LATER SCIENCE (_continued_)
The leaders of the scientific thought of last century would have been
vastly surprised if they could have foreseen the results of the
investigations which were to be made into the constitution of matter
and the nature of life; but not even these would have amazed them so
much as would other investigations that were to be carried out in a yet
deeper and more mysterious region of experience. Perhaps it was
because science had been so busy about the more external things, that
it had seemed to have no time to spare for the thorough consideration
of that which is more truly vital to man than the matter which obeys or
opposes him, or even than the physical life which enables him to act,
in so far as he can, as its master. It was strange that the last thing
to be thought of should be his own personality, himself; the innermost
workings of his soul.
But if this profoundest problem has been neglected, it is to be
neglected no longer. Psychology has {88} already made good its claim
to be respectfully regarded as one of the sciences. It is too early to
speak with any great certainty of the results that it has achieved,
though these are probably more substantial than is commonly supposed.
Anyhow, it will be best that, as before, we should give some
characteristic statements of the investigators themselves, rather than
attempt to make unauthorised summaries of our own.
And, first of all, Sir Oliver Lodge shall tell us what he understands
by the Soul. "The soul is that controlling and guiding principle which
is responsible for our personal expression and for the construction of
the body, under the restrictions of physical condition and ancestry.
In its higher developments it includes also feeling and intelligence
and will, and is the storehouse of mental experience. The body is its
instrument and organ, enabling it to receive and to convey physical
impressions, and to affect and be affected by matter and energy."[1]
How the soul acts by means of the body is thus explained.
"The brain is the link between the psychical and the physical, which in
themselves belong to different orders of being."[2]
{89}
"A portion of brain substance is consumed in every act of
mentation."[3] "Destroy certain parts of brain completely, and
connexion between the psychic and the material regions is for us
severed. True; but cutting off or damaging communication is not the
same as destroying or damaging the communicator; nor is smashing an
organ equivalent to killing the organist."[4]
M. Bergson does not differ from this when he says that, "the
soul--essentially action, will, liberty--is the creative force _par
excellence_, the productive agent of novelty in the world." He goes on
to speak of the way by which souls have been differentiated and raised
to self-conscious existence. "The history of this great effort is the
very history of the evolution of life on our planet. Certain lines of
evolution seem to have failed. But on the line of evolution which
leads to man the liberation has been accomplished and thus
personalities have been able to constitute themselves."[5] Like many
another, M. Bergson cannot bring himself to believe that death is to be
the end of all that has been thus painfully achieved during this
process of attainment. "When we see that consciousness is also memory,
{90} that one of its essential functions is to accumulate and preserve
the past, that very probably the brain is an instrument of
forgetfulness as much as one of remembrance, and that in pure
consciousness nothing of the past is lost, the whole life of a
conscious personality being an indivisible continuity; are we not led
to suppose that the effect continues beyond, and that in this passage
of consciousness through matter (the passage which at the tunnel's exit
gives distinct personalities) consciousness is tempered like steel, and
tests itself by clearly constituting personalities and preparing them,
by the very effort which each of them is called upon to make, for a
higher form of existence?"[6]
But the psychologist has yet more to tell us about the nature of
personality. Although helped to distinctiveness of self-conscious
expression by means of its experience of the struggle under present
material conditions, it is not the whole of it that can be thus
expressed. In fact its present physical embodiment is but partially
adequate to the task. In other words, "cerebral life represents only a
small part of the mental life." "One of the roles of the brain is to
limit the vision of the mind, to render {91} its action more
efficacious"[7]--more efficacious, that is to say, for such uses as are
of value for survival and success under our existing conditions.
It is to Frederick Myers that we have chiefly owed the conception of
the subliminal or subconscious mind. The full report of his researches
is given in the two volumes of his work on "Human Personality and its
Survival of Bodily Death" (1901). He it was who invented the word
"telepathy" to express the fact that mental action can be exerted at a
distance. And it was he who brought for the first time the phenomena
of clairvoyance and apparitions under thorough examination by the
employment of the most exacting tests. Along such lines he was led to
the conclusion, now largely accepted, that the conscious self is only a
fraction of the entire personality, the fraction being greater or less
according to the magnitude of the individual.
By means of this subconscious part of our being we are, he held,
brought into touch with one another and are capable of attaining a
knowledge which may greatly transcend that which comes to us through
our ordinary channels of communication. In the case of genius we watch
the emergence of exceptional {92} potentialities, which may serve as
the promise and pledge of what the future has in store for us all. One
day like some winged insect we shall pass to a condition beyond that of
the life we now know, and then we may hope that what we "can regard as
larval characters of special service in the present stage of
existence," will prove to have been "destined to be discarded, or
modified almost out of recognition, in proportion as a higher state is
attained."[8]
This recognition of the existence within human nature of such
capacities and powers, however imperfectly developed and understood,
would greatly help us to deal with many mysteries of experience that
have hitherto seemed completely beyond the purview of a strict
scientific research. The American psychologist, William James, has
done good service to this highest department of critical inquiry in his
well-known work on "Varieties of Religious Experience." A single
extract may suffice to illustrate his position, and to shew what may
yet lie before those who are prepared to press on in the direction in
which he was able to point.
"The further limits of our being plunge ... into an altogether other
dimension of existence from the sensible and merely 'understandable'
{93} world.... So far as our ideal impulses originate in this region
(and most of them do originate in it, for we find them possessing us in
a way for which we cannot articulately account) we belong to it in a
more intimate sense than that in which we belong to the visible
world... When we commune with it, work is actually done upon our
finite personality, for we are turned into new men... I call this
higher part of the universe by the name of God."[9]
[1] _Man and the Universe_, p. 78.
[2] P. 91.
[3] _Life and Matter_, p. 107.
[4] _Man and the Universe_, p. 93.
[5] Lecture at University College, October, 1911.
[6] Birmingham Lecture, May, 1911.
[7] Bergson. Presidential Address to Society for Psychical Research,
May, 1913.
[8] _Op. cit._, I., p. 97.
[9] Pp. 515, f.
{94}
NOTE
Since the preceding chapters were written, the meeting of the British
Association has been held at Birmingham (September, 1913). Its
interest was unusually great inasmuch as the President's address and
the principal discussions were occupied with the most critical and
debatable scientific questions of the present moment. The following
extracts will give a general idea of the line taken at the outset by
the President, Sir Oliver Lodge.
"Theological controversy is practically in abeyance just now." "It is
the scientific allies, now, who are waging a more or less invigorating
conflict among themselves, with philosophers joining in." "Ancient
postulates are being pulled up by the roots." "The modern tendency is
to emphasise the discontinuous or atomic character of everything."
"The physical discovery of the twentieth century, so far, is the
electrical theory of matter." "So far from Nature not making jumps, it
becomes doubtful if she does anything else." "The corpuscular theory
of radiation is by no means so dead as in my youth we thought it was."
"But I myself am an upholder of _ultimate_ continuity, and a fervent
believer in the aether of space."
{95}
"I have been called a vitalist, and in a sense I am; but I am not a
vitalist if vitalism means an appeal to an undefined 'vital force' (an
objectionable term I have never thought of using) as against the laws
of chemistry and physics." "There is plenty of physics and chemistry
and mechanics about every vital action, but for a complete
understanding of it something beyond physics and chemistry is needed."
"No mathematics could calculate the orbit of a common house-fly." "I
will risk the assertion that life introduces something incalculable and
purposeful amid the laws of physics; it thus distinctly supplements
those laws, though it leaves them otherwise precisely as they were and
obeys them all."
"The Loom of Time is complicated by a multitude of free agents who can
modify the web, making the product more beautiful or more ugly
according as they are in harmony or disharmony with the general scheme.
I venture to maintain that manifest imperfections are thus accounted
for, and that freedom could be given on no other terms, nor at any less
cost."
"I will not shrink from a personal note summarising the result on my
own mind of thirty years of experience of psychical research, begun
without predilection--indeed, with the usual hostile prejudice." "The
facts so examined have convinced me that memory and affection are not
limited to that association with matter by which alone they can
manifest themselves here and now, and that personality persists beyond
bodily death."
{96}
Of the debates on the subsequent days those on "Radiation" and "The
Origin of Life" were, perhaps, the most remarkable. At the former the
point at issue was the amount of truth contained in Planck's "famous
hypothesis that energy was transferred by jumps instead of in a
continuous stream." Sir Joseph Larmor evidently expressed the
prevailing opinion when he said that "some advance in that direction
had become necessary, and old-fashioned physicists like himself had
either to take part in it or run the risk of becoming obsolete."
For the discussion about "Life," the three sections of Physiology,
Zoology, and Botany were combined. Professor Moore stood stoutly for
the older views, and "believed that he could demonstrate a step which
connected inorganic with organic creation." Then he gave an abstruse
and highly technical account of a process by which in "solutions of
colloidal ferric hydroxide, exposed to strong sunlight," compounds
could be formed similar to those to be found in the green plant. With
a proper grouping of molecules it might be imagined how "colloidal
aggregates appeared," and eventually "organic colloids" which "acquired
the property of transforming light energy into chemical activity." The
speakers who followed seemed to be agreed that, even were such
"potentially living matter" to be produced, we should have reached, not
the discovery of the secret of life, but only the construction of "its
physical vehicle." Professor Hartog strongly protested against the
notion that there was "a consensus {97} of opinion among biologists
that life was only one form of chemical and physical actions which
could be reduced in the laboratory." He wished it to be understood
that "the preponderance of weight among scientific men" was opposed to
such a position.
{98}
CONCLUSION
It is dangerous to generalise; and, when as in this survey we are
attempting to indicate broadly the trend of the thought of an age, we
have more than ordinary need to be on our guard lest we should
sacrifice truth to the desire for a seeming completeness of logical
presentation. For fear, then, of misunderstanding, let it be clearly
remembered that in what has been said we have had no wish to suggest
that all minds have moved at the same pace, or even in the same
direction; but only that certain strong tendencies were observable,
which gave colour and character to the mental stream at the particular
stages in its course. It is with a full sense of the possibility of
exaggeration, and of the necessity of holding the balance even, that we
shall now make our final attempt to sum up as concisely as possible
what we have been able to gather in regard to the thought-movement of
the period we have had under review. There can be no danger of
misstatement in saying that, all throughout, the chief thoughts of the
time were intensely occupied with {99} the greatest of all questions,
those about GOD AND THE WORLD. And, further, it has not been difficult
to perceive that there have been three distinct stages in the sequence
of these thoughts.
In the _first stage_ we can see, as we look back, that the Religious
feeling was dominant, while the scientific temper could scarcely have
been said to exist; certainly it did not exist upon any extended scale.
But, though the desire to be reverent was widespread, we are bound to
allow that the ideas about God were somewhat crudely conceived. As a
legacy, no doubt, from the Deistic controversies of the preceding
century, the general thought did not rise above the notion of a Supreme
Mechanist and all-powerful Ruler of all things. The Divine Being was
regarded as having originated the universe by a fiat of His will,
fashioning its several contents one after another as He pleased, and
appointing that each and all should be subjected to the laws He had
ordained; always reserving to Himself the right to intervene by some
signal display of wisdom and power, when such intervention was
required, either to remedy a defect, or yet further to set forth His
glory. Men were very ready to admit the idea of the Supernatural, but
it was in the merely superficial and popular sense of _power working
without means_, rather than what we now {100} feel to be the far truer
sense of _superhuman knowledge of means, and power to use them_.[1] It
followed, and this was the weakest point in the Paleyan system of
Natural Theology, that God's action was looked for not in the normal,
but in the exceptional processes of Nature. The need of the Divine was
only felt when no other explanation was forthcoming; with the result,
of course, that as other explanations were found, the necessity for
recognising its operation grew ever less and less. And, even apart
from such a consequence, the effects of the conception could not be
otherwise than injurious to religious faith; for, as it has been truly
and reverently observed, "a theory of occasional intervention implies
as its correlative a theory of ordinary absence."[2]
As to knowledge of the World, there was scarcely any at all, according
in our present understanding of such knowledge. Not everybody, of
course, accounted for the existence of fossils by supposing that they
were the casts from which the Almighty had designed His creatures, or
possibly the Devil's {101} attempts to imitate His works; but the
prevailing ideas were of the most primitive kind. Even Paley could
give us no better explanation of certain rudimentary anatomical organs,
than by suggesting that the creature in whom they were found had been
so far constructed before it was decided what its sex should be! We
can see that if any real progress in knowledge was to be made, a change
of a very radical order had to come. And it did come.
The _second stage_ was Scientific rather than religious. The thought
of God occupied a less prominent place in proportion as men's minds
were yielded to the attraction of the new studies. This was partly
due, as we have already explained, to the fact that causes were found
to account for the phenomena which had previously, for the lack of the
understanding of such causes, been attributed to the immediate exercise
of supernatural power. Partly, also, it was due to a growing distrust
of human ability, which resulted from the belief that this was nothing
more than a recent development from a lower animal ancestry. A mind
thus originated was supposed to be debarred from forming any
trustworthy notion of the nature of a First Cause which had operated,
if at all, at some point infinitely distant in the long succession of
ages.
The main work of this stage was to prosecute {102} research into the
elaborated mechanism, or as men soon came to prefer to think of it, the
developing growth of the world. And wonderful, beyond all
anticipation, was the success which rewarded the pains that were
lavishly bestowed upon the inquiry. Small marvel was it that some
men's heads were well-nigh turned, and that to many it seemed little
less than certain that science had dispensed with the supernatural
altogether; and that it only required time, and no great length of
time, to secure universal acceptance for the materialistic explanations
which were destined, as they supposed, to leave no mysteries of life
unsolved. But such persons had reckoned with a too hasty and
superficial knowledge of the data involved. Little by little the
counter-criticisms produced their effect. The idea of a First and
Permanent Cause was shewn to be as indispensable as ever; not, indeed,
as an influence to be pushed far back, and to be thought of as acting
either once or occasionally. A truer reading of the meaning of what
had been discovered led to the grateful acknowledgment that "Darwinism
has conferred upon philosophy and religion an inestimable benefit by
shewing us that we must choose between two alternatives: either God is
everywhere present in Nature, or He is nowhere."[3] {103} So, again,
with Design. The earlier notion of the separate manufacture of species
and of special adaptations to particular ends had to give way to a
larger conception of the growth and gradual correlation of the parts
and functions of a stupendous whole. But for the attainment of this
mighty result direction and superintendence are even more imperatively
needed. As it was often urged with good reason, to make a world right
off would not have been so marvellous an achievement as to make that
world make itself.
The problem of Beneficence had, as we saw, come to be so entangled with
difficulties as to render it the most serious of all the problems which
pressed upon the minds and hearts of the men of this second stage of
thinking. But here, also, the fears which were at first aroused were
found to have been exaggerated; and perhaps it is true to say that
before the end of the century there was a general disposition to
conclude that with larger knowledge we should get to understand the
utility of much that to uninstructed eyes appears to be lavish waste
and needless suffering. The obvious fact that science could not go
forward without a loyal belief in the rational intelligibility of
nature gave justification to a corresponding belief in its ethical
intelligibility, even though in this case, as in the other, the {104}
complete proofs might not be immediately forthcoming. And there was,
further, the possibility--to some it was more than a possibility--that
much in the world which looks contrary to goodness is really to be
accounted for as the result of a misuse of liberty on the part of
powers and forces whose action has most mysteriously been allowed to
thwart and to complicate the task of the beneficent Maker of all.
About the _third stage_ it is fitting that we should speak with more
hesitation. We are living in it, and are as yet only at its beginning.
But we may hazard the prognostication that it will be both Religious
and Scientific; and that, "as knowledge grows from more to more," there
will be found the "more of reverence" of which our modern poet sings.
There is reason to hope that the bitterness of old controversies will
not be revived, and that we have before us a time in which Theology and
Science will co-operate and no longer conflict. With deepening insight
it is becoming plainer than ever that the phenomena of life, and even
of matter, are the expressions of a more than physical force.
Evolution is a law under which a forward process is moving on, and
moving up. There is an impulse of consciousness working from within,
and there is a spiritual, as well as a material, environment inviting
{105} to correspondence with itself. Freedom and power of choice are
admitted to be present in regions where their existence was for long
most strenuously denied. Even matter may have its own power of
insistence and resistance--how much more mind and will. This
consideration may give us a yet clearer clue to the mysteries of
failure, miscarriage, and waste. A world that was to produce
self-conscious, self-determining personalities needed to have freedom
through the whole of its development; and the consequent risk and
possible cost were inevitable. Shall we not be led to admire and
revere increasingly the wonder of it all, as there grows upon us the
sense of the quietness and gentleness, the foresight, and the infinite
patience of the Being of beings, who will never obtrude His presence
and action upon us, just because He would help us to be our own, not
dead but living, selves, and would have us rise with Him to the highest
things?
We are far from the end of our learning. There are many enigmas yet to
be made plain. We could not wish it otherwise. It has ever been
through the narrow gate of difficulty that we have passed into the
wider court of truth. We have good cause to be humble, but we have
full right to be hopeful. We must not be afraid to face the problems
that await {106} us, whatever they may be. We may be confident that we
are not to be deceived; but that, under a Guidance that has never
failed, we shall at length be brought to see the dawning of the
longed-for day,
"When that in us which thinks with that which feels
Shall everlastingly be reconciled,
And that which questioneth with that which kneels."
[1] This important distinction was carefully drawn by the Duke of
Argyll in his _Reign of Law_ (pp. 14, 25), published in 1866.
[2] Aubrey Moore, in one of a series of remarkable articles contributed
to the _Guardian_ (January 18th, 25th, February 1st, 1888).
[3] Aubrey Moore, _Lux Mundi_.
{107}
INDEX
AETHER, 73, 94.
Agnosticism, 32, 46-52.
Aquinas, St. Thomas, 13.
Argyle, George Douglas, Duke of, 37, 100.
Atoms, 21, 71, 72.
Augustine, St., 50.
Avebury, Lord, 58.
BACON, LORD, 14.
Balfour, A. J., 75, 86.
"Bathybius," 78.
Becquerel, A. C., 70.
Beneficence, Divine, 17, 18, 53-67, 103.
Bergson, Henri, 84-86, 89, 90.
Brain, 88, 89, 90.
Bunsen, R. W., 24.
CARLYLE, THOMAS, 63.
Cause, 29.
Cells, The growth of, 77.
Chalmers, Thomas, 19, 20.
Chance, 30, 44, 56.
Consciousness, 85, 89, 90.
Creation, Mosaic account of 39.
Creative power, affirmed by Science, 39.
Cruelty in Nature, 34, 35, 54-67.
Curie, Mme., 70.
DALTON, JOHN, 21.
Darwin, Charles, 24-26, 41-43, 54, 58, 64.
Deserts, Use of, 62.
Design, Argument from, 14-16, 29, 40-45, 103.
Directive power, 44, 83, 106.
Du Bois Raymond, E., 37.
Dysteleology, 35.
EARTHQUAKES, 66.
Electrons, 71.
Energy:
Conservation of, 23, 42, 75.
Dissipation of, 73.
_Evil and Evolution_, 64-66.
Evil in Nature, 18, 63-67.
Evolution, Doctrine of, 24, 25, 40, 104.
FARADAY, MICHAEL, 22, 37.
"First Cause," 13, 28, 32, 38, 39, 101, 102.
Freedom, 84, 95, 104, 105.
Future life, 89-92, 95.
GEOLOGY, 23, 39, 70.
Goodwin, Bishop Harvey, 47.
Gore, Bishop, 50, 57.
Gray, Asa, 41, 56.
HAECKEL, E., 29, 30, 31, 35, 40.
Haldane, J. S., 80.
Hartog, Professor, 96.
Heat, Mechanical equivalent of, 23.
Helium, 70.
Helmholtz, H. von, 22.
Herschel, Sir John, 69.
Huxley, T. H., 32, 35, 40, 43, 61, 78.
ICHNEUMONIDAE, 56.
Insensibility of animals, 60, 61.
JAMES, WILLIAM, 92, 93.
Joule, J. P., 23, 37.
KELVIN, LORD, 37, 39, 44, 68, 70, 78.
Kepler, J., 19.
Kerner, Anton, 81, 82.
Kirchhoff, Professor, 24.
Knight, Professor W., 57.
LAMARCK, J. B., 22, 26.
Laplace, P. S., 19.
Larmor, Sir J., 71, 96.
Liebig, J. F. von, 44.
Life:
failure to produce out of matter, 79, 80, 96, 97.
Meteorite theory of, 78,
not a form of energy, 82, 83.
Lodge, Sir Oliver, 71, 79, 82-85, 88, 89, 94, 95.
Lotze, Hermann, 47.
Lyell, Sir Charles, 23.
MATERIALISM, 44, 46.
Matter, Disintegration of, 72.
Maxwell, James Clerk, 22, 37, 68.
Metals, 74.
Mill, J. Stuart, 29, 33, 39.
Molecules, 69, 71, 72.
Monism, 31.
Moore, Aubrey, 48, 100, 102.
Moore, Professor B., 96.
Myers, Frederick W. H., 91.
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, 19.
Necessity, 43.
Newton, Sir Isaac, 19.
ORGANS, RUDIMENTARY, 40, 41, 101.
_Origin of Species_, 25, 39, 40, 55, 56.
Owen, Sir Richard, 27.
PAGET, BISHOP FRANCIS, 52.
Pain, Use of, 58, 59.
Paley, William, 14-19, 100, 101.
Pascal, Blaise, 52.
Pasteur, Louis, 37, 66.
Personality:
Divine, 48, 52.
Human, 87, 90.
Protoplasm, 23, 76, 77.
Psychical Research, 91, 95.
Psychology, 87, 90-92.
RADIUM, 70, 72.
Religious instinct, 51.
Romanes, G. J., 33-36, 37. 39, 42, 50-52, 57.
Roentgen rays, 70.
SCHAFER, SIR EDWARD, 78.
Schleiden, M. J., 23.
Schwann, T., 23.
Snake poison, 60, 66.
Soul, 87, 88, 89.
Spectrum analysis, 24, 68.
Spencer, Herbert, 32, 33, 47, 49.
Spiritual environment, 93, 104.
Stokes, Sir G. G., 24, 37, 45.
Subconsciousness, 91, 92.
Suffering, Divinely shared, 67, 105.
Sulman, H. L., 74, 75.
Supernatural, The, 99, 100.
Survival:
after death, 89-92, 95.
of the fittest, 24, 25.
TELEOLOGY, THE WIDER, 40, 45.
Telepathy, 91.
Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 54.
Thomson, Sir J. J., 71, 73.
Tilden, Sir William, 80.
Treves, Sir Frederick, 59.
Tyndall, John, 31, 38.
UNBELIEF, DISTRESS CAUSED BY, 35, 36, 50.
VARIATIONS, 25, 26.
Venomous animals, 17, 65, 66.
Virchow, R., 37.
Vitalism, 81-85, 95.
Volcanoes, Use of, 62.
WAGER, PROFESSOR, 79.
Wallace, Alfred Russel, 59-61, 80.
Whetham, W. C. D., 74.
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