Transcriber’s Note
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[Illustration: BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 1
KITSIEL]
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
BULLETIN 50
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE
NAVAHO NATIONAL MONUMENT
ARIZONA
BY
JESSE WALTER FEWKES
[Illustration: Decoration]
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1911
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY,
_Washington, D. C., March 16, 1910_.
SIR: I have the honor to submit herewith, for publication, with your
approval, as Bulletin 50 of this Bureau, the manuscript of a paper by
Dr. Jesse Walter Fewkes, entitled “Preliminary Report on a Visit to the
Navaho National Monument, Arizona.”
Yours, respectfully,
F. W. HODGE,
_Ethnologist in Charge_.
DR. CHARLES D. WALCOTT,
_Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C._
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Routes to the Navaho National Monument 6
Route from Flagstaff to Marsh pass 6
Major antiquities 10
Ruin A 10
Cliff-house B 10
Swallows Nest 12
Betatakin 12
Kitsiel (Keet Seel) 16
Scaffold House 18
Cradle House 20
Ladder House 20
Forest-glen House 21
Pine-tree House 21
Trickling-spring House 21
Characteristic features of ruins 22
Minor antiquities 26
Pottery 27
Cliff-dwellers cradle 29
Miscellaneous objects 30
Summary and conclusions 30
Recommendations 35
ILLUSTRATIONS
PLATE 1. Kitsiel Frontispiece
2. Inscription House 1
3. Wukóki ruin at Black Falls 2
4. Ruin A, southwest of Marsh pass 4
5. Ruin B, at Marsh pass 7
6. View into Laguna canyon from Marsh pass 9
7. Swallows Nest 10
8. Betatakin—general view 13
9. Betatakin—western end 14
10. Ground plan of Betatakin 14
11. Betatakin—central part 17
12. Pictographs at Betatakin 18
13. Ground plan of Kitsiel (Keet Seel) ruin 21
14. Diagrams showing kiva roof construction 23
15. Pottery from Navaho National Monument 24
16. Pottery from Navaho National Monument 26
17. Pottery and stone implements from Navaho National
Monument 28
18. Pottery from Navaho National Monument 30
19. Cliff-dwellers cradle—front 32
20. Cliff-dwellers cradle—rear 32
21. Cliff-dwellers cradle—side 32
22. Sketch map of the Navaho National Monument 34
FIGURE 1. Scaffold of Scaffold House 18
2. Ground plan of Trickling-spring House 22
3. Design on cliff-dwellers cradle 29
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 2
INSCRIPTION HOUSE
(From a photograph by William B. Douglass.)]
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON A VISIT TO THE NAVAHO NATIONAL MONUMENT, ARIZONA
By JESSE WALTER FEWKES
INTRODUCTION
On the completion of the work of excavation and repair of Cliff Palace,
in the Mesa Verde National Park, in southern Colorado, in charge of
the writer, under the Secretary of the Interior, he was instructed by
Mr. W. H. Holmes, then Chief of the Bureau of American Ethnology, to
make an archeologic reconnaissance of the northern part of Arizona,
where a tract of land containing important prehistoric ruins had been
reserved by the President under the name Navaho National Monument. In
the following pages are considered some of the results of that trip, a
more detailed account of the ruins being deferred to a future report,
after a more extended examination shall have been made.[1] Mention is
made of a few objects collected, and recommendations are submitted for
future excavation and repair work on these remarkable ruins to preserve
them for examination by students and tourists. As will appear later, a
scientific study of them is important, for they are connected with Hopi
pueblos still inhabited, in which are preserved traditions concerning
the ruins and their ancient inhabitants.
The present population of Walpi, a Hopi pueblo, is made up of
descendants of various clans, whose ancestors once lived in distant
villages, now ruins, situated in various directions from its site on
the East mesa. One of the problems before the student of the Pueblos
is to locate accurately the ancestral villages where these clans lived
in prehistoric times. From an examination of the architecture of these
villages and a study of the character of secular and cult objects found
in them, the culture of the clans that inhabited these dwellings could
be roughly determined. The culture at any epoch in the history of the
clan being known, data are available that may make possible comparison
and correlation with that which is still more ancient: in other words,
that may add a chapter to our knowledge of the migrations of the Hopi
Indians in prehistoric times.
The writer has already identified some of the ancient houses of those
Hopi clans that claim to have dwelt formerly south of Walpi, on the
Little Colorado near Winslow, but has not investigated the ruins to
the north, in which once lived the Snake, Horn, and Flute clans. An
investigation of the origin and migrations of this contingent is
instructive because it is claimed that these clans were among the first
to arrive at Walpi, or that they united with the previously existing
Bear clan, forming the nucleus of the population of that pueblo.
A preliminary step in the investigation of the culture of the clans
that played a most important part in founding Walpi and giving rise
to the Hopi people would be the identification of the houses (now
ruins) of the Snake, Horn, and Flute clans, the existence of which in
the region north of Walpi is known with a greater or less degree of
certainty from Hopi legends. An archeologic study of these ruins and
of cult objects found in them would reveal some of the prehistoric
features of the culture of the ancient Snake clans. “The ancient home
of my ancestors,” said the old Snake chief to the writer, “was called
Tokónabi,[2] which is situated not far from Navaho mountain. If you
go there, you will find ruins of their former houses.” In previous
years the writer had often looked with longing eyes to the mountains
that formed the Hopi horizon on the north where these mysterious homes
of the Snake and Flute clans were said to be situated, but had never
been able to explore them. In 1909 the opportunity came to visit this
region, and while some of the ruins found may not be identifiable with
Tokónabi, they were abodes of people almost identical in culture with
the ancient Snake, Horn, and Flute clans of the Hopi.
References to the northern ruins occur frequently in Hopi legends of
the Snake and Flute clans, and even accounts of the great natural
bridges lately seen for the first time by white people were given years
ago by Hopi familiar with legends of these families. The writer heard
the Hopi tell of their former homes among the “high rocks” in the north
and at Navaho mountain, fifteen years ago, at which time they offered
to guide him to them. The stories of the great cave ruins to the north
were heard even earlier from the lips of the Hopi priests by another
observer. Mr. A. M. Stephen, the pioneer in Hopi studies, informed the
writer that he had learned of great ruins in the north as far back as
1885, and Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, aided by Mr. Stephen, published the
names of the clans which, according to the Hopi, inhabited them.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 3
_a._ FROM THE SOUTH
_b._ FROM THE NORTH
WUKÓKI RUIN AT BLACK FALLS]
Victor Mindeleff[3] summarizes the Hopi traditions concerning Tokónabi
still preserved by the Horn and Flute clans of Walpi:
The Horn people, to which the Lenbaki [Flute] belonged, have a legend
of coming from a mountain range in the east.
Its peaks were always snow covered, and the trees were always green.
From the hillside the plains were seen, over which roamed the deer,
the antelope, and the bison, feeding on never-failing grasses.
[Possibly the Horn people were so called from an ancient home where
horned animals abounded.] Twining through these plains were streams of
bright water, beautiful to look upon. A place where none but those who
were of our people ever gained access.
This description suggests some region of the headwaters of the Rio
Grande. Like the Snake people, they tell of a protracted migration,
not of continuous travel, for they remained for many seasons in one
place, where they would plant and build permanent houses. One of
these halting places is described as a canyon with high, steep walls,
in which was a flowing stream; this, it is said, was the Tségi (the
Navajo name for Canyon de Chelly).[4] Here they built a large house in
a cavernous recess, high up in the canyon wall. They tell of devoting
two years to ladder making and cutting and pecking shallow holes up
the steep rocky side by which to mount to the cavern, and three years
more were employed in building the house....
The legend goes on to tell that after they had lived there for a long
time a stranger happened to stray in their vicinity, who proved to be
a Hopituh [Hopi], and said that he lived in the south. After some stay
he left and was accompanied by a party of the “Horn” [clan], who were
to visit the land occupied by their kindred Hopituh and return with an
account of them; but they never came back. After waiting a long time
another band was sent, who returned and said that the first emissaries
had found wives and had built houses on the brink of a beautiful
canyon, not far from the other Hopituh dwellings. After this many of
the Horns grew dissatisfied with their cavern home, dissensions arose,
they left their home and finally they reached Tusayan.
The early legends of the Snake clans tell how bags containing their
ancestors were dropped from a rainbow in the neighborhood of Navaho
mountain. They recount how they built a pentagonal home and how one of
their young men married a Snake girl who gave birth to reptiles, which
bit the children and compelled the people to migrate. They left their
canyon homes and went southward, building houses at the stopping-places
all the way from Navaho mountain to Walpi. Some of these houses,
probably referring to their _kivas_ and _kihus_, legends declare, were
round[5] and others square.
Some of the ruins here mentioned have been known to white men for many
years. There is evidence that they have been repeatedly visited by
soldiers, prospectors, and relic hunters. The earliest white visitor of
whom there is any record was Lieutenant Bell, of the 2d (?) Infantry,
U. S. A.,[6] whose name, with the date 1859, is still to be seen cut on
a stone in a wall of ruin A.
A few years ago information was obtained from Navaho by Richard and
John Wetherill of the existence of some of the large cliff-houses
on Laguna creek and its branches; the latter has guided several
parties to them. Among other visitors in 1909 may be mentioned Dr.
Edgar L. Hewett, director of the School of American Archæology of the
Archæological Institute of America. A party[7] from the University of
Utah, under direction of Prof. Byron Cummings, has dug extensively in
the ruins and obtained a considerable collection.
The sites of several ruins in the Navaho National Monument,[8] which
was created on his recommendation, have been indicated by Mr. William
B. Douglass, United States Examiner of Surveys, General Land Office,
on a map accompanying the President’s proclamation, and also on a
recent map issued by the General Land Office. Although his report has
not yet been published, he has collected considerable data, including
photographs of Betatakin, Kitsiel (Keetseel), and the ruin called
Inscription House, situated in the Nitsi (Neetsee) canyon. While Mr.
Douglass does not claim to be the discoverer of these ruins, credit is
due him for directing the attention of the Interior Department to the
antiquities of this region and the desirability of preserving them.
The two ruins[9] in Nitsi (Neetsee),[10] West canyon, are not yet
included in the Navaho Monument, but according to Mr. Douglass these
are large ones, being 300 and 350 feet long, respectively,[11] and
promise a rich field for investigation. That these ruins will yield
large collections is indicated by the fact that the several specimens
of minor antiquities in a collection presented to the Smithsonian
Institution by Mr. Janus, the best of which are here figured (pls.
15-18), came from this neighborhood, possibly from one of these ruins.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 4
_a._ INTERIOR
_b._ EXTERIOR
RUIN A, SOUTHWEST OF MARSH PASS]
The ruins in West canyon (pl. 2) are particularly interesting from
the fact that the walls of some of the rooms are built of elongated
cylinders of clay shaped like a Vienna loaf of bread. These “bricks”
consist of a bundle of twigs enveloped in red clay, which forms a
superficial covering, the “brick” being flattened on two faces. These
unusual adobes were laid like bricks, and so tenaciously were they held
together by clay mortar that in one instance the corner of a room,
on account of undermining, had fallen as a single mass. The use of
straw-strengthened adobe blocks is unknown in the construction of other
cliff-houses, although the author’s investigations at Cliff Palace in
Mesa Verde National Park revealed the use of cubical clay blocks not
having the central core of twigs or sticks, and true adobes are found
in the Chelly canyon and at Awatobi. The ruins in West canyon can be
visited from either Bekishibito or Shanto, the approach from both of
these places being not difficult. There is good drinking water in West
canyon, where may be found also small areas of pasturage owned by a few
Navaho who inhabit this region. The trail by which one descends from
the rim of West canyon to the valley is steep and difficult.
One of the most interesting discoveries in West canyon is the grove of
peach trees in the valley a short distance from the canyon wall. The
existence of these trees indicates Spanish influence. Peach trees were
introduced into the Hopi country and the Canyon de Chelly in historic
times either by Spanish priests or by refugees from the Rio Grande
pueblos. They were observed in the Chelly canyon by Simpson in 1850.
The geographical position of these ruins in relation to Navaho
mountain[12] leads the writer to believe that they might have been
built by the Snake clans in their migration south and west from
Tokónabi to Wukóki, but he has not yet been able to identify them by
Hopi traditions.
But little has appeared in print on the ruins near Marsh pass. In
former times an old government road, now seldom used, ran through
Marsh pass, and those who traveled over it had a good view of some of
these ruins. Situated far from civilization, this region has attracted
but slight attention, although it is one of the most important,
archeologically speaking, in our Southwest. Much of this part of
Arizona is covered with ruins, some of which, as “Tecolote,”[13]
are indicated on the United States Engineers’ map of 1877. In his
excellent article[14] on this region Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden gives us
no description of the interesting cliff-dwellings in or near Marsh
pass, though he writes of the ruins in the neighboring canyon: “There
are numerous small valley sites, several cliff houses, and a few
pictographs in the canyon of the Towanache,[15] which enters Marsh
pass from the northwest.” As indicated on his map, Doctor Prudden’s
route did not pass the large ruins west and south of this canyon or
those on the road to Red Lake and Tuba.
Manifestly, the purpose of a national monument is the preservation
of important objects contained therein, and a primary object of
archeological work should be to attract to it as many visitors and
students as possible. As the country in which the Navaho National
Monument is situated is one of the least known parts of Arizona, first
place will be given to a brief account of one of the routes by which
the important ruins included in the reserve may be reached.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] The author’s first visit to these ruins was made in September,
1909, and he returned to the work in the following May. A few notes
made on the latter trip on ruins not observed during the former are
incorporated in this report.
[2] The exact situation of Tokónabi has never been identified by
archeologists. Ruins are called by the Navaho _nasazi bogondi_, “houses
of the _nasazi_.” The name Tokónabi may be derived from Navaho _to_,
“water;” _ko_, contraction of _bokho_, “canyon;” and the Hopi locative
_obi_, “place of.” The derivation from Navaho _boko_, “coal oil,” is
rejected, since it is very modern.
[3] See A Study of Pueblo Architecture, Tusayan and Cibola, in _Eighth
Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_. The legend was obtained by
Mr. A. M. Stephen.
[4] Evidently a mistake in identification of localities. Although
the Navaho name _Tségi_ has persisted as the designation of Canyon
de Chelly, Arizona, there is little doubt that when the Hopi gave to
Stephen the tradition of their former life in “Tségi,” they did not
refer, as he interpreted the narration, to what is now called Canyon de
Chelly, but to Laguna canyon, likewise bordered by high cliffs, which
the Navaho also designate _Tségi_. The designation Canyon de Chelly was
used by Simpson in 1850 (Sen. Ex. Doc. no. 64, 31st Cong., 1st sess.),
who wrote (p. 69, footnote): “The orthography of this word I got from
Señor Donaciano Vigil, secretary of the province, who informs me that
it is of Indian origin. Its pronunciation is chay-e.”—J. W. F.
[5] The circular type disappeared before they arrived in the valley
below Walpi. Legends declare that the original Snake kivas were
circular, and there are references, in legends of clans other than
those that formerly lived in the north, to circular kivas formerly used
by the Hopi.
[6] Probably Lieut. William Hemphill Bell, of the Third Infantry,
United States Army.
[7] Since the writer’s return to Washington this party has spent
several months at Betatakin.
[8] Mr. Douglass has furnished the writer the following data from his
report regarding the positions of the most important ruins in the
Navaho National Monument:
LATITUDE LONGITUDE
Kitsiel, 36° 45’ 33” north. 110° 31’ 40” west.
Betatakin, 36° 40’ 57” north. 110° 34’ 01” west.
Inscription House, 36° 40’ 14” north. 110° 51’ 32” west.
[9] One of these is designated Inscription House on Mr. Douglass’s map
(pl. 22).
[10] According to one Navaho the meaning of this word is “antelope
drive,” referring to the resemblance of the canyon to such a structure.
[11] For photographs of Kitsiel (pl. 1) and of Inscription House (here
pl. 2), published by courtesy in advance of Mr. Douglass’s report, the
writer is indebted to the General Land Office. Acknowledgment is made
to the same office for ground plans of Kitsiel and Betatakin, which
were taken from Mr. Douglass’s report.
[12] Hopi legends ascribe the former home of the Snake clan to the
vicinity of this mountain.
[13] The Mexican Spanish name for the ground-owl, from Nahuatl
_tecolotl_.
[14] In _American Anthropologist_, N. S., V, no. 2, 1903.
[15] The word _bokho_ (“canyon”) is applied by the Navaho to this
canyon; _tségi_ (“high rocks”) is used to designate the cliffs that hem
it in.
ROUTES TO THE NAVAHO NATIONAL MONUMENT
Three routes to the Monument have been used by visitors, namely: (1)
that from Bluff, Utah, by way of Oljato or Moonwater canyon; (2) that
from Gallup, New Mexico, via the Chin Lee valley, and (3) that from
Flagstaff, via Tuba and the Moenkopi wash. The disadvantages of the
first route, that used by most visitors, are the isolation of Bluff
from railroads, the treacherous character of the San Juan river, which
must be crossed, and the rugged country near Marsh pass. From the
Gallup road it would be possible to go through the Canyon de Chelly in
full view of many of its greatest cliff-dwellings, and while facilities
for outfitting and purchasing supplies along the route are not of the
best, this route has its advantages.
ROUTE FROM FLAGSTAFF TO MARSH PASS
The writer outfitted at Flagstaff, Arizona, and, following the “Tuba
road,” forded the Little Colorado at Tanners crossing, and continued on
to Tuba, a Navaho Indian agency situated near the Moenkopi wash, where
there is a trading place at which provisions can be had. The road from
Flagstaff to Tuba is well traveled, its sole drawback being the ford
of the river, the bottom of which at times is treacherous. Immediately
after leaving Flagstaff this route passes through a pine forest, which
offers many attractive camping places and where water can always be
obtained. For the greater part of the distance Sunset and O’Leary peaks
are in full view and the beautiful San Francisco mountains are likewise
conspicuous. After crossing Deadmans flat the road descends to Indian
Tanks, situated near the lower limit of the cedar trees; here is a
fairly good camping place where water is generally available. From this
camp to Halfway House[16] one crosses a semiarid desert, where wood and
water are hard to find.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 5
RUIN B AT MARSH PASS]
One of the most interesting landmarks visible from the road, after
leaving Indian Tanks, is called Superstition mountain, an elevation
situated to the north. According to Navaho stories, phantom fires are
sometimes seen on this mountain on dark nights, recalling an incident,
mentioned in the Snake legend, which occurred when the Snake clans came
south in their early migration from Tokónabi. This legend states that
all this land once belonged to their Fire God, Masauû, who was likewise
god of the surface of the earth. Lights moving around the mesas are
said to have been seen by these ancient inhabitants much as they are
now ascribed to Superstition mountain.
The traveler over the recent lava beds and cinder plains in the
neighborhood of the San Francisco mountains can readily accept the
statement that the early Hopi saw flames issuing from the earth or the
glow of hot lava, which gave substance to the legend still preserved
among this people. It was so natural for them to regard such a country
as the property of their Fire God that their legends state they
inherited the land from him.
The legends of the Snake clans recount also that when their ancestors
migrated from Tokónabi they went south and west until they reached the
Little Colorado river, where they built many houses of stone. They
remained there several years, but later left these houses and continued
in an easterly direction to Walpi. Where are the ruins of these ancient
houses of the Snake clans on the Little Colorado? There are several
Little Colorado ruins, as Homolobi near Winslow, but Hopi traditions
affirm these were built by people who came from the south. Lower down
the river at the Great Falls are other ruins, but these likewise are
ascribed to southern clans. The cluster of stone buildings near the
Black Falls conforms in position and direction from Walpi to Hopi
legends of the site of Wukóki, the Great Houses built by Snake clans
before they went to Walpi. In their migration from Tokónabi, probably
the Snake people tarried here and built houses, and then went on to the
Bear settlements or the Hopi pueblos, where their descendants now live.
More extensive archeologic work on these ruins may shed additional
light on this identification, and it is interesting to compare in point
of architecture the buildings at Black Falls[17] with those of extreme
northern Arizona.
An obscure trail branches from the Tuba road to the Black Falls ruins
just beyond the cedars below Indian Tanks, and the black walls of the
so-called “citadel” of this cluster are conspicuous for a considerable
distance before one leaves the main road. The ruin here figured is some
distance beyond the “citadel” and is hidden from view by intervening
hills and mesas, but from the time the traveler crosses the valley of
the Little Colorado and goes down into the Moenkopi wash he follows
approximately the old trail the Snake people took in their southerly
migration from Tokónabi.
Near Tanners crossing on the left bank, a short distance down the
river, Mr. Janus[18] has cemented a small basin above the highest level
of the flood, into which always flows pure water. The road from the
river to Moenkopi wash passes through a region where there is very
little wood for camping and no water. The distance from Flagstaff to
Tuba, about 90 miles, may be traveled in two days by taking the midday
meal of the first day at Indian Tanks and camping the first night at
Halfway House, where there is water for horses.
The pueblo settlement of Moenkopi (“place of the running water”), which
lies not far from Tuba, will give the visitor a fair idea of a small
Hopi pueblo. This settlement is said to be comparatively modern and
to have been made by colonists from Oraibi, but there are reasons to
believe that it dates back to the middle of the eighteenth century.
The pueblo is inhabited mainly by Pakab (Reed) clans, a people of late
advent in the Hopi country, whose arrival therein was subsequent,
at all events, to that of the Snake clans. The houses of Moenkopi
are arranged in rows, and it has one ceremonial room, or kiva, not
unlike the kivas of Walpi. None of the great nine-days ceremonies
of the Hopi is performed at Moenkopi; such dances as exist, called
_katcinas_, are conducted by masked participants. Possibly the presence
of Pakab clans in this pueblo is accounted for by need of warriors in
its exposed position, for the chief of the Hopi Warrior society (at
Walpi) belongs to the Pakab clan. The ruins about Moenkopi are small
and inconspicuous, but those between this pueblo and Oraibi are of
considerable size.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 6
VIEW INTO LAGUNA CANYON FROM MARSH PASS]
Beyond Tuba the road is rough, running over upturned strata of rocks
and extending along sandy stretches of plain and hills to Red Lake,
where there is an Indian trading store owned by well-known merchants
of Flagstaff.[19] Here also provisions may be obtained for the trip
and abundant water for stock. The road now becomes more difficult.
Just after leaving Red Lake there may be noticed to the left two great
pinnacles of rock called Elephant Legs, not unlike those in Monument
canyon, Utah, and far to the north the cliffs are fantastically eroded.
The White Mesa natural bridge, visible from Red Lake, is one of the
scenic features of this locality. There are prehistoric burials in the
sands near Red Lake, from which have been obtained several beautiful
specimens of pottery resembling in the main those from the Navaho
National Monument and from the Black Falls ruins.
The road continues from Red Lake to Bekishibito (Cow Spring),[20] where
the water issues from under a low cliff, spreading in the wet season
over the adjacent plain and forming a shallow lake several miles long,
whose bottom is somewhat dangerous on account of quicksands. When there
is water a rich mantle of grass—a boon to travelers in this dusty
land—covers the plain, making an attractive camping place. This stretch
of the road, not more than 20 miles in length, is fairly good and
easily traversed by wagons.
After leaving Bekishibito, the road to Marsh pass, although on the
whole not bad, becomes more and more obscure. The traveler now enters
the region of ruins, and passes several mounds indicating former
habitations, some of which still have standing walls. Several pools of
water, reduced to little more than mudholes, are found along the road,
but a constant supply of potable water is found at the sand hills in
the Black mesa opposite the butte called by the Navaho Saunee, 30 to
40 miles distant from Cow Spring. The distance from Red Lake to this
camp is a good day’s journey with a heavily loaded buckboard, noon camp
being made at Bekishibito. From Saunee one can easily reach Marsh pass
in another day, making in all five “sleeps” from Flagstaff to Marsh
pass. The only serious difficulties on the route are encountered as one
ascends the pass, but a few weeks’ work here would make the whole road
from Tuba to Marsh pass as good as that from Flagstaff to Tuba, which
is considered one of the best in this part of Arizona.
A large ruin with high walls is visible on a promontory of the
Sethlagini plateau westward from this camp. This ruin, as well
as another near the road, about halfway from the sand hills to
Bekishibito, was not studied; the latter, which lies only a short
distance from the road, on a low rocky hill, was visited and found to
be the remains of a small pueblo, more or less dilapidated but with
standing walls. The fragments of pottery in this vicinity are not
unlike those found at the Black Falls ruins, and the masonry of the
ruin is almost identical in character. At the time of the writer’s
visit there was a pool of water, not very inviting even to horses, a
few hundred feet from this ancient habitation. Numerous sheep pasturing
in the neighborhood befoul this pool, so that it can not be depended on
to supply the needs of either men or horses. The road (plate 2) follows
the valley west of the great Sethlagini mesa, over a hill and finally
down again to a Navaho cornfield, the owner of which served as a guide
to the large ruin A.
FOOTNOTES:
[16] A two-room stone house erected by the Indian Bureau for use of
employes.
[17] For plates representing ruins at Black Falls, see _Twenty-second
Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_. Plate 3
(hitherto unpublished) of the present report represents one of the
characteristic Black Falls ruins, which closely resembles several of
the characteristic ruins standing on low hills near the road to Marsh
pass, beyond Red Lake.
The architecture of the ruins on the Little Colorado near Black Falls
resembles that of the open ruins, especially Ruin A, and those near
the road from Bekishibito to Marsh pass. While great weight can not be
given to this resemblance, since we find much uniformity in stone ruins
everywhere in the Southwest, it is interesting to take in connection
with this fact the close likeness in minor objects from the Laguna
Creek ruins and the Black Falls cluster. The prevailing ware from both
is the gray pottery with black geometrical ornamentation and red ware
with black or brown decoration. The red ware and the yellow ware, so
abundant higher up the river, are not the prevailing kinds. The pottery
of the Black Falls ruins is essentially the same type as that of the
San Juan and its tributaries.
[18] Mr. Stephen Janus, agent of the Northwestern Navaho, to whom the
author is indebted for many kindnesses, joined him at Tuba and made the
trip to Marsh pass and the neighboring ruins with his party.
[19] The presence of excellent traders’ stores at Tuba and Red Lake
renders it unnecessary to carry groceries or fodder from Flagstaff.
[20] Spanish: _vaca_, “cow”; Navaho: _shi_, “her”; _to_, “water”.
MAJOR ANTIQUITIES
RUIN A
The first ruin of considerable size that was visited is situated to
the left of and somewhat distant from the road, a few miles west and
south of Marsh pass. As this ruin (pl. 4)[21] stands on an elevation,
it is visible for a considerable distance across the valley, especially
to one approaching it from the southwest. The standing walls rise in
places to a height of 10 feet, showing indications of two stories, some
of the rafters in places still projecting beyond the face of the wall.
The two walls highest and most prominent are parallel, inclosing a long
room or court; in one place a break has been made through these walls,
as appears in the illustration. The remnants or foundations of other
walls back of these show that ruin A was formerly very much larger than
the walls now standing would indicate.
The walls are composed of roughly laid masonry, bearing evidences on
the inside of adobe plastering. An exceptional feature is the large
number of the component stones decorated on their outer faces with
deeply incised geometrical figures, apparently traced with some pointed
implement.[22]
Comparison of the architecture of this ruin with that of the Black
Falls ruin here figured (pl. 3) shows a resemblance which is more
than superficial, in the elevated site, character of the masonry, and
general ground plan; and comparison of its walls with those of Old
Walpi shows a similar likeness, which is instructive so far as it goes.
This is the only large ruin visited that is characterized by high
standing walls on top of an eminence, but Navaho guides said they were
familiar with others in this neighborhood similar in structure and
situation.
Immediately after leaving this ruin the attention is drawn to the
first of the large cliff-dwellings, cliff-house B, situated near Marsh
pass. The contrast in color of the Cretaceous rocks on the right and
the Triassic formations on the left side of the pass is noticeable for
some distance. The great cliff-dwellings are found high up in the red
sandstone on the left.
CLIFF-HOUSE B
This picturesque ruin occupies the whole floor of a narrow, low cave
situated in an almost vertical cliff forming one side of a canyon which
extends deep into the mountain; the entrance is between low hills on
the left, where the road ascends to Marsh pass. The ruin can be seen
for a long distance, but as one approaches the canyon in which it lies
the site is hidden by foothills. The accompanying view (pl. 5) was
taken from the opposite side of the canyon, it being impossible to get
an extended detailed view of the ruin from above or below. Beyond the
ruin the canyon forms a narrowing fissure with precipitous sides; its
bed is covered with bushes, stunted trees, and fallen rocks. No flowing
water was found in this canyon, but in the ledges near its mouth, below
the ruins, there are pockets and potholes which contained considerable
water at the time of the writer’s visit.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 7
SWALLOWS NEST]
This cliff-dwelling is difficult to enter, the walls of the canyon,
both above and below and on the sides, being almost perpendicular. A
pathway extending along the side of the cliff on the level of the cave
approaches within 20 feet of the ruin; from its end to the first room
of the ruin this trail is continued by a series of footholes pecked
in the rock, making entrance hazardous at this point.[23] Although
the walls of this cliff-dwelling are more or less destroyed and their
foundations deeply buried, there still remains standing masonry of a
square tower (?) reaching from the floor to the roof of the cave. One
corner of this tower is completely broken out, but the remaining sides
show that this building was three stories high, composed of rooms one
above another.
Several other rooms lie concealed under fallen walls and débris. One
of the most instructive of these is what may have been a _kiva_,
or ceremonial room,[24] the location of its walls being indicated
by stakes projecting out of the ground. Lower down, where the wall
was better preserved, sticks or wickerwork were found interwoven in
the uprights, the whole being plastered with adobe, a form of wall
construction common in prehistoric ruins of Arizona.
In comparison with the Mesa Verde ruins, the masonry of this ruin is
poor, but the stones used in constructing the walls are large. The many
fragments of pottery strewn over the surface of the floor of the cave
resemble in symbolism pottery from Black Falls, the same colors, black
and white, predominating.[25]
In descending the declivity of the cliff in the sides of which
cliff-house B is situated, there comes to view a cluster of broken
walls crowning a low elevation, which indicate a former house of some
size. In their neighborhood are the foundations of other walls, and the
ground in the vicinity is strewn with many fragments of pottery and
much fallen masonry half buried in débris. Farther down the hill, on
the level of the road and extending parallel with it, are low ridges
or mounds covered with pottery, indicating the former presence of a
pueblo of considerable size. No walls were traced in these mounds,
which seem to indicate the existence of an ancient cemetery, as several
rings of small stones, suggesting graves, were found. A short distance
beyond this supposed cemetery is a little cave, situated a few hundred
feet to the left of the road. In this cave are a few walls, but the
cliff-dwelling is not of great size; beyond it the road rises steeply
to Marsh pass. (Pl. 6.)
Although some of the ruins in the Navaho Monument may be visited
without the use of saddle horses, the largest can not now be approached
with wagons. It would be possible at a small expense, however, so to
improve the Indian trail up the canyon of Laguna creek that one could
drive within a fraction of a mile of the great ruins, Betatakin and
Kitsiel. At present, to reach these one must leave carriages at Marsh
pass and descend with saddle horses to the bed of Laguna creek, which
flows along the canyon, in the side branches of which are situated the
greatest two cliff-dwellings of the region. One of these, Betatakin, is
about six miles, the other, Kitsiel, about 10 miles, from Marsh pass.
SWALLOWS NEST
Descending to Laguna creek and following the bottom of the canyon,
crossing and recrossing the stream several times, the first
cliff-dwelling is seen built in a niche in the cliffs high up on the
right. This ruin seems to fill the bottom of a symmetrically vaulted,
open cave, the high arched roof and sides of which are so eroded that
from one point of view the shadow cast by the ruin at certain times
outlines the profile of a head and part of a human body, as seen in
plate 7. Although a talus[26] extends from this ruin some distance down
the cliff, rendering access difficult, the ruin was entered, but found
to be in a poor state of preservation. Several of the walls, viewed
from the road, appeared to be in good condition, and some of the rooms
are more than one story high.
BETATAKIN
Following the canyon about five miles from Marsh pass, the writer’s
party came to a fork in the canyon,[27] where a guide was found who
led the way across the stream into a small side canyon, in the end of
which lies Betatakin. This canyon is wooded and at the time of the
writer’s visit contained plenty of water, a small stream issuing from
almost under the walls and trickling down through the bushes over a
mass of fallen rock which forms the talus. The climb to the ruin from
the place where horses must be abandoned is not a hard one and a trail
could easily be made; in fact a carriage road might be constructed at
small expense from Marsh pass to within half a mile of this great ruin,
one of the largest two and best preserved cliff-dwellings in the Navaho
National Monument.
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 8
BETATAKIN—GENERAL VIEW]
A feature of this ruin (plates 8-11) which attracts attention on
entering it is the fine echo, due to the shape of the open cave in
which it lies. Were the name not preempted, it would seem that Echo
House would be a much more appropriate designation for the ruin than
Betatakin, “High-ledges House,” applied to it by the Navaho.
Certain differences in architectural features between cliff-houses
in the Mesa Verde region and those here considered are apparent. The
caves in which the cliff-dwellings of the Navaho Monument region
are situated differ in geological formation from those of the Mesa
Verde National Park. While in the former there are many instances of
horizontal cleavage planes, as a rule the falling of blocks of stone
has left vertical flat faces. On this account the caves are shallow and
high-vaulted rather than extending deep into the cliff. The process of
formation of these vertical planes of cleavage is shown by examining
plate 9; in this case a pinnacle of rock has begun to break away and is
partially separated from the surface of the cliff. This pinnacle will
ultimately topple over and fall as many have done before, leaving a
broken stump at its former base. In this way, from time to time, in the
past geological history of the cave, detached pinnacles and slabs of
rock have broken away along these vertical planes of cleavage, leaving
the tops of their broken bases later to become foundations for rooms.
Similar flat vertical planes of cleavage are rare, almost unknown,
in the Mesa Verde caves. Here the cleavage is horizontal, the caves
extending deep into the cliffs.[28]
The modifications in architecture brought about by the difference in
direction of these cleavage planes are apparent. The ancient builders
in the Navaho Monument region utilized the vertical faces as supports
for walls of rooms on one or more sides. In some cases the face of the
cliff forms the rear walls; in others a side wall and the rear wall
of a room are formed by vertical cleavage planes at right angles, as
shown in plate 9. It can be seen that adjacent houses built upon fallen
rocks of different heights, the vertical faces being utilized as rear
walls, would seem to stand one above another, or, in other words, they
would present the well-known terrace form which exists in some modern
pueblos.
The writer approached this ruin by following the fallen débris at
the end, where the rooms, being without covering and exposed to the
elements, are most dilapidated. Over this fallen mass one makes his way
with difficulty and is often in danger of falling from the cliff. On
account of the perpendicular face of the cliff below the foundations of
the other end of the ruin, it is impossible to climb into it, except
from this side. On approaching the ruin there is to be seen on the
vertical face of the cliff a pictograph (pl. 12) worthy of special
mention, or rather two pictographs which are doubtless connected in
meaning. The larger of these is a circle, painted white, resembling a
shield (a common object in pictographic representation), the other a
horned animal, perhaps a mountain sheep.[29] The figure on the shield,
which bears evidence of former coloration, represents a human being
with outstretched arms, the hands being raised to the level of the
head. On each side of the body are represented two designs—a circle of
yellow and a crescent in which are parallel bands of red, yellow, and
probably green.
The rooms in this cliff-house are rectangular, cubical, or box-like
structures built against the face of the cliff, which serves as their
rear wall. There are no towers or round rooms such as those that lend
picturesqueness to several of the Mesa Verde cliff-dwellings. Few of
the rooms are more than two stories high, the appearance of terraced
rooms being given by the varying heights of their foundations. The
masonry is crude, the lines are irregular, and the external faces of
the walls vertical. The interior wall was probably plastered, and some
walls afford good evidence that their exterior was formerly covered
with mud.
A marked feature of ruins in this region is the adobe walls supported
by rows of stakes with interwoven sticks. No adobe bricks were seen in
the walls examined.[30]
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 9
BETATAKIN—WESTERN END]
[Illustration:
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY BULLETIN 50 PLATE 10
GROUND PLAN
OF THE
BETATA KIN
NAVAHO IND·RES·ARIZ·
BY
W·B·DOUGLASS
U·S·EXAMINER OF SURVEYS
·GENERAL LAND OFF·
]
One of the largest clusters of rooms in this cliff-house (Betatakin)
stands on a huge rock foundation, the vertical face of which is
continuous with the wall of masonry of the front building of the
cluster. (Pl. 11.) The rear wall of the front room is formed by the
vertical face of the cliff. About half of the roof of this room has
gone, but several patches still remain even in the broken section.
The rooms of the higher tier are set against an upright wall. The
doorway is on one side. The shelf of rock on which this room stands
is level with the roof of the first room and the cave wall
forms its rear. This room was probably a ceremonial chamber, having a
fire-hole in the floor, between which and the doorway is a low wall
of masonry corresponding to the deflector, or altar, in Mesa Verde
ruins.[31] The part of the floor on which one steps in entering this
room is raised slightly above the remainder, serving to connect the
base of the deflector with the doorsill. The deflector and fire-hole
are practically duplicates of features common to several Cliff Palace
kivas. At Betatakin, however, the ceremonial room is above ground, not
subterranean, and is entered from the side instead of from the top.
A two-story room stands on the rock one tier higher than the ceremonial
room just mentioned, its foundation being at the level of the roof
of the ceremonial room, as shown in the illustration. The front wall
of this room is more or less broken down, but on one side, where
projecting rafters are found in place, the masonry, otherwise unbroken,
is pierced by a small window. This room has also a door on the side.
Several well-preserved rooms extend along a ledge of rock on the same
level as the roofs of these buildings, forming another tier above the
ceremonial room. One of these has a fine roof; ends of rafters extend
from the walls.
Beyond the ceremonial room, on the side where the ruin is most
dilapidated, may be noted the same arrangement of the rooms in tiers
or terraces, brought about by the varying height of their foundations.
Several walls in these rooms are in good condition, but the fronts
of many are broken down. Here are found rows of sticks or supports
projecting from the débris. The walls are almost invariably of stone;
those supported by sticks are usually connecting walls. The roofs of
some of these rooms are entire, but many are broken, although their
rafters still remain in place.
The whole length of Betatakin is not far from 600 feet, following
the foundations from one end to the other. There are not far from
100 rooms visible, and evidences of others covered with débris. The
larger of the two rooms identified as ceremonial rooms on account of
their deflectors, measures 10 by 7 feet and is about 5 feet high; the
smaller is about 7 feet square. There are no vertical ventilators as in
circular kivas, the smoke evidently finding egress through a small hole
in the roof. The floor of one of these ceremonial rooms was cut in the
solid rock.
As above mentioned, there are no circular rooms or towers in Betatakin,
although one room has a rounded corner. Traces of the repair of doors
and windows are evident, but none of these apertures are T-shaped.
One of the interesting features in Betatakin and several other ruins in
this region consists in rows of eyelets cut in the rocky side of the
cliff evidently for the attachment of some long object.
A cluster of small rooms isolated from those above described are shown
in plate 9; these give a good idea of the general type of architecture
of these buildings and of the modifications or adaptations due to the
sites on which they are erected and the vertical cliffs against which
they are built. Three rooms set into the angle formed by two vertical
cliff faces at right angles to each other illustrate how the cliff
serves for rear walls and how the buildings are attached to it for
support. The roofs of these rooms are entire and their rafters project
beyond the upright walls. The doors and windows are, comparatively
speaking, small and rectangular in form. Fragments of walls projecting
out of the ground indicate the existence of many rooms covered with
débris. These are especially numerous at the end of the ruin to which
the trail leads, but as most of them are buried an adequate idea of
their arrangement can not be gained without systematic excavation.
KITSIEL (KEET SEEL)