton, along which a border is frequently woven or
embroidered; _ef_ represents the space for the neck, through which
the head is thrust; _ad_ and _bc_ represent the arm-holes, which hang
down parallel to the wearer’s sides when the arms are held down in a
normal position; the side-seams _ag_ and _bh_ are sewn along their
whole length; the distances _de_ _fc_ are joined and gathered to
form the full sleeve. The fulness is frequently held close to the
figure by the addition of cross-bands, either crossing both in front
and behind and attached to the girdle at the sides, or crossing only
at the back and passing round the front of the shoulders. A very
excellent sculptured representation of this, the simplest form of
the Ionic chiton, is to be found in the famous Delphi charioteer,
where the gathering of the sleeves is very clearly marked.[112] In
cases where the sleeve is not sewn, the spaces _de_ and _fc_ are
joined by a series of brooches, varying in number from four to six
on each side. The fulness is produced by taking up a little group of
folds at each fastening and leaving the spaces between quite plain;
the two edges are usually parted in these spaces, so as to show the
arm through. These groups of folds are perhaps more effective than
the continuous row of gathers which we get with the sewn sleeve. The
Euxitheos vase reproduced above[113] will furnish an illustration of
the chiton with pinned sleeves. A short chiton, with sleeves pinned
in several places, was frequently worn by men, as is proved by many
vase-paintings. We sometimes find women represented wearing a full
chiton without overfold, fastened only once on each shoulder, like
the Doric dress. This is one of the many modifications which the
Ionic dress underwent when introduced into the mainland of Greece.
We frequently find on vases figures in rapid motion wearing the long
Ionic chiton with many folds, represented by fine close lines,
in which the lower edge of the chiton in front is drawn up to an
angle on one or often more places. It was supposed by Böhlau[114]
that this was meant to indicate that the garment had been cut at the
bottom in a series of points. The object of this cutting is difficult
to see, and on examination it will be found that wherever the lower
edge of the chiton is so drawn up, immediately above it the kolpos
hangs down deeper over the girdle; the figures are usually in rapid
motion, and the lower edge of the back of the garment, which shows
behind the feet, is represented by a continuous curve, without
being drawn up anywhere.[115] It is obvious, then, that the artist
intended to indicate that the wearer had drawn the dress up through
the girdle, so as not to impede progress. Anyone who has ever moved
about freely wearing a chiton of this kind, will know that unless the
girdle is uncomfortably tight the dress has a habit of slipping down,
so that it is necessary to pull it up sometimes, so as to prevent
treading on it in front.
[112] Fig. 27.
[113] Fig. 16.
[114] _Quæstiones vestiariæ._
[115] Fig. 28.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.—The Delphi Charioteer.
_Face page_ 62.]
[Illustration: FIG. 28.—Vase-painting—Munich.
Furtwängler and Reichhold, _Griechische Vasenmalerei_, 33.
_Face page_ 63.]
A feature of the Ionic chiton not very easy to understand is the
overfold, which occurs very frequently, especially in vase-paintings
of the severe red-figured class; it is not a normal feature of
the Ionic chiton, and may very possibly have been added by the
Athenian women when they adopted the dress, since they had always
been accustomed to wearing it with the Doric peplos. The view that
Herodotus (v., 87) is wrong, and that the Athenian women never
wore the Doric dress at all, is hardly tenable in the face of such
evidence as the François vase and others like it, which are certainly
of Attic workmanship.
The Ionic chiton with overfold is really, then, an instance of the
blending of the two types of dress, which later became so complete
that it is frequently difficult to decide whether a particular
garment should more correctly be called Doric or Ionic.
In some instances the overfold of the Ionic chiton is formed
in exactly the same way as that of the Doric dress, only it is
frequently shorter: it is turned over before the garment is put on,
then back and front are fastened together along the arm, either by
sewing or by brooches. In this latter case the only distinction from
the Doric dress, in addition to those of size and material, is that
instead of being pinned only once on each shoulder, and so being
sleeveless, it is pinned along from shoulder to elbow, so as to form
sleeves. An example of this is to be seen in a figure of Aphrodite
from a vase-painting in Paris reproduced by Miss Harrison.[116] This
style of dress, with the sleeves sewn instead of pinned, is found on
the first of the so-called Fates of the Parthenon pediment, and on
one of the Nereids from the Nereid monument, on a torso at Epidaurus,
and on many vase-paintings. Although not always represented in art,
shoulder-cords or cross-bands were probably actually worn with this
dress, as a general rule, since without some such contrivance it
would slip inconveniently.
[116] _Prolegomena to Greek Religion_, p. 292.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.—Vase-painting by Brygos—British Museum.
_Face page_ 66.]
A type of dress very commonly found on vases is that which has full
sleeves to the elbow and an overfold covering the chest and back,
and passing under the arms without covering the sleeves, as was
the case in the chiton described above. The Mænads on the famous
Hieron vase are represented wearing this kind of dress, and numerous
examples could be quoted from other vase-paintings.[117] Some such
effect might be produced with the ordinary cylindrical-shaped
chiton with overfold, if shoulder-bands were worn such as those
worn by the Delphi Charioteer and by one of the so-called Fates of
the east pediment of the Parthenon; but in actual practice such an
arrangement would produce a somewhat clumsy mass of folds under
the arm, and could not be managed at all unless the overfold were
considerably deeper than that usually represented on the vases. We
must look, therefore, for some other explanation; and it will not
be far to seek, if we allow the Ionian women and their Athenian
imitators a freer use of scissors and needle than their Doric sisters
were accustomed to make. A close examination of the monuments will
show that although the sleeve of the Ionic chiton was frequently
formed in the manner described above, yet in a very large number of
cases, in almost all of which the overfold is present, the sleeve
is more like our modern notion of a sleeve—that is to say, it fits
closer to the arm, as though shaped to some extent, while the rest
of the garment fits closer to the figure. The vase-painter Brygos
is fond of depicting women in this kind of dress: the accompanying
illustration[118] is taken from his representation of Hera and Iris
pursued by Silenoi. This dress is obviously not composed simply of a
cylindrical piece of material folded over at the top and fastened on
the arms, for the rather deep overfold leaves the sleeves quite free,
and covers only the body of the wearer. This effect could be produced
in two ways, in both of which, however, the sleeve-pieces must be
sewn in separately. In the first method, we may suppose that two
rectangular pieces of material are taken, equal in size and shape,
represented in the diagram as _abcd_.
[117] Cp. Fig. 29.
[118] Fig. 29.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.]
These are sewn together along the sides up to the points _e_ and _f_
at a distance of about 5 feet from the lower edge; when the dress is
worn, these points will come immediately under the arms. We may next
suppose that two rectangular pieces of material measuring about 18
by 20 inches are taken for the sleeves; these are folded double,
so that the longer sides lie upon each other, and then sewn on to
the body of the chiton at the points _f_, _h_, _g_, and _e_, so
that the fold lies in the position indicated by the lines _fl_ and
_el′_ in the diagram; the openings _kl_ and _k′l′_ will form the
arm-holes; that part of the chiton _abgh_ which still extends above
the sleeve-pieces is then folded over, so that it hangs down in the
position _gha′b′_. The line _kk′_ now represents the upper edges of
the garment, which are fastened together (leaving the space _mn_ for
the neck) either by sewing and gathering or by groups of folds held
in place by a series of brooches. The front and back part of the
overfold would then hang down separately, but they could be joined
together under the arms, provided that the space round the shoulder
were left free for the arm to pass through into the sleeve.
The second method of making this dress is nothing but a modification
of the first. It consists of taking two smaller rectangles in the
first place, _ghcd_, to form the body of the chiton; two pieces
_abgh_ are sewn on back and front, after the sleeve-pieces, to form a
sort of false overfold, which will have exactly the same effect as if
it were in one piece with the rest of the chiton.
It is possible to conceive of the sleeve-pieces being originally in
one piece with the rest of the chiton, which would then be a dress
composed of two cross-shaped pieces of material sewn together along
the edges _dfl_ and _cel′_; it is more reasonable to suppose,
however, that the sleeve-pieces were sewn on separately. That such
sleeve-pieces were attached to the ordinary Ionic chiton without
overfold seems likely from many vase-paintings. The addition of
sleeves was certainly not unfamiliar to the Greeks, for we find
slaves wearing a narrow, ungirt chiton, with tight sleeves reaching
to the wrists. A familiar example of this is to be found in
Hegeso’s attendant on the well-known grave relief in Athens. In an
inscription, dating from the middle of the fourth century,[119] and
recording a large number of garments dedicated to Artemis Brauronia,
the expression χειριδωτός occurs, which can only mean “sleeved.” In
the same inscription special mention is frequently made of the fact
that the chiton, or χιτωνίσκος, is ἐμπλαισίῳ, “oblong,” from which we
may infer that it was not always so. Now, the ordinary simple Ionic
chiton would be oblong in shape when not worn, so that we may take
the others, which are not described as oblong, to be chitons with
separate sleeve-pieces attached.
[119] _C. I. A._, ii., 754.
The false overfold was sometimes attached also to the simple
cylindrical Ionic chiton. In these cases it covered the chest only,
leaving the arms covered only by the sleeves; it was probably simply
sewn on at the neck in front only. Kalkmann has collected and stated
the evidence for this false overfold to the chiton in an article
in the _Jahrbuch_, vol. xi., where he shows that it was sometimes
applied to the over-garment also. Very clear examples of it are to
be seen in some of the archaic female statues on the Acropolis at
Athens, especially in those cases where the himation is worn like a
shawl over both shoulders.[120]
[120] Nos. 687 and 688.
That the long Ionic chiton with sleeves was worn by men as well as
women, is abundantly evident from the monuments. On the vases, Zeus
and Dionysus and other gods are almost invariably represented wearing
it; and in sculpture also, kings, priests, and others are represented
so dressed. Together with the himation, it probably constituted a
sort of state dress for priests and other officials, even after it
had been discarded for daily use, as being too luxurious.
A short chiton, with or without sleeves, and made of some fine
material, is to be found on the vases worn by men engaged in active
pursuits. It sometimes has an overfold; although, with the long
chiton, this feature is usually confined to women. A good example of
the men’s short chiton with overfold is to be seen on the vase of
Brygos representing the exploits of Theseus.
The cross-bands and shoulder-cords already mentioned are, strictly
speaking, an element of the Ionic chiton, though they are sometimes
represented in art over the Doric peplos. Their object is to hold the
ample folds of the full chiton close to the figure, and to prevent
the sleeves from slipping or flapping about with every movement of
the wearer. The cross-bands are usually attached to the girdle and
can be of one piece with it; their place is sometimes taken by a
second girdle, worn rather high over the kolpos, as is the case with
the Artemis of Gabii reproduced below (Fig. 37).
This high girdle was known as the ταινία, or ἀποδέσμος, whereas the
low girdle was called περιζῶμα. A broad band, known as the στρόφιον,
was sometimes worn by women under the breasts, to serve the purpose
of modern corsets.[121]
[121] B.M., Vase, E. 230.
A word or two must be said about the diminutives of χιτών—namely,
χιτώνιον, χιτωνάριον, and χιτωνίσκος. We should naturally expect
the words to mean a small or short chiton, but this does not seem
always to be the case. The χιτώνιον and χιτωνάριον are frequently
described as διαφανές, “transparent,”[122] and Eustathius (iii.,
1166) explains the words as referring to a fine and luxurious dress
worn by women. In the inscription to Artemis Brauronia[123] we read
more than once of a χιτώνιον ἀμοργῖνον—that is, a garment made of
linen from Amorgos, which we know was very fine and expensive; we
may infer, then, that the diminutives χιτώνιον and χιτωνάριον refer
to fineness of material rather than to shortness of cut. The case of
the χιτωνίσκος is somewhat different; it is not referred to as being
transparent, and is usually described in the inscription cited above
as being very ornate. Women are frequently represented on vases[124]
wearing over the long Ionic chiton a short and sometimes very ornate
garment, which cannot be described as a himation. Possibly this short
over-chiton is the garment indicated by the name χιτωνίσκος.[125] A
similar garment was worn by musicians over the long ungirt chiton
(ὀρθοστάδιος).[126] Another instance of a special dress worn for a
special purpose is the costume worn by actors; it had long sleeves,
and was probably padded to complete the impression of increased size
produced by the high masks and buskins.
[122] _Ar. Lys._, 48; _Menander Meineke. frag. incert._, 141.
[123] _C. I. A._, ii., 754.
[124] _Jahrbuch_, i., pl. 102_a_; Gerhard, _Auserlesene
Vasenbilder_, 79, 80; Dumont and Chaplain, pl. 8; _Journal of
Hellenic Studies_, 1890, pl. 12.
[125] Cp. Amelung in Pauly-Wissowa’s _Real Encyclopädie_, _s.v._
“Chiton,” p. 2322.
[126] B.M., E. 270.
The himation worn over the Ionic chiton presents considerable variety
of shape and arrangement. In very many cases we find that the Doric
himation is worn, whether over both shoulders or only over one.
In the Harpy monument, where we might have looked for Ionic dress
in its purest form, we find the Doric himation worn over the fine
linen-sleeved chiton, and on very many of the red-figured vases of
the severe style this is the case. There is one set of monuments,
however, which may be considered as Ionic in origin, or at least
of Ionizing tendencies, where a far less simple garment takes the
place of the Doric himation. This set includes the archaic female
statues and flying victories of the Acropolis Museum at Athens, and
a large number of small painted terra-cotta statuettes in the same
museum, the sculptures of the Treasury of the Cnidians at Delphi, and
a number of other statues and reliefs from Athens, Eleusis, Delos,
and elsewhere. The dress presents a somewhat complicated appearance
at first sight, and has given rise to a considerable amount of
discussion. The following section is based upon a careful study of
the original monuments and of the literature already written on the
subject.
V
THE MAIDENS OF THE ACROPOLIS
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IONIC HIMATION
The problem of the drapery of the archaic female figures in the
Acropolis Museum has been considered by various archæologists, but
has not yet been satisfactorily solved in all its details by any of
them. The questions to be decided are: Firstly, are we to suppose
that the draperies of the statues give us a faithful and realistic
reproduction of a costume actually in fashion among the Athenian
ladies at the close of the sixth century, or must we take into
account the fact that the work is still archaic and the artists have
not yet sufficiently mastered their material to be able to reproduce
exactly what they saw before them? Secondly, what are the separate
garments which constitute the elaborately complicated whole? And
thirdly, how are these garments arranged so as to produce the effect
seen in the statues?
The answer to our first question is to be found in a compromise lying
somewhere between the two hypotheses suggested. The early artist,
struggling with the technical difficulties of his art, is always
ready, as soon as he has solved one problem to his satisfaction,
to pass on to something which presents still greater difficulties
and demands the exercise of still greater skill. The makers of the
Acropolis maidens have advanced so far as to be able to infuse some
sort of life into their work;—witness the lively expression on some
of the faces. Moreover, in the modelling of some parts of the human
figure they have reached a high degree of excellence. In the few
cases in which the feet of the statues are preserved, a great degree
of delicacy and refinement is displayed, which shows that the artists
had attained some considerable power over their material. Having
advanced so far, they feel themselves equal to facing the problem of
representing drapery in sculpture. It is not to be supposed that at
this stage of artistic development they would invent difficulties
which did not naturally present themselves, nor would they attempt
to represent anything that they had not actually seen; therefore,
we must conclude that the Athenian ladies of the period actually
wore a dress corresponding closely to that reproduced in art. At
the same time, it must be remembered that the Greek artist in all
probability did not work with a model constantly before him, so that
we must expect some slight differences in detail on that account;
furthermore, we must make some allowance for archaism; for example,
in all the statues under discussion, the drapery does not fall freely
away from the figure, but follows the lines of the form beneath in
a manner impossible in real life.
[Illustration: _Photo. by English Photographic Co., Athens._
FIG. 31.—Archaic Statue—Athens, Acropolis Museum.
_Face page_ 75.]
Having determined that the artists have represented a dress which
was actually worn, we must proceed to consider the character of
the dress as a whole, and of the parts of which it consisted. In
giving a general description it will be best to take an example
which exhibits all, or nearly all, the characteristics that can be
collected from the various statues. No. 594 will serve our purpose.
(Perrot and Chipiez, pl. xii.; Lechat, _Au Musée de l’Acropole_, fig.
16.)[127] The under-garment which appears on the neck and left arm is
represented by a series of fine wavy lines, running parallel to one
another, which give a crinkled appearance, and may possibly be meant
to indicate a material which has undergone some special treatment
in the making. This garment is finished at the neck and down the
upper part of the arm by an ornamental border, originally painted,
but from which the colour has now almost entirely disappeared. The
lower part of the figure is covered by a very long and ample garment,
which I shall hope to prove to be the same as that which covers the
left shoulder and upper arm. This garment is ornamented with a broad
and elaborate meander pattern down the middle of the front; and if
the statue were not broken, we should probably see another border
round the bottom. So far, the costume is comparatively simple; but
above this under-garment is worn a cloak which passes under the left
arm and is drawn up to the right shoulder, where it is fastened so
as to hang in heavy vertical folds down the right-hand side of the
figure, back and front; in most cases we shall find that the cloak
is fastened by a series of buttons along the upper part of the arm,
as far as the curve of the elbow. The example before us now has an
additional wrap, which conceals the fastening down the right arm. The
rest of the cloak, passing under the left arm, hangs in a series of
oblique but almost vertical folds, running parallel to a box-pleat
which starts from the shoulder. These folds are apparently held in
place by a band passing under the left arm and fixed on the other
shoulder. The upper edge of the cloak hangs over this band in a sort
of little frill with a zigzag edge. The mass of folds lying close to
the figure under the left arm represents the material which forms the
sleeve of the chiton. The additional wrap seen in one or two of the
statues is a very simple matter; it consists of a large scarf worn
over the shoulders, hanging down to a point on the left-hand side; it
leaves the left arm uncovered, passes round the back, and over the
right shoulder. Instead of hanging straight down to a point in the
right-hand side, the end of the scarf is turned up and thrown over
the arm. The end is broken away in No. 594, but appears in another
instance (No. 684, Acropolis Museum; Perrot and Chipiez, fig. 297, p.
592). Both cloak and scarf are bordered with patterns, of which the
colour still remains to some extent.
[127] Fig. 31.