THE MEXICAN WAR.
THE long agitation, in behalf of the establishment of a Naval Academy,
by leading American naval officers, prominent among whom was Captain
Perry, bore fruit in the year 1845. Mr. George Bancroft, another of the
eminent literary men who have acted as Secretaries of the Navy, convened
a board of officers at Philadelphia, June 24, and directed them to make
suggestions in regard to a naval school. In this board were Commodores
George C. Read, T. ap. Catesby Jones, M. C. Perry, Captains E. A. F.
Lavallette and Isaac Mayo. Full of enthusiasm for the proposed
enterprise, they wrote a report outlining its leading features.
Secretary Bancroft’s energy secured the execution of the plan, and the
United States Naval Academy was begun on the grounds of Fort Severn,
near Annapolis. Many friends warmly urged Perry’s name as principal, but
he was not an applicant for the post. Captain Franklin Buchanan was most
worthily chosen, and the sessions began October 10, 1845. Under
successive superintendents, the Naval Academy has become one of the
first professional schools in the world, having thus far graduated over
twelve hundred naval officers, equipped either for seamanship or
engineering.
Service afloat, in the Gulf of Mexico, was preparing. His first
application for service, in case of war, was made on the 16th of August.
Meanwhile, he called the attention of Secretary Bancroft to the
defective state of our signals, and forwarded the code of Admiral Rohde,
of the Danish navy, as the basis of a new compilation; and, according to
orders, engaged in the examination of merchant steamers, with a view to
harbor and coast defence, and for use in war. On the 4th of February,
1846, he received information from Mexico which satisfied him that war
was inevitable, and that he would soon be in the land of the cactus, the
eagle, and the serpent. Further, the frigate _Cumberland_, when in the
act of starting for the Mediterranean, was ordered to Vera Cruz.
In answer to repeated offers of service, Perry received orders dated
August 20, 1846, to command the two new steamers, _Vixen_ and
_Spitfire_, which were fitting out at New York. When these were ready,
he was to go out to relieve Captain Fitzhugh of the _Mississippi_. The
younger officers, graduates of the Sandy Hook School of Gunnery, were
eager to serve under their former instructor, especially when they saw
that he, himself, gladly accepted an inferior command in order to serve
his country well. He arrived at Vera Cruz on the 24th of September. He
was subordinate to Commodore Conner, whose date of commission preceded
his own; but practically, though not officially, the Gulf or Home
squadron was divided. Conner had charge of the sail, and Perry of the
steam vessels. Owing to lack of ships of light draught, Conner had been
able to accomplish little. The splendid opportunities of the first year
were lost, and naval expeditions, even when attempted, proved failures.
The most notorious of these was the second unsuccessful demonstration at
Alvarado, October 16, which shook the faith of the strongest believers
in the abilities and resolution of Commodore Conner.[15] Because of the
grounding of the schooner _McLane_, on the bar, the enterprise was given
up for the day. On the morrow, when all was ready for a second attempt,
and the men eager for the fray—their last will and testament having
been left numerously with the chaplain—the flag-ship’s signals were
read with amazement and wrath: “Return to the anchorage off Vera Cruz.”
Whether the pilots feared a “norther,” or Conner doubted the military
qualities of his seamen on land, or believed his craft unsuited to the
task, is not certainly known.
The main squadron lay off Sacrificios Island, safely out of range of the
forts. Many glasses were pointed anxiously night and day toward the
flag-ship for signals, which were not made. There were some French
vessels in the harbor. With characteristic diligence, the officers,
impatient to see hostilities begin, yet athirst for archæological
honors, began excavations for Aztec ruins, and found a number of relics.
The Americans chafed. Even the sight of the snow-capped mountains in the
distance, once burning and still beautiful, and the Southern Cross at
night, palled on the eye. The sailors wearied of polishing their small
arms and furbishing their weapons, and longed to use them. The big guns
were made lustrous with the fragrant sea-pitch, or “black amber,” from
off the sea-bottom, until their coats shone like Japanese lacquer. This
substance had a perfume like guava jelly, but the sailors longed rather
to sniff the air of battle. Like Job’s war-horse, they had thus far been
able to do so only from afar. Out of the north came news of successes
continually, while the sailors still scraped and scrubbed.[16]
The senior commodore acted generously to Perry, who, being allowed to do
something on his own account, and happy enough to do it, planned the
capture of Tabasco. It was in Tabasco that Cortez fought his first
battle on Mexican soil. This town, on the river of the same name, had
about five hundred inhabitants garrisoned by state troops. These were
commanded by General Bravo, who had sent several challenges inviting
attack. The Mexicans reckoned that the natural sandbar at the river’s
mouth was a better defence than guns or forts, and the grounding of the
_McLane_ at Alvarado, doubtless lulled them into this delusion. The
object of the expedition was to capture the fleet of small craft moored
in fancied security in the river. This consisted of two steamers, a
brig, a sloop, five schooners and numerous boats and lighters—just what
was needed for the uses of our squadron, then so deficient in light
draft vessels.
The attacking force consisted of the _Mississippi_, the _Vixen_,
_Bonita_, _Reefer_, _Nonita_, _McLane_ and _Forward_, with an extra
force of two hundred marines from the _Raritan_ and _Cumberland_.
Leaving Anton Lizardo, October 16, they arrived at Frontera on the 23d.
Without losing a moment of time, Perry made a dash across the bar almost
before the Mexicans knew of his arrival, and captured the town. Two
river steamers, which plied between the city and port, Tabasco and
Frontera, were lying at the wharf under the guns of the battery. One had
steam up and the supper-table spread. After these had been captured by
cutting out parties, the captors enjoyed the hot supper.
The next two days, the 24th and 25th, were consumed in accomplishing the
seventy-two miles of river navigation, in the face of a heavy, strong
current. The _Petrita_ and _Vixen_ did most of the towing. Reaching the
famous “Devil’s Turn,” at 2 P. M., and finding a battery in view, Perry
ordered a landing party ashore, which speedily entered the deserted fort
and spiked the four twenty-four pound cannon found there. The city was
reached at 3 P. M. Anchoring the vessels in line ahead, at a distance of
one hundred and fifty yards, so as to command the principal streets,
Perry summoned the city to surrender, threatening to open fire in case
of refusal. The governor declining with defiance, returned answer, “Fire
as soon as you please.”
To give a mild taste of what bombardment might mean, Perry ordered
Commander Sands to let the _Vixen’s_ guns be trained on the flag-staff
of the fort. So accurate was the fire, that, of the three shots, one cut
the pole and the flag fell. This was taken by the fleet as the sign of
surrender. A Mexican officer soon after came off, begging that the
hospitals might be spared. Perry at once granted the prayer. By this
time, it was nearly five o’clock and possibly time to take the fort. As
Perry believed in using the men while their war-blood was hot, he
ordered Captain Forrest, a brave but deliberate man, to land his two
hundred marines and take the fort, the main body of the military having
left the town. While the men were forming, impatiently awaiting the
order to advance, they had to stand under an irregular fire of musketry
from the chapparal. Seeing that it was late, and the risk too great for
the prize, Perry, ordering the men on board again, saved his marines for
the morrow.
At daylight of the 26th, some Mexicans, who had sneaked as near the
flotilla as possible, opened a sharp fire on our men. The cannon were at
once trained and kept busy in brushing away these “ground-spiders,” as
the Japanese would call such ambuscaders. “Pomegranate shot,” to use a
term from the same language, for shrapnel, were freely used.
The display of a white flag from the city shore stopped the firing, and
the Commodore received a petition from the foreign consuls and
inhabitants that the town should be spared. He granted the petition,
adding that his only desire was to fight soldiers and not
non-combatants.
Out of pure feelings of humanity, Perry spared the city though there was
much to irritate him. The Mexican regulars and armed peasants were still
in or near the city, posted in military works or strong buildings of
brick or stone, and reached only by the artillery of the flotilla. Yet
the governor, while allowing war on our vessels, would not permit the
people to leave the municipal limits; and so the women and children,
crouched in the cellars, while the sneaking soldiers kept up their
fusillade. Probably most of those who had been killed or wounded were
peaceable inhabitants.
The Commodore now made preparations to return, and ordered the prizes to
be got together. While this was going on, even though the white flag was
conspicuously waving above the town, a party of eighty Mexicans attacked
Lieutenant W. A. Parker and his party of eighteen men. Seeing this,
Perry sent forward Lieutenant C. W. Morris, son of Commodore C. G.
Morris, with orders and re-inforcement.
The young officer passed the gauntlet of the heavy fire which now opened
along the banks. A musket ball struck him in the neck inflicting a
mortal wound, but he stood up in the boat and cheered his men most
gallantly as they bent to their oars, until he fell back in the arms of
midshipman Cheever who was with him. The loss of this accomplished young
officer and the treachery of the Mexicans made forbearance no longer a
virtue. Perry at once ordered the guns of the fleet to open on the city
and sweep the streets as a punishment to treachery. He spared as far as
possible the houses of the consuls and those of peaceful citizens.
The _Vixen_, _Bonita_, _Nonita_ and _Forward_ kept up the cannonade for
half an hour, by which some of the houses were demolished.
Having no force to hold the place, no field artillery, and a limited
supply of muskets and equipments, Perry, after reducing the town, and
neighborhood to silence, ordered the flotilla and prizes to move down
the river. Having the current with them, they reached Frontera at
midnight. One of the prizes, the _Alvarado_, having grounded on a shoal
at the Devil’s Turn, was blown up and left. Lieutenant Walsh and his
command had kept all quiet at Frontera. The _McLane_, with her usual
luck, having struck on the bar, could not get up to take part in front
of the city.
The Tabasco affair, notwithstanding that the city was not occupied,
infused new spirit into the navy and was the stimulus to fresh exploits.
The name of Perry again became the rallying cry. The moral influence on
the whole squadron of the capture of Tabasco was good, and all were
inspirited for fresh enterprises. Even if no other effect had been
produced, the expedition broke the monotony of blockade duty and made
life more endurable. Still the men thirsted for more glory, and yearned
to satisfy the home press and people who were so eager for a “big
butcher’s bill.”
The squadron returned to Anton Lizardo, where, on the 1st, Lieutenant
Morris died on board the _Cumberland_. With the honors of war he was
buried on Salmadina Island, where already a cemetery had begun. The
prize _Petrita_ distinguished herself by capturing an American vessel
violating the blockade at Alvarado.
One of the steamers captured at Tabasco was formerly a fast river boat
plying between Richmond and Norfolk, well named the _Champion_. Under
Lieutenant Lockwood, she became a most valuable dispatch boat and of
great use to the squadron.
The town of Tampico, 210 miles north of Vera Cruz, offered so tempting
an opportunity of easy capture that Commodore Conner resolved to make
the attempt.
The city was five miles from the mouth of the river Panuco, and had
already sent a crack battalion to Santa Anna’s army. This perfidious
leader was using all his craft to raise an army, hoping to recruit
largely from American deserters. He supposed that all of General
Taylor’s Irish Roman Catholic soldiers would desert, because seventy or
eighty of them had done so. A battalion had been formed, and named Santa
Patricio.
In this, the Mexican was keenly mistaken, the Irishmen holding loyally
to their colors, and giving not the first, nor the last, illustration of
their valor under the American flag. They here foreshadowed their later
career during the civil war which produced a new character—the
Irish-American soldier.
As Conner had been formally and repeatedly urged by General Bravo to
visit and attack Tabasco, so also was he invited to come to Tampico.
This time, however, it was by a lady, the wife of the American consul.
She sent him the invitation stating that the city would yield without
resistance. This proved to be true, as Santa Anna’s policy was to weaken
the American forces by their necessity of a garrison to hold the place
if taken, while the Tampico troops could be employed against General
Taylor. In accordance with his orders, the place was evacuated by the
military, who took along with them their stores and artillery. Prudence
prevailing over valor, the Mexicans fell back to San Luis Potosi.
The squadron with the two Commodores, Conner and Perry arrived on
Saturday, the 14th of November off the dangerous bar, the play-ground of
numerous sharks. The eight vessels were easily got into the river
Panuco. While this was going on, and the forward vessels were ascending
the river, the stars and stripes were seen to rise over the city. This
pretty act was that of the wife of the American consul who bravely
remained after her husband had been banished.
A force of one-hundred and fifty marines and sailors was landed to
occupy the town. This was done silently, and not a hostile shot was
fired. Thus the second really successful operation of our navy in the
Gulf was achieved by a woman’s help. Captain Tatnall was sent up the
river eight miles, and captured the town of Panuco.
Tampico was seen to be a place of military importance, and troops were
necessary to hold it, yet there was not then, an American soldier in
this part of Mexico. All were in the north with General Taylor. So
important did Conner feel this to be that, within a half hour after
entering the town, he dispatched Perry to Matamoros for troops. The ever
ready Commodore in his ever ready steamer, _Mississippi_, left at once
for the north. At the mouth of the Brazos on the Texan coast, Perry
informed General Patterson of the fall of Tampico, and notified him that
a re-inforcement would be needed from the troops at Point Isabel. He
then proceeded, of his own accord and most judiciously, as Conner wrote,
to New Orleans, anchoring the _Mississippi_ off the southwest pass of
the river from which the steamer took her name, and in which, sixteen
years later, she was to end her life.
Perry resolved to go up to New Orleans to stir up the authorities to
greater energy and dispatch. He succeeded in obtaining fifty soldiers,
some provisions, and from the governor of Louisiana, a fully equipped
field train of six six-pounders and two howitzers, with two hundred
rounds of shot and shell to each gun. This battery belonged to the
State. He also received a large supply of entrenching tools and
wheel-barrows.
All these were secured in one day, and, arriving back at Tampico after a
week’s absence, November 21, he delighted and surprised the naval
officers by what was considered, for the times, a great feat of
transportation. Other steamers and military, arrived November 30, so
that Tampico soon had a garrison of eight hundred men. Conner remained
until December 13, organizing a government for the city, while Perry
returned at once to Anton Lizardo.
Though life on shipboard was made more tolerable by these little
excitements, it was dull enough. Fresh food supplies were low. The
coming event of scurvy was beginning to cast shadows before in symptoms
that betokened a near visitation. Perry, with his rooted anti-scorbutic
principles, selected as the next point of attack a place that could
supply the necessary luxuries of fresh beef and vegetables. Such a place
was Laguna del Carmen, near Yucatan, at the extreme southeast of Mexico.
It was in a healthy and well watered country rich in forests of logwood.
Receiving permission of Commodore Conner, he made his preparations.
The ever trusty _Mississippi_, towing the _Vixen_ and two schooners the
_Bonita_ and _Petrel_, moved out from the anchorage, like a hen with a
brood of chickens, December 17, arriving off the bar on the 20th. Perry
dashed in at once, and the place was easily taken.
Under a liberal policy, Laguna flourished and commerce increased. The
American officers, worthy representatives of our institutions, were very
popular not only with the dark-eyed senoritas, but also with the solid
male citizens and men of business. Social life throve, and balls were
frequent. The fleet was well and cheaply supplied with wholesome food.
The Lagunas were delighted with an object lesson in American
civilization, and during eighteen months so prosperous was their city,
that, even after the treaty of peace, the people petitioned Commodore
Perry not to withdraw his forces until Mexico was fully able to protect
them.
General Taylor’s battles were bloody, but not decisive. His campaigns
had little or no influence upon Paredes, and the government at the
capital, because fought in the sparsely populated northern provinces.
The war thus far had been magnificent, but not scientific. The country
at large, scarcely knew of the existence of a victorious enemy on the
soil. At the distance of five hundred miles from the capital, there was
no pressure upon the leaders or people. The political nerves of Mexico,
like China, were not as sensitive then, as in our days, when wires and
batteries give the dullest nation a new nervous system.
Perry made a study of the whole field of war. He saw that the vitals of
the country were vulnerable at Vera Cruz, that the city and castle once
occupied, the navy, by sealing the ports, could enable the army to reach
the capital where alone peace could be dictated.
The administration at last understood the situation and ordered a change
of base. Recalling General Scott, who had been set aside on account of a
difference of opinion with the War Department, and the ultra-economical
administration, preparations were made for the advance, by sea and land,
to the city of Mexico, where peace was to be dictated. The full and
minute data which had been forwarded by Commodore Conner enabled the
general to map out fully his brilliant campaign.
While Scott was perfecting details in the United States, the early
winter in the Gulf passed away in steady blockade duty. The
_Mississippi_ which was the constant admiration of the squadron for her
size, power, sea-worthiness, and incessant activity, now needing serious
repairs and overhauling, was ordered back to the United States. Perry,
in command of her, leaving Vera Cruz early in January, made the run
safely to Norfolk, Va., and went up to Washington to hasten operations.
An examination was duly made by the board of survey. Their report
declared that it would require six weeks to get the _Mississippi_ ready
for service.
This, to Perry, was disheartening news. It cast a fearful damper upon
his spirits, but, as usual, he never knew when he was beaten. To remain
away from the seat of war when affairs were ready to culminate at Vera
Cruz, by the army and navy acting in generous rivalry, was not to be
thought of. In this strait, he turned to his old and tried friend,
Charles Haswell, his first engineer, and had him sent for and brought to
Norfolk.
His confidence was well founded. Haswell declared that, by working night
and day, the ship could be made ready in two weeks. So thorough was his
knowledge and ability, and so akin to Perry’s was his energy, that in a
fortnight the Commodore’s broad pennant was apeak, and the cornet, the
American equivalent for “Blue Peter,” was flying on the mizzen truck. It
was the signal for all officers to be aboard and admitted of no delay.
Mr. Haswell adds, in a note to the writer, “When I took leave of the
Commodore on the morning of sailing, he thanked me in a manner
indicative of a generous heart.”
We may safely add that, by his energies, and abilities in getting the
_Mississippi_ ready at this time, Mr. Haswell saved the government many
thousands of dollars and contributed largely to the triumphs of a quick
war which brought early peace.
While in Washington, Perry was in frequent consultation with the
authorities, furnishing valuable information and suggestions. While the
_Mississippi_ was refitting, Perry was ordered to take the general
oversight of the light draft vessels fitting out at New York and Boston
for service in the gulf. This order read,—“You can communicate to heads
of Bureaux, to hasten them and give to their commanders any necessary
order.” The squadron in preparation consisted of the _Scourge_,
Lieutenant C. G. Hunter; _Scorpion_, Commander, A. Bigelow; _Vesuvius_,
Commander G. A. Magruder; _Hecla_, Lieutenant A. B. Fairfax; _Electra_,
Lieutenant T. A. Hunt; _Aetna_, Commander W. S. Walker; _Stromboli_,
Commander J. G. Van Brunt; _Decatur_, Commander R. S. Pinckney.
On the 25th of February, 1847, Perry received the following order, “You
will proceed to the United States Steam Ship _Mississippi_, to the Gulf
of Mexico, and, on your arrival, you will report to Commodore Conner,
who will be instructed to transfer to you the command of the United
States naval forces upon that station.”
In a letter dated March the 27th, 1847, the Secretary wrote, “The naval
forces under your command . . . form the largest squadron it is
believed, which has ever been assembled under the American flag . . .
steamers, bomb ketches and sailing vessels of different classes.” Much
was expected of this fleet, and much was to be accomplished.
Yet despite Perry’s command and mighty responsibilities—equal to those
of an admiral—he was but a captain with a pennant. So economical was
our mighty government.
In the matter of the war with Mexico—the war of a slave-holding against
a free republic—Matthew Perry acted as a servant of the government. He
was a naval officer whose business it was to carry out the orders of his
superiors. With the moral question of invading Mexico, he had nothing to
do. The responsibility lay upon the government of the United States, and
especially upon the President, his cabinet and supporters.[17] Perry did
not like the idea of invasion, and believed that redress could be
obtained with little bloodshed, and hostilities be made the means of
education to a sister republic. He therefore submitted to the
government, a detailed plan for prosecuting the war:
1st. To occupy and colonize California, and annex it to the territory of
the United States.
2nd. To withdraw all United States troops from the interior of Mexico
proper.
3rd. To establish a military cordon along its northern frontiers.
4th. To occupy by naval detachments and military garrisons, all its
principal ports in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
5th. To establish these ports temporarily, and during the continuance of
the war, as American ports of entry with a tariff of specific duties.
6th. To throw these ports open for the admission under any friendly flag
of all articles, foreign or domestic not contraband of war.
7th. To encourage the admission and sale of American manufactured goods
and the staples of the country, “particularly that of tobacco, which is
a present monopoly of Mexico, and yields to the government a large
revenue.”
We should thus get a revenue to pay for the expenses of the war.
The advantages of Perry’s plan, stated in his own words, were that,
“Instead of our waging a war of invasion, it would become one of
occupation and necessary expediency, and consequently a contest more
congenial to the institutions and professions of the American people.”
“The cost of the war would be reduced three-fourths, the results would
be positive, and there would be an immense saving of human life.
Commerce and kindness would remove false ideas of Mexicans concerning
North American people, ideas so actively fomented by the Mexican clergy.
As an argument in favor of humanity, the Mexican people would be led to
pursue agriculture and mining, so that it would be hard to rouse
sufficient military spirit in them to dislodge forces holding their
ports.” The “baleful influence of the clergy would be lessened,” and the
despotic power of the military be almost annihilated, so that the people
would sue for peace. In short, this plan, if carried out, would be a
great educational measure.
The _Mississippi_ in those days was among ordinary war vessels, what the
racers of the Atlantic to-day are among common steamers,—“an ocean
greyhound.” Fleetly the gallant vessel moved south, passing exultingly
the Bahamas, where many of our transports were waiting for a change of
wind. Many of these were “ocean tramps”—hulks of such age and
rottenness, that a norther would surely strand them. The _Mississippi_
stopping at Havana, March 15, 1847, was after two days then pointed for
Vera Cruz, arriving on the evening of the 20th.
-----
[15] See Parker’s Recollections of a Naval Officer, with reply of P. S.
P. Conner, _Army and Navy Journal_, February 2, and April 19, 1884, and
_Magazine of American History_, July, 1885.
[16] Chaplain Fitch W. Taylor, _The Broad Pennant_.
[17] See, for perhaps the best brief statement of the causes leading to
the Mexican war and the part played by Polk, the article “Wars;” by
Prof. Alexander Johnston, Lalor’s _Encyclopaedia_. Vol. III, p. 1091.