CHAPTER XV._A Visit to the Philippine Islands

VEGETABLES.

The money value of the tobacco grown in the Philippines is estimated at

from 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 of dollars, say 1,000,000l. sterling. Of

this nearly one half is consumed in the islands, one-quarter is

exported in the form of cheroots (which is the Oriental word for

cigars), and the remainder sent to Spain in leaves and cigars,

being estimated as an annual average contribution exceeding 800,000

dollars. The sale of tobacco is a strict government monopoly,

but the impossibility of keeping up any efficient machinery for the

protection of that monopoly is obvious even to the least observant. The

cultivator, who is bound to deliver all his produce to the government,

first takes care of himself and his neighbours, and secures the best

of his growth for his own benefit. Out of the capital of Manila

scarcely anything is smoked but the cigarro ilegitimo; and in the

capital you frequently get a hint that "the weed" is not from the

estanco real. From functionaries able to obtain the best which

the government brings to market, a present is often volunteered,

which shows that they avail themselves of something better than that

best. And in discussing the matter with the most intelligent of the

empleados, they agreed that the emancipation of the producer, the

manufacturer and the seller, and the establishment of a simple duty,

would be more productive to the revenue than the present vexatious

and inefficient system of privilege.

There has been an enormous increase in the revenues from tobacco. They

gave nett--

Annual Average.

From 1782 to 1785 260,597 dolls. 86,865 dolls.

From 1786 to 1800 (15 years) 4,950,101 dolls. 330,006 dolls.

From 1801 to 1815 (15 years) 7,228,071 dolls. 481,871 dolls.

From 1816 to 1830 (15 years) 8,403,368 dolls. 560,225 dolls.

From 1831 to 1835 (5 years) 3,707,164 dolls. 741,433 dolls.

From 1836 to 1839 (4 years) 4,990,011 dolls. 1,247,503 dolls.

Since when the produce has more than quadrupled in value.

In 1810 the deliveries were 50,000 bales (of two arrobas), of which

Gapan furnished 47,000, and Cagayan 2,000. In 1841 Cagayan furnished

170,000 bales; Gapan, 84,000; and New Biscay, 34,000. But the produce

is enormously increased; and so large is the native consumption,

of which a large proportion pays no duty, that it would not be

easy to make even an approximative estimate of the extent and value

of the whole tobacco harvest. Where the fiscal authorities are so

scattered and so corrupt;--where communications are so imperfect

and sometimes wholly interrupted;--where large tracts of territory

are in the possession of tribes unsubdued or in a state of imperfect

subjection;--where even among the more civilized Indians the rights

of property are rudely defined, and civil authority imperfectly

maintained;--where smuggling, though it may be attended with some

risk, is scarcely deemed by anybody an offence, and the very highest

functionaries themselves smoke and offer to their guests contraband

cigars, on account of their superior quality,--it may well be supposed

that lax laws, lax morals and lax practices, harmonize with each other,

and that such a state of things as exists in the Philippines must be

the necessary, the inevitable result. It is sufficient to look at the

cost of the raw material and the value of the manufactured article

to perceive what an enormous margin of profit there exists. A quintal

of tobacco will produce--

Dollars.

14 cases, each containing 1,000 cigars, whose value is,

at 6 1/2 dolls. per case 87·50

The quintal of tobacco costs 5·00 dolls.

Manufacture 5·25 dolls.

14 cases at 2 rials 3·50 dolls.

13·75

-----

Profit 73·75

Cheroots (cigars) are manufactured in two forms,--that of the Havana,

the smaller end being twisted to a point,--or cut at both ends, the

usual Manila form. They are of sundry qualities, as follows:--Largest

size, 125 to a box--1st Regalias, 1st Caballeros and Londres; second

size, 250 to a box--2nd Regalias and 1st Cortados, 2nd Caballeros,

1st Havanas (ordinary size, and such as are more commonly used,

Nos. 2 and 3 being those in most demand); 500 to a box--Nos. 2, 3, 4,

and 5 Havanas, 2 and 3 Cortados. Besides these, enormous quantities of

paper cigars (cigarillos) are consumed by the natives. They are sold

in packets of twenty-five, at 5 cuartes; thirty, at 5 1/3 cuartes;

thirty-six, at 5 5/7 cuartes.

The estanco prices for these cigars are, per box--

Dollars.

Imperiales box contains 125 cigars 3·750

Regalias and Caballeros box contains 125 cigars 3·125

1 Havanas, 1 Cortados box contains 250 cigars 3·500

2 Havanas, 2 Cortados box contains 500 cigars 4·000

3 Havanas, 3 Cortados box contains 500 cigars 3·500

4 Havanas, box contains 500 cigars 3·000

5 Havanas, box contains 500 cigars 2·500

Londres box contains 125 cigars 1·875

Upon these minimum prices biddings take place at the monthly public

auctions. So large is the demand that it is difficult to obtain any but

fresh cigars, which require to be kept for two or three years to ripen.

The collection of tobacco and the manufacture of cigars are under the

charge of an administration whose head-quarters are in Manila. The

warehouses are of immense extent, and 20,000 persons probably find

occupation in the preparation of this article of luxury, to say nothing

of those employed in its production. The provinces in which there are

establishments for the collection are Cagayan, La Isabela, New Ecija,

La Union, Abra and Cayan. The largest of the manufactures of cigars

are in Binondo (Manila) and Cavite, in the province of the same name.

Fr. Blanco thus describes the Nicotiana tabacum of the Philippines:

"It is an annual, growing to the height of a fathom, and furnishes the

tobacco for the estancos (licensed shops). Here, as everywhere else,

its quality and taste vary. General opinion prefers the tobacco of

Gapan, but that of the Pasy districts, Laglag and Lambunao, in Iloilo,

of Maasin or Leyte, is appreciated for its fine aroma; also that of

Cagayan, after being kept for some years,--for otherwise, like the

tobacco of the island of Negros, it burns the mouth. It is a narcotic,

and will subdue recent tumours. It is salutary when smoked, and even a

necessity in these regions; it disperses phlegm, protects from the bad

consequences of humidity and the morning dews, and is only injurious to

health when used in excess. Snuff relieves from headaches and disperses

gloomy humours. A small piece of smoked tobacco at the end of a stick

applied to the nose of the lizard, which is here called the chacon

(probably the ghiko), causes its instant death. A cruel practice,"

(adds the father), "for the reptile is most useful, destroying

cockroaches, centipedes, mice and other vermin; besides which its

song may cheer the timid, who believe that while that song lasts

there will be no earthquakes nor any excess of rain."--(Pp. 74-75.)

I am informed by the alcalde mayor of Cagayan that he sent last year

(1858) to Manila from that province tobacco for no less a value than

2,000,000 dollars. The quality is the best of the Philippines; it is

all forwarded in leaf to the capital. He speaks of the character of

the Indians with great admiration, and says acts of dishonesty are

very rare among them, and that property is conveyed in perfect safety

through the province. The quantity of leaf transmitted was 300,000

bales, divided into seven qualities, of which the prices paid were from

two to seven rials per quintal, leaving a large margin of profit. The

tobacco used by the natives is not subject to the estanco, and on

my inquiring as to the cost of a cigar in Cagayan, the answer was,

"Casi nada" (Almost nothing). They are not so well rolled as those of

the government, but undoubtedly the raw material is of the very best.

The demand for the important article of coffee in Australia and

California will probably hereafter be largely supplied from the

Spanish archipelago. Of the mode of cultivation, there is nothing

particularly characteristic of the Philippines. The ground having

been cleared (where on a large extent, by fire), it is fenced in,

the soil prepared, and after having been steeped in water for two

or three days, the sprouts are stuck into the holes which had been

made for their reception, and in the following year are ready for

cutting. The use of the plough largely increases the produce. The

cultivation of sugar is rapidly extending. The harvest takes place

generally from March to May. Four groups of labourers are employed:

the cutters and the carters in the field, the grinders and the boilers

in the manufactory. Improvements are gradually being introduced,

as larger capitalists and more intelligent cultivators come forward;

and the establishment of refineries now in progress will induce many

beneficial changes. Much of the clayed sugar which I saw delivered

at Manila for refining into loaves had rather the appearance of

dirty mud than of a valuable commodity. Though slowly, the work of

improvement goes on, and there could be no greater evidence of it than

the presence of a number of Chinese employed in the various stages

of the fabric. Nor do these Chinese labourers fail to bring with them

much practical knowledge. They are mostly from Fokien, a province in

which the production of sugar is great, and in which there are large

sugar refineries, mostly, however, for the manufacture of sugar-candy,

which is the form in which the Chinese usually purchase the sugar for

consumption, pounding it into powder. I visited several extensive

establishments at Chang-chow-foo, about thirty miles from Amoy,

a port whence the exportation is large.

There are several varieties of the sugar-cane. The zambales is used

principally as food; the encarnado (red), morada (purple), blanca

(white), and listada (striped), give the syrup for manufacture. The

planting of the sprouts takes place between February and May. Weeds

are removed by ploughing, and the plants ripen in ten or twelve

months. In some provinces crops are cultivated for three successive

years; in others, the soil is allowed to rest an intermediate year,

and maize or other produce grown. When cut, the canes are carried

to mills called by the natives cabayavan, to be crushed. The mills

consist of two cylindrical stones with teeth of the molave wood; a

buffalo turns the wheel and the juice is conveyed to the boilers. The

improvements of the West are being slowly introduced, and sundry

economical processes have been adopted. Increasing demand, extended

cultivation and, above all, the application of larger capitals and

greater activity, will, undoubtedly, make the Philippines one of the

great producing countries. A variety of tables have been printed,

showing that the average annual profits on coffee cultivation are

from 20 to 30 per cent.; in some provinces considerably more.

Rice being of far more general production, is estimated to give an

average yearly profit of from 12 to 20 per cent.; sesame returns an

average of about 20 per cent.; cocoa-nuts may be considered at about

equal to rice in the yearly benefits they leave, but the conditions are

so various that it may be difficult to generalize. It may, however, be

asserted with tolerable certainty, that money employed with ordinary

prudence in agricultural investments will give an interest of from

20 to 30 per cent.

The consumption of rice is universal, and the superfluity of the

harvests is taken to the Chinese markets. The varieties of rice have

been elsewhere spoken of, but they may be classed under the two general

heads of water and mountain rice. The aquatic rice is cultivated as in

Europe and America; the sowing of the dry rice usually precedes that

of the water rice, and takes place at the end of May. It is usually

broadcast on the hills, requires to be hoed and weeded, and is ripened

in from three to four months and a half. It is harvested ear by ear.

Fr. Blanco describes four species of water-cultivated (de agua),

and five of mountain-produced (secano) rice. Of the first class, the

lamuyo (Oryza sativa lamuyo) is principally cultivated, especially

in Batangas. The barbed rice (Oryza aristata) grows in Ilocos. Of

the mountain rice, that called quinanda (Oryza sativa quinanda)

is the most esteemed. The cultivation of the water rice begins

by the preparation of the seed deposits (semillero), into which,

at the beginning of the rainy season, the seed is thrown, after a

thorough impregnation of the ground with water, of which several

inches remain on the surface. Ploughing and harrowing produce a mass

of humid mud. During the growth of the seed, irrigation is continued,

and after six weeks the crops are ready for transplanting to the

rice-fields. Men generally pull up the plants, and convey them to the

fields, where women up to their knees in mire separate the plants,

and place them in holes at a regular distance of about five inches

from one another. They are left for some days to take root, when the

grounds are again irrigated. The rice grows to the height of somewhat

more than a yard, and after four months is ready for harvest. It

is a common usage to cut every ear separately with an instrument

whose Indian name is yatap. In some parts a sickle called a lilit is

used. The lilit has a crook by which a number of ears are collected,

and being grasped with the left hand, are cut by the serrated blade

of the sickle held in the right hand. The crops of aquatic rice vary

from thirty to eightyfold.

The mountain rice is sown broadcast after ploughing and harrowing,

and buffaloes are employed to trample the seed into the ground. More

care is sometimes taken, and holes made at regular distances, into

which three or four grains of rice are dropped. Careful cultivation

and great attention to the removal of weeds are said to produce

hundred-fold crops.

It is stated by Father Blanco that a third of the rice harvest has

been known to perish in consequence of the dilatory and lazy way in

which the reaping is conducted.

There is no doubt that the Philippines offer great facilities for

the cultivation of indigo, but it has been neglected and inadequate

attention paid to the manufacture. The growers state that there is

in Europe a prejudice against Manila indigo; but such prejudice can

only be the result of experience, and would be removed by greater care

on the part of the growers, manufacturers and exporters. The crops,

however, are uncertain, and often seriously damaged or destroyed

by tempestuous weather, and by invasions of caterpillars. The

seed is broadcast, sown immediately after the temperate season. It

grows rapidly, but requires to have the weeds which spring up with

it cleared away. It is ready for harvesting in the rainy months,

generally in June. The fermentation, straining, beating, cleaning,

pressing, and final preparation are carried on, not according to the

improved processes of British India, but as they were introduced by

the Spaniards. The Indians, like the Chinese, employ the dye in its

liquid state.

The consumption of the betel root is incredibly great. There are in

the city of Manila, in the courts and ground floors of the houses,

altogether 898 warehouses and shops, of which 429 (or nearly half

the whole) are devoted to the sale of the prepared betel, or to the

materials of which it is composed. There are two warehouses where the

leaf in which the areca nut is wrapped is sold wholesale; there are

105 retail shops for the same article, and there are 308 shops in

which is sold for immediate use the nut mixed with shell-lime, and

served with the buyo (leaf of the piper betel), ready for conveyance

to the mouth of the consumer, to whom it is from usage become an

article of necessity even more urgent than the rice he eats or the

water he drinks.

Of the areca, Fr. Blanco, in his Flora de Filipinas, gives the

following account:--"This species of palm, with which everybody is

acquainted, and which like its fruit is called bonga by the Indians,

grows to about the average height of the cocoa-nut tree. Its trunk is

smaller at the base than the top, very straight, with many circular

rings formed by the junction of the leaves before they fall, which

they do on growing to a certain size. The use of the nut, which is

somewhat smaller than a hen's egg, is well known. When the bonga is

wanting, the Indians employ the bark of the guava, or of the antipolo

(Artocarpus). Mixed with lime and the pepper leaf, it makes the saliva

red. The Indians apply this saliva to the navel of their children

as a cure for the colic and a protection from the effects of cold

air. When ripe, the fruit is red and, I believe, might be used as a

red dye. With copperas it makes a black dye, but inferior to that of

the aroma. The lower part of the leaves, called talupac, is very clean,

broad, white and flexible, making excellent wrappers and serving many

useful purposes. The sprouts are salted and eaten, and are agreeable

to the taste, but when cut the tree perishes."--(P. 495.)

Father Blanco says of the piper betel (Pimenta betel), whose leaves

are employed as envelopes to the areca nut and lime:--"This plant is

universally known, in consequence of the immense consumption of the

betel, or buyo, as the betel is called by the Spaniards. The betel of

Pasay, near Manila, is much esteemed; that of Banang, in Batangas,

is the best of that province, and probably superior to the betel

of Pasay. The tree prefers a somewhat sandy soil, but if too sandy,

as in Pasay, fish is used as a manure, or the rind of the Ajonjoli

(sesame), or other oleaginous fruits. The tree must be frequently

watered. The roots are renovated after a year, but if left to grow old

they produce flowers like the litlit (Piper obliquum). The fruit is

called by the natives poro. Of the Piper parvifolium, an inebriating

liquor is made. The Indians use the leaves as a preservative against

the cholera. All the species of Piper are useful against the poison of

snakes. The wound is first scarified, and either the juice or bruised

leaves of the plant applied and frequently changed. 'I was called,'

says the author of the Flora of the Antilles, 'to a negro whose

thigh had just been bitten by a snake. The poison had made frightful

progress. All the remedies of art had been employed in vain. A negro

appeared, and asked leave to apply the popular mode of cure. There

was then no hope of the recovery of the patient--human life was at

stake--I did not hesitate. In a few moments the progress of the poison

was stopped by the simple application of the Piper procumbens. On

the third application the cure was completed.'"--(Pp. 16, 17.)

Of the vegetation of the Philippines, the bamboo may be deemed the

most extensive, the most useful, and the most beautiful. The graceful

groups of Cañas (the Spanish name, the Tagál is Bocaui) are among the

most charming decorations of the island scenery, and are scattered with

great profusion and variety on the sides of the streams and rivers,

on hills and plains, and always to be found adjacent to the residence

of the native. Waving their light branches at the smallest breeze,

they give perpetual life to the landscape, while they are of daily

service to the people. The Bambus arundo grows to a great height,

and its cane is sometimes more than eight inches in diameter. In

it is sometimes found a small stone, called Tabaxir, to which the

Indians attribute miraculous healing virtues. The Bambus lumampao and

the lima are so hard that the wood is used for polishing brass. The

bamboo serves for an infinity of uses; from the food that nourishes

man or beast, to the weapons that destroy his life: for the comforts of

home; for the conveniences of travel; for the construction of bridges,

several hundred feet in length, over which heavy artillery can safely

pass; for shipping and cordage; for shelter, and for dwellings and

domestic utensils of all sorts; for vessels of every size to retain,

and tubes to convey, water and other fluids; for mats, palings, and

scaffoldings; for musical instruments, even organs for churches; for

a hundred objects of amusement; and, indeed, for all the purposes of

life the bamboo is distinguished. It is the raw material on which

the rude artist makes his experiments--roots, trunks, branches,

leaves, all are called into the field of utility. There is much

of spontaneous production, but it may be multiplied by layers and

cuttings. Some of the bamboos grow to an enormous size. That called by

the natives cauayang totoo, and by the Spaniards caña espino, reaches

the height of from forty to fifty feet, the diameter of the stalk or

trunk exceeding eight inches. One of its divisions will sometimes hold

two pecks of wheat. An infusion of this bamboo is poisonous to deer;

but its leaves are eaten by horses and cattle and its young shoots

as salad by man. The cauayang quiling (caña macho of the Spaniards)

grows to about forty feet in height, its stem being of the size of

a man's arm. From the thickness of the rind and the smallness of the

hollow, it is the strongest of the bamboos, and is used for carrying

burdens on the shoulders; a fourth part of the whole cane, of the

length of two yards, when split, will support any weight that a man

can carry. The cane has an elasticity which lightens the burden to the

bearer. The varieties of the bamboo are scarcely to be counted. The

interior of the osin gives a white substance, which is used as a cure

for urinal and eye diseases.

I once heard a remark that the Crystal Palace itself could have been

filled with specimens of various applications of the bamboo. Minus the

glass, the palace itself might have been constructed of this material

alone, and the protecting police furnished from it with garments,

hats and instruments of punishment. The living trees would fill a

conservatory with forms and colours of wondrous variety and beauty;

and if paintings and poetry, in which the bamboo takes a prominent

place, were allowed, not the walls of the Louvre could be sufficient

for the pictures and the scrolls.

The various classes of canes, rattans and others of the Calamus family,

have a great importance and value. The palasan is frequently three

hundred feet long, and in Mindanao it is said they have been found

of more than treble that length. They are used for cords and cables;

but as the fibres are susceptible of divisions, down to a very fine

thread, they are woven into delicate textures, some of which, as in

the case of hats and cigar-cases, are sold at enormous prices. If not

exposed to damp, the fibres are very enduring, and are safe from the

attacks of the weevil.

The native name for hemp is anabo, the Spanish, cañamo; but the

raw material known in commerce as Manila hemp, is called in the

Philippines by its Indian name, abacá. It is become a very important

article of export, and in the year 1858 no less than 25,000 tons were

shipped for foreign countries from Manila alone. Of this quantity

Great Britain received about one-fourth, and the greater portion of

the remainder went to the United States. Next to sugar and tobacco,

it ranks highest in the list of exported produce. It is employed

not only for cordage, but for textile fabrics. It is the fibre of

one of the plantain family--the Musa trogloditarum textoria. Dampier

says that its growth is confined to the island of Mindanao; but the

quantity there grown is, at the present time, trifling compared to the

production of Luzon, Panay, and other islands of the archipelago. The

finer qualities are in considerable demand for weaving, and these

are, of course, subjected to a more elaborate manipulation. It

readily receives red and blue dyes; the morinda and marsdenia,

native plants, being employed for the purpose. The fruit is said to

be edible, but I am not aware of ever having seen it introduced,

nor would it be likely to compete with the best of the delicious

plantains which the Philippines produce. Father Blanco says that of

these there are no less than fifty-seven varieties. The native name is

saguing. Curious traditions are connected with this fruit. The Arabs

say it was introduced into the world by Allah, when the Prophet lost

his teeth, and could no longer enjoy the date. It is sometimes called

Adam's apron, on the supposition that it was the plant whose leaves

he and Eve employed to cover their nakedness. Its use is universal,

both in its natural state and cooked in various forms.

The cultivation of Coffee might be largely extended. For that, and

indeed for every tropical produce, there is scarcely a limit to the

unappropriated lands well suited to their production. Some of the

coffee is of excellent quality, scarcely distinguishable from that

of Arabia, but the general character is less favourable.

Indeed there is an obvious contrast between the great improvements

which have taken place in the Dutch archipelago, the British colonies,

Ceylon for example, and the stagnation created by the too stationary

habits of the Indian producer. He is little attentive to the proper

selection of soil, the temperature or elevation of the ground, the

choice of the seed, the pruning of the tree, the care of the berry,

the separation of the outer coatings, and other details, which may help

to account for the comparatively small extension of coffee production,

especially considering the enormously increased demand for the article,

and the prodigious development of its cultivation in Netherlands India,

Ceylon and elsewhere.

The quality of the Cocoa is excellent, and I have nowhere tasted better

chocolate than in the Philippines, but the tree is principally planted

for the private use of its possessors. In the convents particularly,

the friars are proud of their chocolate, which is generally made

under their own superintendence, and from fruit raised in their own

grounds and gardens. A little attention is required in the selection

of soil and locality; the fruit is gathered as it ripens, and after

the removal of the cuticle simply requires to be sun-dried.

It is sown in the month of November, and the shade of the banana

is sought for its protection. The cocoa of Zebu is reported to be

equal in excellence to that of the Caracas. In the island of Negros

there is a large spontaneous production. The Indian soaks the cocoa

in sugar juice, and in many parts the beverage is taken twice a day.

The supply of Cotton is one of the most interesting of questions as

regards our manufacturing population, and I have felt surprised at

the small sagacity, the parva sapientia, which has been exhibited by

many who have devoted their attention to the matter. The expectation

that Negroland Africa will be able to fill up the anticipated vacuum

of supply is a vain hope originating in ignorance of the character

and habits of the native races, and it will end in disappointment

and vexation. The capabilities of British India are great, and the

elements of success are there; but the capabilities of China are vastly

greater, and I believe that as in two or three years China was able to

send raw silk to the value of ten millions sterling into the market,

and immediately to make up for the absence of the European supply,

so to China we may hereafter look for a boundless supply of raw

cotton; she now clothes more than three hundred and fifty millions

of her people from her own cotton-fields. The prices in China are

so nearly on a level with those of India that though they allow an

importation to the yearly value of two or three millions sterling in

the southern provinces of China, importations into the northern are

scarcely known. The quality, the modes of cultivation, of cleaning,

of packing, are all susceptible of great improvements; their interests

will make the Chinese teachable, and the Yang-tse-Kiang may be the

channel for the solution of the cotton difficulty.

There seems no sufficient reason why cotton wool should not have been

more largely exported from the Philippines. It is cheaply produced

and might follow the crops of mountain rice. There is a domestic

demand, and that seems to satisfy the grower, for cotton has almost

ceased to be an article of foreign trade. The staple is said to be

short. The plant is an annual and produces its crop in two or three

months after it is sown. It is gathered in the midday sun before the

advent of the rainy season, which destroys both shrub and seedpod.

Cocoa-nut trees (Cocos nucifera), called Nioc by the Tagals,

eminently contribute to the ornament, comfort, and prosperity of

the natives. Trunks, branches, leaves, fruit, all are turned to

account. Oil, wine and spirits are made from its juices. The bark is

employed for caulking and cables; the shell of the cocoa is wrought

and carved in many ways for spoons, cups and domestic utensils; the

burnt shell is employed for dyeing black. The trunk often forms the

frame, the leaves the cover, of the Indian houses. The fibres of the

leaves are manufactured into cloths for garments; the fibres of the

fruit into brushes. The pulp is eaten or made into sweetmeats and the

milk is esteemed for its medicinal virtues. The root, when roasted,

is used as a decoction for the cure of dysentery.

A Spanish writer says that an Indian wants nothing but his Cocal

(cocoa-nut palm garden) for his comfortable support. The tree will give

him water, wine, oil, vinegar, food, cords, cups, brushes, building

materials, black paint, soap, roofing for his house, strings for his

rosaries, tow, red dye, medicine, plaister for wounds, light, fire,

and many other necessaries. It produces fruit after seven years'

growth. The nipa palm is almost, though not quite as useful. These

spontaneous bounties of nature may not be the allies or promoters of

civilization, but they are the compensations which make savage life

tolerable and, if not of high enjoyment, not far from happy.

A very small quantity of Pepper is now grown, though it was formerly

one of the most prized productions of the islands. It is said that

the Indians destroyed all their pepper plantations in consequence of

frauds practised on them by the Manila merchants.

Attempts to introduce some of the more costly spices, such as the

Cinnamon and Nutmeg, have not been attended with success.

Fruits are abundant. There are no less than fifty-seven varieties

of the banana. The fame of the Manila mango is universal in the

East. There are many sorts of oranges, pines (ananas) in great

quantities, guavas, rose-apples, and the mangosteen is found in

Mindanao. The chico is a favourite fruit in winter, somewhat resembling

the medlar, hut I must refer those who desire more extended information

to Father Blanco's Flora, imperfect though it be.

Among the riches of the Philippine Islands, the forest trees occupy an

important place. A collection of 350 specimens was sent to the Royal

Exhibition in London in the form of square-based prisms. In the year

1858 Colonel Valdes published a report on the character and resistance

of Philippine woods for buildings (maderas de construction). The

specimens on which the experiments were made were cubes of one

centimetre and prisms of one centimetre square by one metre of

breadth. The woods were allowed one year's drying. Five experiments

were made on each, and the average results adopted.

The abbreviations employed in the following tables, which give a

synopsis of the results, are:--

E Elasticity.

F Strength of cohesion.

f Arc of flexion produced by a constant weight of 1 kilogram

hung from the centre.

n Arc at which fracture took place.

P Weight applied at the centre of the arc.

c Distance between the supporters of the wood: in some 68

centimetres, in others 60.

Section of prisms, 1 square centimetre.

Length of the same, 1 metre.

R Weight producing fracture at the bend.

T Coefficient of fracture by bending, or of maximum bend.

Resistance is estimated in the direction of the fibres

(diagonally) and perpendicularly upon them.

Scale of Resistance and Special Qualities of Woods, extracted from

the Table, pp. 266-71.

Those with an asterisk are little used for building, either on account

of their cost, scarcity, or unsuitableness for the purpose.

------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+-------------

1. Resistance. | |

--------------------------------+----------------+----------------+ | Resistance

Pressure. | | | | to

---------------+----------------+ Tension | | 2. | action

---------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-------------

---------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+-------------

+----+-----------------------------------------------------+------+------+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

| | | | | | | | e +---------------+-------+ | W | | tortion |

| | | | | | | | i | To pressure | | | e | +---------------+

| | | | | | | | g | by cubic | | M | i | |Co-efficient of|

| | | | | | | | h | centimetres. | | a a ( | g | S p | fracture T. |

| | | | | | | | t +-------+-------+ T | x l b | h e | t e +-------+-------+

| | | | | | | | | | | e | i l u | t l | r r | | |

| | | | | | | | o | | | n | m o i | a | e | | |

| | | | | | | | f | | | s | u w l | c s | n s | | |

| | | | | | | | | | p | i | m e d | o t | g q | | |

| | | | | | | | t | | e | o | d i | r i | t u | | |

| | | | | | | | h | W o | O r | n | e n | r c | h a | | |

| | | | | | | | e | i f | n p | c | l i g | e i | r | | |

| | | | | | | | | t | e | o o | a n s | s t | o e | | |

| | | | | | | | c | h t | t n | r h | s ) | p y | f | | |

| -- | Name, Description and Application. | f. | n. | P. | c. | R. | u | h | h d | e | t c . | o , | c | | |

| | | | | | | | b | t e | e i | s s | i o | n | e e | | A |

| | | | | | | | i | h | c | t i | c n | d 1 | l n | A s | p s |

| | | | | | | | c | e f | g u | r o | i s | i - | a t | b t | p t |

| | | | | | | | | i | r l | e n | t t | n 1 | s i | s r | l r |

| | | | | | | | d | g b | a a | n . | y r | g 0 | t m | o e | i e |

| | | | | | | | e | r r | i r | g | u | t | i e | l n | c n |

| | | | | | | | c | a e | n l | t | t c | t h | c t | u g | a g |

| | | | | | | | i | i . | y | h | o t | o | i r | t t | b t |

| | | | | | | | m | n | . | | i | F | t e | e h | l h |

| | | | | | | | e | | | o | b o | t . | y . | . | e . |

| | | | | | | | t | | | f | e n | h | | | |

| | | | | | | | r | | | | | i | | | |

| | | | | | | | e | | | | | s | | | |

| | | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | |

+----+-----------------------------------------------------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+-------+---------+-------+-------+

| 1 |Acre--Mimosa acre (Monodelphia dodecandria). | 1·6 | 13·0 | 4·78 | 68·0 | 1·10 | 1·12 | 498 | 340 | 490 | 1/1000 | 49·0 | 49,130 | 140·0 | 14·00 |

| | Abounds in the islands. Employed for buildings | | | | | | | | | | =0·001 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 2 |Alintatao--Diospyros piloshantera (?) (Octandria | 1·3 | 6·3 | 6·21 | 68·0 | 1·25 | 0·91 | 598 | 300 | 728 | 1/1080 | 72·8 | 78,600 | 159·0 | 16·00 |

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·0008 | | | | |

| | Several varieties. Used for household furniture. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 3 |Alupag Alopai--Euphoria litchi (Octandria monoginia).| 0·3 | 5·0 | 13·80 | 60·0 | 1·40 | 0·92 | 666 | 220 | 1,242 | 1/1443 | 124·2 | 179,280 | 178·2 | 17·82 |

| | Used for posts. Abounds. | | | | | | | | | | =0·0007 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 4 |Ambogues or Amoguis--Cyrtocarpa quinquistila | 1·4 | 9·0 | 5·06 | 68·0 | 1·40 | 0·98 | 338 | 130 | 572 | 1/1000 | 57·2 | 36,362 | 165·5 | 16·55 |

| | (Decandria pentaginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·001 | | | | |

| | Suffers much from termites. Used for planks. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 5 |Aninabla or Aninapla--Mimosa conaria(?) (Monoecia | 1·2 | 7·0 | 4·83 | 68·0 | 1·15 | 0·59 | 340 | 146 | 493 | 1/1335 | 49·3 | 65,500 | 146·37| 14·64 |

| | dodecandria). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00075| | | | |

| | Used for house and boat building. Valued for | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 6 |Anonang--Cordia sebesteria (Pentandria monoginia). | 0.4 | 4.0 | 8·28 | 60·0 | 0·5 | 0·46 | 340 | 120 | 745 | 1/1942 | 74·5 | 144,700 | 64·0 | 6·40 |

| | Leaves, while growing, covered with worms. | | | | | | | | | | =0·0005 | | | | |

| | Wood used for drums and musical instruments. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 7 |Antipolo--Artocarpus incisa (Monoecia diandria). | 0·1 | 10·0 | 5·52 | 68·0 | 0·9 | 0·41 | 286 | 70 | 564 | 1/1390 | 56·4 | 78,608 | 115·0 | 11·50 |

| | For canoes, floors and machines. Garters are | | | | | | | | | | =0·00072| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 8 |Balibago--Hibiscus tellacius (Monodelphia | 1·0 | 10·0 | 5·52 | 68·0 | 0·9 | 0·46 | 616 | 200 | 1,180 | 1/924 | 118·0 | 108,000 | 165·0 | 16·50 |

| | poliandria). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00108| | | | |

| | Cords and paper made of the bark; gunpowder | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 9 |Baliti--Ficus Indica (Monoecia triandria). | 0·2 | 0·6 | 14·95 | 60·0 | 0·7 | 0·40 | 498 | 176 | 1,345 | 1/2008 | 134·5 | 270,000 | 89·1 | 8·91 |

| | Banian tree. Chopped roots used for curing | | | | | | | | | | =0·00049| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 10 |Baticulin--Millingtonia quadripinnata (Didinamia | 0·2 | 0·1 | 2·10 | 68·0 | 0·9 | 0·42 | 186 | 100 | 215 | 1/1818 | 21·5 | 39,300 | 114·5 | 11·45 |

| | angiospermia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00055| | | | |

| | White woods for moulds and sculpture. Lasts | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 11 |Banaba--Munchaustia speciosa (Poliadelphia | 0·7 | 0·7 | 5·06 | 68·0 | 1·3 | 0·65 | 348 | 126 | 904 | 1/1242 | 90·4 | 112,300 | 166·0 | 16·60 |

| | poliandria). | | | | | | | | | | =0·0008 | | | | |

| | Great tenacity; resists action of climate | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 12 |Baneal--Nauclea glaberrima (Pentandria monoginia). | 1·2 | 10·5 | 4·60 | 68·0 | 0·6 |0·58 | 220 | 66 | 470 | 1/148 | 47·0 | 65,500 | 76·37| 7·64 |

| | Tenacious and enduring. Used for furniture and | | | | | | | | | | =0·00071| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 13 |Bitoc--Mirtica (?) | 1·15 | 13·0 | 9·90 | 68·0 | 1·7 |0·71 | 338 | 100 | 1,010 | 1/700 | 101·0 | 68,250 | 216·4 | 21·64 |

| | A strong wood to resist pressure. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00148| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 14 |Bolonguita--Diospyros (Octandria monoginia). | 0·9 | 10·8 | 8·40 | 68·0 | 1·2 |0·90 | 360 | 120 | 858 | 1/917 | 85·8 | 78,600 | 153·0 | 15·30 |

| | Solid texture for building. Abounds. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00109| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 15 |Calamansanay--Gimbernatia calamansanay (Decandria | 1·0 | 10·0 | 8·74 | 68·0 | 1·3 |0·86 | 533 | 130 | 892 | 1/885 | 89·2 | 78,600 | 165·0 | 16·50 |

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00113| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 16 |Calantas (Native Cedar)--Cedrela odorata | 1·0 | 7·0 | 5·06 | 68·0 | 0·85 |0·40 | 470 | 60 | 517 | 1/1515 | 51·7 | 78,600 | 108·2 | 10·82 |

| | (Pentandria monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00066| | | | |

| | Found throughout the Philippines. Used for | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 17 | Calumpit--Terminalia edulis (Decandria monoginia). | 1·0 | 11·2 | 8·68 | 68·0 | 1·0 |0·60 to| 348 | 90 | 905 | 1/87 | 90·5 | 78,600 | 127·28| 12·73 |

| | Abounds in Angol. Building. Great strength on | | | | | | 0·80 | | | | =0·00115| | | | |

| | | | |

| 18 | Camagon--Variety of the Diospyros piloshantera | 1·1 | 9·3 | 7·36 | 68·0 | 1·35 | 0·92 | 558 | 340 | 752 | 1/952 | 75·2 | 71,472 | 172·0 | 17·20 |

| | (Alintatao). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00105| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 19 | Camayuan--Diospyros(?) | 1·2 | 14·8 | 8·74 | 68·0 | 1·3 | 0·94 | 434 | 340 | 493 | 1/1333 | 49·3 | 65,500 | 166·0 | 16·60 |

| | Used for building. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00075| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 20 | Dongon--Variety of Herculia ambiformis (Monoecia | 1·3 | 7·57| 6·44 | 68·0 | 1·1 | 1·02 | 435 | 200 | 658 | 1/926 | 65·8 | 60,468 | 140·0 | 14·00 |

| | adelphia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00108| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 21 | Ebano--Variety of the Sapote negro Diospyros nigra; | 0·35 | 7·5 | 1·45 | 51·6 | 1·1 | 1·91 | 688 | 470 | 1,122 | 1/862 | 112·2 | 97,400 | 114·0 | 11·40 |

| | variety of Camagon and Alintatao. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00116| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 22 | Guijo--Dipterocarpus guijo (Poliandria monoginia). | 1·3 | 10·5 | 7·70 | 68·0 | 1·5 | 0·76 | 370 | 140 | 720 | 1/833 | 72·0 | 60,000 | 190·1 | 19·00 |

| | Shipbuilding, keels, carriage-wheels. Much | | | | | | | | | | =0·0012 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 23 | Laneti--Anaser laneti (Pentandria monoginia). | 2·5 | 14·8 | 4·50 | 68·0 | 1·3 | 0·55 | 336 | 120 | 462 | 1/695 | 46·2 | 31,443 | 165·0 | 16·50 |

| | Elastic and suited for furniture. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00144| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 24 | Lauan or Landang--Dipterocarpus thurifera | 1·1 | 8·0 | 6·80 | 68·0 | 0·6 | 0·43 | 226 | 90 | 694 | 1/1031 | 69·4 | 71,742 | 76·4 | 7·64 |

| | (Poliandria monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00097| | | | |

| | Gives resin for incense. Much used formerly for | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | shipping. Not splintered by balls. Abounds. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 25 | Malacatbun--Tetracera sarmentosa (?) (Poliandria | 1·5 | 6·0 | 3·00 | 68·0 | ... | 0·63 | 146 | 60 | 306 | 1/1724 | 30·6 | 52,400 | | |

| | tetraginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00058| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 26 | Malacintud | 1·0 | 8·5 | 6·80 | 68·0 | 1·1 | 0·645 | 400 | 160 | 995 | 1/793 | 99·5 | 78,600 | 140·0 | 14·00 |

| | Strong wood, fit for building. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00126| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 27 | Malavidondao--Mavindalo (?) (Niota.) | 1·0 | 9·0 | 0·81 | 68·0 | 1·3 | 0·78 | 350 | 116 | 1,103 | 1/714 | 110·3 | 78,600 | 165·4 | 16·54 |

| | Ship futtocks. Strong wood. | | | | | | | | | | =0·0014 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 28 | Malatalisay--Terminalia mauritania (Decandria | 0·15 | 15·0 | 2·82 | 42·3 | 0·8 | 0·50 | 300 | 60 | 498 | 1/500 | 49·8 | 25,230 | 101·82| 10·18 |

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·002 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 29 | Malaruhat or Maladujat--Mirtaceas (?) | 0·7 | 7·8 | 8·51 | 68·0 | 1·5 | 0·79 | 340 | 76 | 870 | 1/1300 | 87·0 | 112,300 | 191·0 | 19·10 |

| | Solid texture. Uses not mentioned. | | | | | | | | | | =0·00077| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 30 | Malatapay or Mabalo; also Talang--Diospyros | 2·0 | 12·3 | 7·25 | 68·0 | 1·15 | 0·78 | 500 | 290 | 740 | 1/500 | 74·0 | 39,300 | 146·4 | 14·64 |

| | embriopteris(Poliandria monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·002 | | | | |

| | For furniture and building. Resembles ebony. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 31 | Malabagat | 0·7 | 8·5 | 4·00 | 68·0 | 0·5 | 0·89 | 330 | 120 | 1,430 | 1/770 | 143·0 | 112,300 | 64·0 | 6·40 |

| | Building, especially for supporting longitudinal | | | | | | | | | | =0·0013 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 32 | Manga--Mangifera Indica (Pentandria monoginia) | 0·6 | 13·0 | 0·12 | 60·0 | 1·3 | 0·58 | 380 | 166 | 910 | 1/989 | 91·0 | 90,000 | 16·4 | 1·64 |

| | Variety of Cuba mango. From value of fruit, wood | | | | | | | | | | =0·001 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 33 | Mangachapuy or Guison Dilao--Dipterocarpus | 1·25 | 5·8 | 3·64 | 68·0 | 1·3 | 0·88 | 438 | 136 | 372 | 1/1700 | 37·2 | 62,887 | 165·0 | 16·50 |

| | magachapuy (Poliandria monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·0006 | | | | |

| | For ships and houses. Fine planks for floors. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 34 | Molave--Vilex geniculata altissima (Didinamia | 1·0 | 11·0 | 12·31 | 68·0 | 2·00 |0·95 to| 600 | 290 | 1,257 | 1/625 | 125.5 | 78,600 | 254.6 | 25.460|

| | angiospermia). | | | | | | 1·02 | | | | =0.0016 | | | | |

| | Called by the natives Queen of Woods. Used for | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | all purposes. Resists action of water and of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 35 | Narra, or Naga, or Asang--Pterocarpus palidus | 1·73 | 7·3 | 6·20 | 68·0 | 1·00 | 0.66 | 500 | 200 | 633 | 1/833 | 63.3 | 52,400 | 127.3 | 12.730|

| | santalinus (Diadelphia dodecandria). | | | | | | | | | | =0.0012 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 36 | Palo-Maria, or Bitanhol--Calophilum mophilum | 0·9 | 7·3 | 9·20 | 68·0 | 1·05 | 0.68 | 400 | 126 | 950 | 1/926 | 95.0 | 87,350 | 134.0 | 13.400|

| | (Poliadelphia poliandria). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00109| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 37 | Palma-brava, or Anajao--Coripha minor (Hexandria | 1·0 | 6·5 | 8·74 | 68·0 | 1·20 | 1.085 | 530 | 400 | 892 | 1/884 | 89.2 | 78,600 | 153.0 | 15.300|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00113| | | | |

| | Hard and enduring, especially under water. Used | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 38 | Palusapis--Dipterocarpus palusapis (Poliandria | 0·5 | 8·5 | 9·66 | 60·0 | 0·70 | 0.50 | 440 | 146 | 870 | 1/1243 | 87.0 | 108,000 | 89.0 | 8.900|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.0008 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 39 | Panao, or Balao, or Malapajo--Dipterocarpus | ... | ... | ... | 60·0 | 0·80 | 0.69 | 393 | 146 | 800 | 1/1125 | 80.0 | 90,000 | 101.8 | 10.180|

| | vernicephurus (Poliandria monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·0012 | | | | |

| | Buildings and ships. Incision in the trunk | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | gives a fragrant resin, which, put in a hollow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | bamboo, is used for light by the Indians. Gives | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | the talay oil, which destroys insects in wood. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 40 | Pencapencahan--Bignonia quadripinnata (Didinamia | 0·5 | 6·0 | 10·80 | 60·0 | 1·05 | 0.46 | 378 | 106 | 972 | 1/1111 | 97.2 | 108,000 | 134.0 | 13.400|

| | angiospermia). | | | | | | | | | | =0·00144| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 41 | Pototan or Bacao--Rizophora gimaoriza (Dodecandria | 0·2 | 7·0 | 19·78 | 60·0 | 1·20 | 0.69 | 420 | 146 | 1,780 | 1/1517 | 178.0 | 270,000 | 153.0 | 15.300|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00065| | | | |

| | For piles, as resisting the action of water. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 42 | Sampaloc or Tamarind--Tamarindus Indica (Triandria | 1·0 | 12·0 | 8·28 | 68·0 | 0·95 | 0.62 | 320 | 90 | 846 | 1/934 | 84.6 | 78,600 | 121.0 | 12.100|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00107| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 43 | Santol--Sandoricum Indicum (Decandria monoginia). | 0·5 | 7·0 | 9·00 | 60·0 | 1·20 | 0.46 | 630 | ... | 810 | 1/1323 | 81.0 | 108,000 | 153.0 | 15.300|

| | For posts and pillars; not common. | | | | | | | | | | =0.0007 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 44 | Tanguili--Dipterocarpus polispermum (Poliandria | 1·1 | 10·0 | 6·80 | 68·0 | 0·90 | 0.57 | 300 | 100 | 693 | 1/1031 | 69.3 | 71,462 | 114.56| 11.456|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00096| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 45 | Tangan--Rizophora longissima (?) (Dodecandria | 1·2 | 12·8 | 8·40 | 68·0 | 0·90 | 0.65 | 330 | 60 | 658 | 1/756 | 88.5 | 65,500 | 114.56| 11.456|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.00135| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 46 | Tindalo--Eperna rhomboidea (Decandria monoginia). | 1·6 | 5·5 | 4·60 | 68·0 | 1·30 | 0.89 | 450 | 106 | 470 | 1/1042 | 47.0 | 49,130 | 165.5 | 16.550|

| | For furniture; has a pleasant fragrance. | | | | | | | | | | =0.00096| | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 47 | Yacal--Dipterocarpus plagatus (Poliandria | 0·8 | 10·8 | 11·50 | 68·0 | 1·30 | 1.105 | 450 | 200 | 1,174 | 1/833 | 117.4 | 98,260 | 191.0 | 19.100|

| | monoginia). | | | | | | | | | | =0.0012 | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| 48 | Ypil--Eperna decandria (Decandria monoginia). | 2·0 | 13·5 | 5·50 | 68·0 | 1·20 | 1.035 | 434 | 300 | 563 | 1/714 | 56.3 | 39,300 | 153.0 | 15.300|

| | Generally for building. Abounds in Luzon. | | | | | | | | | | =0.0014 | | | | |

+----+-----------------------------------------------------+------+------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+----------+-------+---------+-------+-------+