TABLE B.--_Classes of Imports and Export_Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Geoponici" to "Germany" Volume 11, Slice 7

+-----------------------------+-----------------+-----------------+

| | Imports. | Exports. |

| +-----------------+-----------------+

| Groups of Articles. | Value in L1000. | Value in L1000. |

| +--------+--------+--------+--------+

| | 1907. | 1908.* | 1907. | 1908.* |

+-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

| produce** |215,532 |205,512 | 45,796 | 50,324 |

| Agricultural produce*** | 93,253 |102,954 | 10,369 | 15,168 |

| substitutes for the same | 12,151 | 12,328 | 84 | 108 |

| peel | 3,214 | 3,262 | 20 | 23 |

| Forest produce | 28,166 | 26,299 | 4,066 | 3,967 |

| Resins | 8,216 | 8,209 | 2,500 | 2,325 |

| products** | 63,283 | 61,794 | 9,607 | 9,676 |

| Hides and skins | 16,920 | 17,699 | 5,383 | 5,453 |

| Meat, oil, sugar, beverages| 21,523 | 20,404 | 20,284 | 20,048 |

| materials, mineral oils | 47,575 | 45,540 | 26,166 | 26,208 |

| Earths and stones | 6,541 | 7,542 | 3,250 | 3,006 |

| Ores, slag, cinders | 16,465 | 15,451 | 1,407 | 1,206 |

| Mineral fuel | 16,895 | 14,910 | 19,445 | 20,020 |

| fossil raw materials | 7,168 | 7,209 | 558 | 491 |

| Coal-tar, coal-tar oils | 506 | 428 | 1,506 | 1,485 |

| products, colours | 14,784 | 14,850 | 28,116 | 26,845 |

| acids, salts | 9,226 | 9,550 | 9,661 | 9,832 |

| materials | 951 | 879 | 11,630 | 10,518 |

| Varnish, lacquer | 189 | 158 | 206 | 221 |

| cosmetics | 1,979 | 1,918 | 1,118 | 1,004 |

| Artificial manures | 992 | 1,001 | 1,303 | 1,236 |

| Explosives of all kinds | 86 | 74 | 1,612 | 1,269 |

| pharmaceutical products | 1,361 | 1,270 | 2,586 | 2,765 |

| thereof | 98,540 | 92,105 | 78,086 | 70,343 |

| Silk and silk goods | 13,533 | 13,704 | 13,324 | 11,364 |

| Wool | 33,260 | 31,195 | 27,114 | 24,918 |

| Unworked wool | 19,975 | 19,309 | 2,647 | 2,561 |

| Worked wool | 4,625 | 4,961 | 3,799 | 3,393 |

| Wares of spun wool | 8,660 | 6,925 | 20,668 | 18,964 |

| Cotton | 38,543 | 34,456 | 29,004 | 26,201 |

| Unworked cotton | 27,705 | 26,167 | 3,264 | 2,987 |

| Worked cotton | 980 | 950 | 912 | 891 |

| Cotton wares | 9,858 | 7,338 | 24,828 | 22,324 |

| materials | 10,783 | 10,411 | 3,777 | 3,471 |

| Unworked | 7,923 | 7,819 | 1,125 | 1,211 |

| Worked | 166 | 168 | 122 | 137 |

| Wares thereof | 2,685 | 2,423 | 2,531 | 2,124 |

| furriers' wares | 6,695 | 6,657 | 16,778 | 17,835 |

| Leather | 2,658 | 2,804 | 7,503 | 8,328 |

| Leather wares | 1,332 | 1,176 | 4,016 | 3,867 |

| Furriers' wares | 2,698 | 2,672 | 5,237 | 5,616 |

|Caoutchouc wares | 694 | 754 | 2,328 | 2,325 |

| Wares of soft caoutchouc | 670 | 735 | 1,694 | 1,723 |

| wares thereof | 24 | 19 | 634 | 602 |

| moulding | 2,448 | 2,068 | 4,260 | 4,131 |

|Wooden wares | 859 | 769 | 1,707 | 1,666 |

| thereof | 1,349 | 1,205 | 9,342 | 9,111 |

|Books, pictures, paintings | 1,992 | 2,036 | 4,667 | 4,765 |

|Earthenware | 467 | 377 | 5,224 | 4,612 |

|Glass and glassware | 747 | 728 | 5,671 | 5,149 |

| thereof | 13,281 | 21,243 | 18,629 | 6,858 |

| Gold | 11,616 | 19,295 | 15,898 | 6,151 |

| Gold | 11,184 | 18,873 | 11,071 | 2,897 |

| Gold wares | 432 | 422 | 4,827 | 3,254 |

| Silver | 1,665 | 1,948 | 2,731 | 2,707 |

| Silver | 1,434 | 1,716 | 1,206 | 1,418 |

| Silver wares | 231 | 232 | 1,525 | 1,289 |

| thereof | 26,035 | 26,398 | 57,146 | 58,895 |

| Iron and iron wares | 5,903 | 4,472 | 38,899 | 40,162 |

| non-malleable alloys) | 1,601 | 912 | 966 | 905 |

| Iron wares | 4,302 | 3,560 | 37,933 | 39,257 |

| wares | 546 | 453 | 368 | 273 |

| Raw aluminium | 529 | 433 | 152 | 77 |

| Aluminium wares | 17 | 20 | 216 | 196 |

| Lead and lead wares | 1,438 | 1,484 | 945 | 985 |

| waste) | 1,427 | 1,470 | 525 | 568 |

| Lead wares | 11 | 14 | 420 | 417 |

| Zinc and zinc wares | 727 | 847 | 2,433 | 2,489 |

| waste) | 706 | 825 | 1,631 | 1,784 |

| Zinc wares | 21 | 22 | 802 | 705 |

| Tin and tin wares | 2,405 | 2,629 | 1,380 | 1,236 |

| waste) | 2,357 | 2,581 | 787 | 688 |

| Tin wares | 48 | 48 | 593 | 548 |

| Nickel and nickel wares | 400 | 540 | 246 | 298 |

| Raw nickel | 375 | 527 | 160 | 233 |

| Nickel wares | 25 | 13 | 86 | 65 |

| Copper and copper wares | 13,803 | 15,088 | 7,998 | 8,470 |

| tombac, &c.) | 12,995 | 14,192 | 2,204 | 2,014 |

| Copper wares | 808 | 896 | 5,794 | 6,456 |

| Instruments of precision | 813 | 885 | 4,877 | 4,982 |

|Machinery, vehicles | 7,093 | 5,489 | 33,117 | 34,653 |

| Machinery | 4,090 | 3,451 | 19,041 | 20,684 |

| Electro-technical products | 411 | 451 | 8,227 | 9,107 |

| Vehicles and vessels | 2,562 | 1,587 | 5,849 | 4,862 |

| instruments, toys | 1,732 | 1,424 | 8,704 | 7,505 |

| Clocks and watches | 1,382 | 1,134 | 1,296 | 1,210 |

| Musical instruments | 223 | 170 | 3,176 | 2,780 |

| Toys | 39 | 35 | 3,949 | 3,273 |

| +--------+--------+--------+--------+

| Total |442,663 |429,636 |349,114 |336,347 |

+-----------------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+

* Provisional figures only.

** Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials.

*** Excluding vegetable textile materials.

The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and

exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany and the chief

countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907.

_Imports._

+---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

| | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. |

| +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

| Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of |

| | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's|

| | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total |

+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

| Belgium | 13,439 | 3.8 | 14,315 | 3.6 | 14,586 | 3.4 |

| Denmark | 5,986 | 1.7 | 6,302 | 1.6 | 6,050 | 1.4 |

| France | 19,772 | 5.6 | 21,306 | 5.4 | 22,302 | 5.2 |

| United Kingdom | 35,320 | 10.1 | 40,531 | 10.3 | 48,014 | 11.2 |

| Italy | 10,350 | 3 | 11,851 | 3 | 14,030 | 3.3 |

| Netherlands | 12,077 | 3 | 11,864 | 3 | 11,187 | 2.6 |

| Austria-Hungary | 36,974 | 10.6 | 39,814 | 10.1 | 39,939 | 9.3 |

| Rumania | 4,568 | 1.3 | 5,774 | 1.5 | 7,365 | 1.7 |

| Russia | 47,816 | 13.6 | 52,528 | 13.4 | 54,447 | 12.7 |

| Sweden | 5,887 | 1.7 | 7,359 | 1.9 | 8,457 | 2 |

| Switzerland | 8,980 | 2.6 | 10,659 | 2.9 | 10,366 | 2.4 |

| Spain | 5,742 | 1.6 | 7,410 | 1.9 | 6,878 | 1.6 |

| British South Africa| 1,769 | 0.5 | 1,766 | 0.4 | 2,258 | 0.5 |

| Dominion of Canada | 481 | 0.1 | 463 | 0.1 | 483 | 0.1 |

| New Zealand | 75 | .. | 87 | .. | 94 | .. |

| British West Africa | 2,562 | 0.7 | 2,731 | 0.7 | 3,601 | 0.8 |

| British India | 13,657 | 3.9 | 15,842 | 4 | 20,016 | 4.7 |

| Dutch Indies | 5,848 | 1.7 | 7,002 | 1.8 | 9,199 | 2.1 |

| Argentine Republic | 18,150 | 5.2 | 18,302 | 4.7 | 21,756 | 5.1 |

| Brazil | 8,454 | 2.4 | 9,246 | 2.4 | 9,636 | 2.2 |

| Chile | 6,536 | 1.9 | 7,131 | 1.8 | 7,074 | 1.6 |

| United States | 48,770 | 13.9 | 60,787 | 15.4 | 64,864 | 15.1 |

| Australia | 7,690 | 2.2 | 8,619 | 2.2 | 11,209 | 2.6 |

+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

_Exports._

+---------------------+-------------------+-------------------+-------------------+

| | 1905. | 1906. | 1907. |

| +--------+----------+--------+----------+--------=----------+

| Country. | Value | of | Value | of | Value | of |

| | in | Germany's| in | Germany's| in | Germany's|

| | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total | L1000. | Total |

+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

| Belgium | 15,364 | 5.5 | 17,509 | 5.6 | 16,861 | 5 |

| Denmark | 8,668 | 3.1 | 9,699 | 3.1 | 10,182 | 3 |

| France | 14,420 | 5.1 | 18,815 | 6 | 22,080 | 6.6 |

| United Kingdom | 51,253 | 18.2 | 52,473 | 16.8 | 52,135 | 15.5 |

| Italy | 8,045 | 2.9 | 11,354 | 3.6 | 14,893 | 4.4 |

| Netherlands | 21,295 | 7.6 | 21,799 | 7 | 22,232 | 6.6 |

| Norway | 3,447 | 1.2 | 3,573 | 1.2 | 4,211 | 1.3 |

| Austria-Hungary | 28,526 | 10.1 | 31,926 | 10.2 | 35,231 | 10.5 |

| Rumania | 2,144 | 0.8 | 3,140 | 1 | 3,372 | 1 |

| Russia | 17,027 | 6 | 19,962 | 6.4 | 21,531 | 6.4 |

| Sweden | 7,653 | 2.7 | 8,675 | 2.8 | 9,177 | 2.7 |

| Switzerland | 17,649 | 6.3 | 18,367 | 5.9 | 21,948 | 6.5 |

| Spain | 2,609 | 0.9 | 2,838 | 0.9 | 3,228 | 1 |

| British South Africa| 1,687 | 0.6 | 1,607 | 0.5 | 1,422 | 0.4 |

| Dominion of Canada | 1,071 | 0.4 | 1,203 | 0.4 | 1,456 | 0.4 |

| New Zealand | 227 | 0.1 | 244 | 0.1 | 263 | 0.1 |

| Turkey | 3,484 | 1.3 | 3,357 | 1.1 | 4,011 | 1.2 |

| British India | 4,226 | 1.5 | 5,011 | 1.6 | 4,868 | 1.4 |

| China | 3,727 | 1.3 | 3,331 | 1.1 | 3,105 | 0.9 |

| Japan | 4,158 | 1.5 | 4,328 | 1.4 | 5,036 | 1.5 |

| Argentine Republic | 6,463 | 2.3 | 8,367 | 2.7 | 8,810 | 2.6 |

| Brazil | 3,525 | 1.3 | 4,364 | 1.4 | 5,118 | 1.5 |

| United States | 26,660 | 9.5 | 31,281 | 10 | 32,070 | 9.5 |

| Australia | 2,264 | 0.8 | 2,863 | 0.9 | 3,004 | 0.9 |

+---------------------+--------+----------+--------+----------+--------+----------+

The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which progresses

_pari passu_ with its greatly increased production. The export of

ships from the United Kingdom to the empire decreased during two

years, 1903 (L305,682) and 1904 (L365,062), almost to a vanishing

point, German yards being able to cope with the demands made upon them

for the supply of vessels of all classes, including mercantile vessels

and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years, however, the degree of

employment in German yards increased to such an extent, principally

owing to the placing of the Admiralty contracts with private builders,

that the more urgent orders for mercantile vessels were placed abroad.

The following tables give the value of trade between the United

Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:--

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

| Staple Imports into the United | | |

| Kingdom from Germany. | 1900. | 1905. |

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

| | L | L |

| Sugar | 9,164,573 |10,488,085 |

| Glass and manufactures | 1,078,648 | 1,108,117 |

| Eggs | 1,017,119 | 764,966 |

| Cottons and yarn | 992,244 | 1,476,385 |

| Woollens and yarn | 1,312,671 | 1,984,475 |

| Iron and steel and manufactures| 1,012,376 | 379,479 |

| Machinery | 411,178 | 735,536 |

| Paper | 523,544 | 528,946 |

| Musical instruments | 660,777 | 676,391 |

| Toys | 644,690 | 714,628 |

| Zinc and manufactures | 461,023 | 673,602 |

| Wood and manufactures | 1,470,839 | 1,109,584 |

| Chemicals | 513,200 | 735,830 |

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

| Principal Articles exported by | | |

| Great Britain to Germany. | 1900. | 1905. |

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

| | L | L |

| Cottons and yarn | 3,843,917 | 4,941,917 |

| Woollens and yarn | 3,743,842 | 3,795,591 |

| Alpaca, &c., yarn | 1,022,259 | 1,325,519 |

| Wool | 742,632 | 1,691,035 |

| Ironwork | 2,937,055 | 1,500,414 |

| Herrings | 1,651,441 | 2,042,483 |

| Machinery | 2,040,797 | 2,102,835 |

| Coals, cinders | 4,267,172 | 3,406,535 |

| New ships | 1,592,865 | 1,377,081 |

+--------------------------------+-----------+-----------+

_Navigation._--The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the world, and

the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a respected name long before

a German mercantile marine, properly so called, was heard of. Many

Hamburg vessels sailed under charter of English and other houses in

foreign, especially Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have

carried a common flag--black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg,

Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia had each its

own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed under the Danish flag.

The German mercantile fleet occupies, in respect of the number of

vessels, the fourth place--after Great Britain, the United States of

America and Norway; but in respect of tonnage it stands third--after

Great Britain and the United States only.

The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January of the

two years 1905 and 1908:--

+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+------------------+

| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

|-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

|1905-- | | | | | | |

| Sailing vessels| 386 | 19,067 | 2181 | 559,436 | 2567 | 578,503 |

| Steamers | 486 | 236,509 | 1171 |1,537,563 | 1657 |1,774,072 |

|-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

| Totals | 872 | 255,576 | 3352 |2,096,999 | 4224 |2,352,575 |

| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

|1908-- | | | | | | |

| Sailing vessels| 394 | 17,472 | 2255 | 516,180 | 2649 | 533,652 |

| Steamers | 521 | 274,952 | 140l |1,981,831 | 1922 |2,256,783 |

| +-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

| Totals | 915 | 292,424 | 3656 |2,498,011 | 4571 |2,790,435 |

+-----------------+-------+---------+-------+----------+-------+----------+

In 1905, 2136 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of

284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors of

the mercantile marine was 60,616 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908.

The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Lubeck, Flensburg,

Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), Geestemunde and Emden; and the

number and tonnage of vessels of foreign nationality entering and

clearing the ports of the empire, as compared with national shipping,

were in 1906:--

+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+

+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+

| Danish | 5917 |1,589,346 | 5059 |1,219,388 |

| British | 5327 |5,129,017 | 3211 |2,552,268 |

| Swedish | 4891 |1,164,431 | 3317 | 747,656 |

| Dutch | 2181 | 458,401 | 1973 | 316,562 |

| Norwegian | 1565 | 817,483 | 720 | 347,811 |

| Russian | 720 | 250,564 | 439 | 143,983 |

+---------------+---------+----------+---------+----------+

The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for

emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast commercial

trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the main gates

of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom and Germany.

The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and

coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.

_Railways._--The period of railway construction was inaugurated in

Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from Nuremberg to

Furth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.) between Leipzig and

Dresden, opened throughout in 1839. The development of the railway

system was slow and was not conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a

central government operated injuriously, for it often happened that

intricate negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign

states were required before a line could be constructed; and, moreover,

the course it was to take was often determined less by the general

exigencies of commerce than by many trifling interests or desires of

neighbouring states. The state which was most self-seeking in its

railway politics was Hanover, which separated the eastern and western

parts of the kingdom of Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia

from this source were experienced in a still greater degree by the

seaports of Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the

particularism displayed by Hanover.

The making of railways was from the outset regarded by some German

states as exclusively a function of the government. The South German

states, for example, have only possessed state railways. In Prussia

numerous private companies, in the first instance, constructed their

systems, and the state contented itself for the most part with laying

lines in such districts only as were not likely to attract private

capital.

The development of the German railway system falls conveniently into

four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces the beginnings of

railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848, shows the linking-up of

various existing lines and the establishment of inter-connexion between

the chief towns. The third, down to 1881, shows the gradual

establishment of state control in Prussia, and the formation of direct

trunk lines. The fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of

practically all the railways in Prussia by the government, and the

introduction of a uniform system of interworking between the various

state systems. The purchase of the railways by the Prussian government

was on the whole equably carried out, but there were several hard cases

in the expropriation of some of the smaller private lines.

The majority of the German railways are now owned by the state

governments. Out of 34,470 m. of railway completed and open for traffic

in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property of private undertakings, and of

these about 150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the railways are

of the normal 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. gauge. Narrow-gauge (2-1/2 ft.) lines--or

light railways--extended over 1218 m. in 1903, and of these 537 m. were

worked by the state.

The board responsible for the imperial control over the whole railway

system in Germany is the _Reichseisenbahnamt_ in Berlin, the

administration of the various state systems residing, in Prussia, in the

ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the ministry of the royal house

and of the exterior; in Wurttemberg in the ministry of the exterior; in

Saxony in the ministry of the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in

commissions of the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the

imperial ministry of railways.

The management of the Prussian railway system is committed to the

charge of twenty "directions," into which the whole network of lines

is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg, Danzig,

Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main, Halle a.d.

Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Konigsberg, Magdeburg,

Munster, Posen, Saarbrucken and Stettin. The entire length of the

system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about 950 m. to

each "direction." The smallest mileage controlled by a "direction" is

Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Konigsberg, with 1200 m.

The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and managed,

apart from the "general direction" in Munich, by ten traffic boards,

in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich, Nuremberg,

Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Wurzburg.

The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and is

controlled by the general direction in Dresden.

The length of the Wurttemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed by a

general direction in Stuttgart.

Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382,

Mecklenburg-Schwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Railways

lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by Prussia.

Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked by

the imperial general direction in Strassburg.

By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk

line routes have been developed--notably the lines

Berlin-Vienna-Budapest; Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris;

Berlin-Halle-Frankfort-on-Main-Basel; Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and

Verona; and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform

system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining its

own fares--a condition that led to much confusion. From the 1st of May

1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary trains the

rate for first class was fixed at 1-1/4d. a mile; for second class at

.7d.; for third class at 1/2d., and for fourth class at 1/4d. a mile.

For express trains an extra charge is made of 2s. for distances

exceeding 93 m. (150 kils.) in the two superior classes, and 1s. for a

lesser distance, and of 1s. and 6d. respectively in the case of third

class tickets. Fourth class passengers are not conveyed by express

trains. The above rates include government duty; but the privilege of

free luggage (as up to 56 lb.) has been withdrawn, and all luggage

other than hand baggage taken into the carriages is charged for. In

1903 371,084,000 metric tons of goods, including animals, were

conveyed by the German railways, yielding L68,085,000 sterling, and

the number of passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding

L29,300,000.

The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications to

distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Bremerhaven) and Hamburg

(Cuxhaven) both of which are situate on the North Sea. From them great

steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd, the Hamburg-American,

the Hamburg South American and the German East African steamship

companies, maintain express mail and other services with North and

South America, Australia, the Cape of Good Hope and the Far East.

London and other English ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns

are also served by passenger steamboat sailings from the two great

North Sea ports. The Baltic ports, such as Lubeck, Stettin, Danzig

(Neufahrwasser) and Konigsberg, principally provide communication with

the coast towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden.

_Waterways._--In Germany the waterways are almost solely in the

possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the Kaiser Wilhelm

canal (1887-1895), 61 m. long, connecting the North Sea and the Baltic;

it was made with a breadth at bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213

ft., and with a depth of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1908 work was begun for

doubling the bottom width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect

of internal navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are

the Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, constructed in

1892-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth of 8 ft. The latter,

constructed 1895-1900, has a length of 43 m. and a mean depth of about

7-1/2 ft. A project was sanctioned in 1905 for a canal, adapted for

vessels up to 600 tons, from the Rhine to the Weser at Hanover,

utilizing a portion of the Dortmund-Ems canal; for a channel

accommodating vessels of similar size between Berlin and Stettin; for

improving the waterway between the Oder and the Vistula, so as to render

it capable of accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the

canalization of the upper Oder.

On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. In South

Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of

Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by

King Louis I. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and the

Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to Kelheim on the

Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine with the

Rhone and the Marne, a branch serving the collieries of the Saar

valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal by which

Russian grain is conveyed to Konigsberg, joining the Pregel to the

Memel, and the upper Silesian coalfield is in communication with the

Oder by means of the Klodnitz canal. The greatest number of canals is

found around Berlin; they serve to join the Spree to the Oder and

Elbe, and include the Teltow canal opened in 1906. The canals in

Germany (including ship canals through lakes) have a total length of

about 2600 m. Navigable and canalized rivers, to which belong the

great water-systems of the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length

of about 6000 m.

_Roads._--The construction of good highways has been well attended to in

Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The separation of the empire

into small states was favourable to road-making, inasmuch as it was

principally the smaller governments that expended large sums for their

network of roads. Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for

the excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still from

the want of good highways. The introduction of railways for a time

diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect has of late been

to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts (_Kreise_) have

undertaken the charge of the construction of the roads; but they receive

a subsidy from the public funds of the several provinces. Turnpikes were

abolished in Prussia in 1874 and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of

the public roads is estimated at 80,000 m.

_Posts and Telegraphs._--With the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg,

which have administrations of their own, all the German states belong to

the imperial postal district (_Reichspostgebiet_). Since 1874 the postal

and telegraphic departments have been combined. Both branches of

administration have undergone a surprising development, especially since

the reduction of the postal rates. Germany, including Bavaria and

Wurttemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal union

(Deutsch-Osterreichischer Postverband), besides forming part of the

international postal union. There are no statistics of posts and

telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the North German union was

formed that the lesser states resigned their right of carrying mails in

favour of the central authority. Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis

was postmaster-general of Germany, but only some of the central states

belonged to his postal territory. The seat of management was

Frankfort-on-Main.

The following table shows the growth in the number of post offices for

the whole empire:--

+------+-------------+-------------+

| Year.|Post Offices.|Men employed.|

+------+-------------+-------------+

| 1872 | 7,518 | .. |

| 1880 | 9,460 | .. |

| 1890 | 24,952 | 128,687 |

| 1899 | 36,388 | 206,945 |

| 1904 | 38,658 | 261,985 |

| 1907 | 40,083 | 319,026 |

+------+-------------+-------------+

In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1890,

17,200; and in 1907, 37,309. There were 188 places provided with

telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts

amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to L33,789,460, and the

expenditure to L31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of L2,692,516.

_Constitution._--The constitution of the German empire is, in all

essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which came into

force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the presidency (_Praesidium_)

of the confederation was vested in the king of Prussia and his heirs. As

a result of the Franco-German war of 1870 the South German states joined

the confederation; on the 9th of December 1870 the diet of the

confederation accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation

the name of German Empire (_Deutsche Reich_), and on the 18th of January

1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor (_Deutscher

Kaiser_) at Versailles. This was a change of style, not of functions and

powers. The title is "German emperor," not "emperor of Germany," being

intended to show that the Kaiser is but _primus inter pares_ in a

confederation of territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial

sovereign (_Landesherr_) extends over Prussia, not over Germany.

The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzollern, and

follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises the imperial

power in the name of the confederated states. In his office he is

assisted by a federal council (_Bundesrat_), which represents the

governments of the individual states of Germany. The members of this

council, 58 in number, are appointed for each session by the governments

of the individual states. The legislative functions of the empire are

vested in the emperor, the Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial

Diet. The members of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space

of five years by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member

is elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants.

As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme and

independent control in matters relating to military affairs and the

navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce, to posts and

telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these affect the common

defence of the country. Bavaria and Wurttemberg, however, have preserved

their own postal and telegraphic administration. The legislative power

of the empire also takes precedence of that of the separate states in

the regulation of matters affecting freedom of migration

(_Freizugigkeit_), domicile, settlement and the rights of German

subjects generally, as well as in all that relates to banking, patents,

protection of intellectual property, navigation of rivers and canals,

civil and criminal legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and

control of the press and of associations.

The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents the empire

internationally, and can declare war if defensive, and make peace as

well as enter into treaties with other nations; he also appoints and

receives ambassadors. For declaring offensive war the consent of the

federal council must be obtained. The separate states have the privilege

of sending ambassadors to the other courts; but all consuls abroad are

officials of the empire and are named by the emperor.

Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions convoked by

the emperor who has the right of proroguing and dissolving the Diet; but

the prorogation must not exceed 60 days, and in case of dissolution new

elections must be ordered within 60 days, and the new session opened

within 90 days. All laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order

to pass, receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal

council and the Reichstag.

Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Bundesrat by four commissioners

(_Kommissare_), without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter

(imperial lieutenant).

The fifty-eight members of the Bundesrat are nominated by the

governments of the individual states for each session; while the

members of the Reichstag are elected by universal suffrage and ballot

for the term of five years. Every German who has completed his

twenty-fifth year is prima facie entitled to the suffrage in the state

within which he has resided for one year. Soldiers and those in the

navy are not thus entitled, so long as they are serving under the

colours. Excluded, further, are persons under tutelage, bankrupts and

paupers, as also such persons who have been deprived of civil rights,

during the time of such deprivation. Every German citizen who has

completed his twenty-fifth year and has resided for a year in one of

the federal states is eligible for election in any part of the empire,

provided he has not been, as in the cases above, excluded from the

right of suffrage. The secrecy of the ballot is ensured by special

regulations passed on the 28th of April 1903. The voting-paper,

furnished with an official stamp, must be placed in an envelope by the

elector in a compartment set apart for the purpose in the polling

room, and, thus enclosed, be handed by him to the presiding officer.

An absolute majority of votes decides the election. If (as in the case

of several candidates) an absolute majority over all the others has

not been declared, a test election (_Stichwahl_) takes place between

the two candidates who have received the greatest number of votes. In

case of an equal number of votes being cast for both candidates, the

decision is by lot.

The subjoined table gives the names of the various states composing

the empire and the number of votes which the separate states have in

the federal council. Each state may appoint as many members to the

federal council as it has votes. The table also gives the number of

the deputies in the Reichstag.

+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+

| | No. of | No. of |

| States of the Empire. |Members in|Members in|

| |Bundesrat.|Reichstag.|

+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+

|Kingdom of Prussia | 17 | 236 |

| " Bavaria | 6 | 48 |

| " Saxony | 4 | 23 |

| " Wurttemberg | 4 | 17 |

|Grand duchy of Baden | 3 | 14 |

| " Hesse | 3 | 9 |

| " Mecklenburg-Schwerin | 2 | 6 |

| " Saxe-Weimar | 1 | 3 |

| " Mecklenburg-Strelitz | 1 | 1 |

| " Oldenburg | 1 | 3 |

|Duchy of Brunswick | 2 | 3 |

| " Saxe-Meiningen | 1 | 2 |

| " Saxe-Altenburg | 1 | 1 |

| " Saxe-Coburg-Gotha | 1 | 2 |

| " Anhalt | 1 | 2 |

|Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen| 1 | 1 |

| " Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | 1 | 1 |

| " Waldeck | 1 | 1 |

| " Reuss-Greiz | 1 | 1 |

| " Reuss-Schleiz | 1 | 1 |

| " Schaumburg-Lippe | 1 | 1 |

| " Lippe | 1 | 1 |

|Free town of Lubeck | 1 | 1 |

| " Bremen | 1 | 1 |

| " Hamburg | 1 | 3 |

|Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine | .. | 15 |

| +----------+----------+

| Total | 58 | 397 |

+-----------------------------------------+----------+----------+

The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since November

1906 its members have been paid (see PAYMENT OF MEMBERS).

The following table shows its composition after the elections of 1903

and 1907:--

+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+

| Parties. |1903.|1907.|

+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+

| Centre | 100 | 108 |

| Social Democrats | 81 | 43 |

| Conservatives | 51 | 60 |

| National Liberals | 49 | 57 |

| Freisinnige Volkspartei | 27 | 33 |

| Reichspartei | 19 | 22 |

| Alsatians, Guelphs and Danes | 18 | 5 |

| Poles | 16 | 20 |

| Wirtschaftliche Vereinigung (Reform Partei)| 12 | 21 |

| Freisinnige Vereinigung | 9 | 16 |

| Wilde (no party) | 9 | 5 |

| Bund der Landwirte | 3 | 6 |

| Bauernbund | 3 | 1 |

+--------------------------------------------+-----+-----+

All the German states have separate representative assemblies, except

Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg. The six larger

states have adopted the two-chamber system, but in the composition of

the houses great differences are found. The lesser states also have

chambers of representatives numbering from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz)

to 48 members (in Brunswick), and in most states the different classes,

as well as the cities and the rural districts, are separately

represented. The free towns have legislative assemblies, numbering from

120 to 200 members.

Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the Reichstag, must

obtain the sanction of the emperor in order to become law, and must be

countersigned, when promulgated, by the chancellor of the empire

(_Reichskanzler_). All members of the federal council are entitled to be

present at the deliberations of the Reichstag. The Bundesrat, acting

under the direction of the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme

administrative and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing

committees, viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes; for

tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for railways, posts

and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for financial accounts; for

foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine. Each committee includes

representatives of at least four states of the empire.

For the several branches of administration a considerable number of

imperial offices have been gradually created. All of them, however,

either are under the immediate authority of the chancellor of the

empire, or are separately managed under his responsibility. The most

important are the chancery office, the foreign office and the general

post and telegraph office. But the heads of these do not form a cabinet.

_The Chancellor of the Empire (Reichskanzler)._--The Prussian

plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat is the president of that assembly; he

is appointed by the emperor, and bears the title Reichskanzler. This

head official can be represented by any other member of the Bundesrat

named in a document of substitution. The Reichskanzler is the sole

responsible official, and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with

the exception of such as are of a purely military character, and is

the intermediary between the emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag.

All imperial rescripts require the counter-signature of the chancellor

before attaining validity. All measures passed by the Reichstag

require the sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and only become

binding on being proclaimed on behalf of the empire by the chancellor,

which publication takes place through the _Reichsgesetzblatt_ (the

official organ of the chancellor).

_Government Offices._--The following imperial offices are directly

responsible to the chancellor and stand under his control:--

1. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments: (i.)

the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial;

(iii.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of

state, taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor.

2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state)

is divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department;

(iii.) a disciplinary court.

3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct of a

secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments,

dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the

elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval

matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.)

purely social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance,

migration, settlement, poor law administration, &c.; (iii.) sanitary

matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures; and

(iv.) commercial and economic relations--such as agriculture,

industry, commercial treaties and statistics.

4. The imperial admiralty (_Reichsmarineamt_), which is the chief

board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance and

development.

5. The imperial ministry of justice (_Reichsjustizamt_), presided over

by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the

_Reichsgericht_ (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig,

deals principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted

to the Reichstag.

6. The imperial treasury (_Reichsschatzamt_), or exchequer, is the

head financial office of the empire. Presided over by a secretary of

state, its functions are principally those appertaining to the control

of the national debt and its administration, together with such as in

the United Kingdom are delegated to the board of inland revenue.

7. The imperial railway board (_Reichseisenbahnamt_), the chief

official of which has the title of "president," deals exclusively with

the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far as

they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect of

laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and the

safety of passengers conveyed.

8. The imperial post office (_Reichspostamt_), under a secretary of

state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire

(with the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg), as also those in the

colonies and dependencies.

9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial railways

in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian minister of

public works.

10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire

(_Rechnungshof_), which controls and supervises the expenditure of the

sums voted by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the

imperial bank (_Reichsbank_).

11. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, i.e. of the fund

set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war of

1870-71; and

12. The imperial bank (_Reichsbank_), supervised by a committee of

four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth

and permanent member of such committee.

The heads of the various departments of state do not form, as in

England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries

of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who

represents all the offices in his person, and, as has been said, is

the medium of communication between the emperor and the Bundesrat and

Reichstag.

_Colonies._--The following table gives some particulars of the

dependencies of the empire:--

+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

| Togoland | 1884 | 33,700 | 1,000,000 |

| Cameroon | 1884 | 190,000 | 3,500,000 |

| S.W. Africa | 1884 | 322,450 | 200,000 |

| East Africa | 1885 | 364,000 | 7,000,000 |

| +------------+-----------+------------+

| Total in Africa | | 910,150 | 11,700,000 |

| German New Guinea | 1884 | 70,000 | 110,000(?)|

| Bismarck Archipelago | 1884 | 20,000 | 188,000 |

| Caroline, Pelew and Mariana Islands| 1899 | 800 | 41,600 |

| Solomon Islands | 1886 | 4,200 | 45,000 |

| Marshall Islands | 1885 | 160 | 15,000 |

| Samoan Islands | 1899 | 985 | 33,000 |

| | +-----------+------------+

| Total in Pacific | | 96,145 | 432,600 |

| Kiao-chow | 1897 | 117 | 60,000 |

| | +-----------+------------+

| Total dependencies | 1884-1899 |1,006,412 | 12,192,600 |

+------------------------------------+------------+-----------+------------+

Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the

dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial

office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department

of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial

affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in 1906

was: imports into Germany, L1,028,000; exports from Germany,

L2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies was L849,000;

the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in the same year being

L4,362,000. (See the articles on the various colonies.)

_Local Government._--In the details of its organization local

self-government differs considerably in the various states of the German

empire. The general principle on which it is based, however, is that

which has received its most complete expression in the Prussian system:

government by experts, checked by lay criticism and the power of the

purse, and effective control by the central authorities. In Prussia at

least the medieval system of local self-government had succumbed

completely to the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was

revived it was at the will and for the purposes of the central

authorities, as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact

determined its general characteristics. In England the powers of the

local authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the

limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general powers

are granted by law, subject to the approval of the central authorities,

with the result that it is the government departments that determine

what the local elected authorities may do, and that the latter regard

themselves as commissioned to carry out, not so much the will of the

locality by which they are elected, as that of the central government.

This attitude is, indeed, inevitable from the double relation in which

they stand. A _Burgermeister_, once elected, becomes a member of the

bureaucracy and is responsible to the central administration; even the

headman of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his

functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful

classification of affairs into local and central, many things which in

England are regarded as local (e.g. education, sanitary administration,

police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the central

government, which either administers them directly or by means of

territorial delegations consisting either of individuals or of groups of

individuals. These may be purely official (e.g. the Prussian

_Regierung_), a mixture of officials and of elected non-official members

approved by the government (e.g. the _Bezirksausschuss_), or may consist

wholly of authorities elected for another purpose, but made to act as

the agents of the central departments (e.g. the _Kreisausschuss_). That

this system works without friction is due to the German habit of

discipline; that it is, on the whole, singularly effective is a result

of the peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German

bureaucracy.[3]

The unit of the German system of local government is the commune

(_Gemeinde_, or more strictly _Ortsgemeinde_). These are divided into

rural communes (_Landgemeinden_) and urban communes (_Stadtgemeinden_),

the powers and functions of which, though differing widely, are based

upon the same general principle of representative local self-government.

The higher organs of local government, so far as these are

representative, are based on the principle of a group or union of

communes (_Gemeindeverband_). Thus, in Prussia, the representative

assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_) is composed of delegates of the

rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the towns, while

the members of the provincial diet (_Provinziallandtag_) are chosen by

the _Kreistage_ and by such towns as form separate _Kreise_.

In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows: (1) the

province, (2) the government district (_Regierungsbezirk_), (3) the

rural circle (_Landkreis_) and urban circle (_Stadtkreis_), (4) the

official district (_Amtsbezirk_), (5) the town commune (_Stadtgemeinde_)

and rural commune (_Landgemeinde_). Of these areas the provinces,

circles and communes are for the purposes both of the central

administration and of local self-government, and the bodies by which

they are governed are corporations. The _Regierungsbezirke_ and

_Amtsbezirke_, on the other hand, are for the purposes of the central

administration only and are not incorporated. The Prussian system is

explained in greater detail in the article PRUSSIA (q.v.). Here it must

suffice to indicate briefly the general features of local government in

the other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The province,

which usually covers the area of a formerly independent state (e.g.

Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The _Regierungsbezirk_, however, is

common to the larger states under various names, _Regierungsbezirk_ in

Bavaria, _Kreishauptmannschaft_ in Saxony, _Kreis_ in Wurttemberg.

Common to all is the president (_Regierungsprasident_, _Kreishauptmann_

in Saxony), an official who, with a committee of advisers, is

responsible for the oversight of the administration of the circles and

communes within his jurisdiction. Whereas in Prussia, however, the

_Regierung_ is purely official, with no representative element, the

_Regierungsbezirk_ in Bavaria has a representative body, the _Landrat_,

consisting of delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large

landowners, clergy and--in certain cases--the universities; the

president is assisted by a committee (_Landratsausschuss_) of six

members elected by the _Landrat_. In Saxony the _Kreishauptmann_ is

assisted by a committee (_Kreisausschuss_).

Below the _Regierungsbezirk_ is the _Kreis_, or Circle, in Prussia,

Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the _Distrikt_ in Bavaria, the

_Oberamt_ in Wurttemberg[4] and the _Amtshauptmannschaft_ in Saxony. The

representative assembly of the Circle (_Kreistag_, _Distriktsrat_ in

Bavaria, _Amtsversammlung_ in Wurttemberg, _Bezirksversammlung_ in

Saxony) is elected by the communes, and is presided over by an official,

either elected or, as in the case of the Prussian _Landrat_, nominated

from a list submitted by the assembly. So far as their administrative

and legislative functions are concerned the German _Kreistage_ have been

compared to the English county councils or the Hungarian _comitatus_.

Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their official

chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee (_Kreisausschuss_,

_Distriktsausschuss_, &c.) is elected subject to official approval. The

official district (_Amtsbezirk_), a subdivision of the circle for

certain administrative purposes (notably police), is peculiar to

Prussia.

_Rural Communes._--As stated above, the lowest administrative area is

the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the constitution

and powers of the rural communes vary much in the different states. In

general the commune is a body corporate, its assembly consisting

either (in small villages) of the whole body of the qualified

inhabitants (_Gemeindeversammlung_), or of a representative assembly

(_Gemeindevertretung_) elected by them (in communes where there are

more than forty qualified inhabitants). At its head is an elected

headman (_Schulze_, _Dorfvorsteher_, &c.), with a small body of

assistants (_Schoffen_, &c.). He is a government official responsible,

_inter alia_, for the policing of the commune. Where there are large

estates these sometimes constitute communes of themselves. For common

purposes several communes may combine, such combinations being termed

in Wurttemberg _Burgermeistereien_, in the Rhine province

_Amtsverbande_. In general the communes are of slight importance.

Where the land is held by small peasant proprietors, they display a

certain activity; where there are large ground landlords, these

usually control them absolutely.

_Towns._--The constitution of the towns (_Stadteverfassung_) varies

more greatly in the several states than that of the rural communes.

According to the so-called _Stein'sche Stadteverfassung_ (the system

introduced in Prussia by Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate

between it and other systems, is called the _Magistratsverfassung_ (or

magisterial constitution), the municipal communes enjoy a greater

degree of self-government than do the rural. In the magisterial

constitution of larger towns and cities, the members of the

_Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called _Stadtrat_,

_Gemeinderat_), are elected by the representative assembly of the

citizens (_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_) out of their own body.

In those parts of Germany which come under the influence of French

legislation, the constitution of the towns and that of the rural

communes (the so-called _Burgermeistereiverfassung_) is identical, in

that the members of the communal executive body are, in the same way

as those of the communal assembly, elected to office immediately by

the whole body of municipal electors.

The government of the towns is regulated in the main by municipal

codes (_Stadteordnungen_), largely based upon Stein's reform of 1808.

This, superseding the autonomy severally enjoyed by the towns and

cities since the middle ages (see COMMUNE), aimed at welding the

citizens, who had hitherto been divided into classes and gilds, into

one corporate whole, and giving them all an active share in the

administration of public affairs, while reserving to the central

authorities the power of effective control.

The system which obtains in all the old Prussian provinces (with the

exception of Rugen and Vorpommern or Hither Pomerania) and in

Westphalia is that of Stein, modified by subsequent laws--notably

those of 1853 and 1856--which gave the state a greater influence,

while extending the powers of the _Magistrat_. In Vorpommern and

Rugen, and thus in the towns of Greifswald, Stralsund and Bergen,

among others, the old civic constitutions remain unchanged. In the new

Prussian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main received a special municipal

constitution in 1867 and the towns of Schleswig-Holstein in 1869. The

province of Hanover retains its system as emended in 1858, and

Hesse-Nassau, with the exception of Frankfort-on-Main, received a

special corporate system in 1897. The municipal systems of Bavaria,

Wurttemberg and Saxony are more or less based on that of Stein, but

with a wider sphere of self-government. In Mecklenburg there is no

uniform system. In Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and Neustadt have

separate and peculiar municipal constitutions. In almost all the other

states the system is uniform. The free cities of Lubeck, Hamburg and

Bremen, as sovereign states, form a separate class. Their

constitutions are described in the articles on them.

Where the "magisterial" constitution prevails, the members of the

_Magistrat_, i.e. the executive council (also called variously

_Stadtrat_, _Gemeindevorstand_, &c.), are as a rule elected by the

representative assembly of the burgesses

(_Stadtverordnetenversammlung_; also _Gemeinderat_, _stadtischer

Ausschuss_, _Kollegium der Burgervorsteher_, _Stadtaltesten_, &c.).

The _Magistrat_ consists of the chief burgomaster (_Erster

Burgermeister_ or _Stadtschultheiss_, and in the large cities

Oberburgermeister), a second burgomaster or assessor, and in large

towns of a number of paid and unpaid town councillors (_Ratsherren_,

_Senatoren_, _Schoffen_, _Ratsmanner_, _Magistratsrate_), together

with certain salaried members selected for specific purposes (e.g.

_Baurat_, for building). Over this executive body the

_Stadtverordneten_, who are elected by the whole body of citizens and

unpaid, exercise a general control, their assent being necessary to

any measures of importance, especially those involving any

considerable outlay. They are elected for from three to six years; the

members of the _Magistrat_ are chosen for six, nine or twelve years,

sometimes even for life. In the large towns the burgomasters must be

jurists, and are paid. The police are under the control of the

_Magistrat_, except in certain large cities, where they are under a

separate state department.

The second system mentioned above (_Burgermeistereiverfassung_)

prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse,

Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldeck and the principalities of Reuss and

Schwarzburg. In Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the system is a

compromise between the two; both the town and rural communes have a

mayor (_Burgermeister_ or _Schultheiss_, as the case may be) and a

_Gemeinderat_ for administrative purposes, the citizens exercising

control through a representative _Gemeindeausschuss_ (communal

committee).

_Justice._--By the Judicature Act--_Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz_--of 1879,

the so-called "regular litigious" jurisdiction of the courts of law was

rendered uniform throughout the empire, and the courts are now

everywhere alike in character and composition; and with the exception of

the _Reichsgericht_ (supreme court of the empire), immediately subject

to the government of the state in which they exercise jurisdiction, and

not to the imperial government. The courts, from the lowest to the

highest, are _Amtsgericht_, _Landgericht_, _Oberlandesgericht_ and

_Reichsgericht_. There are, further, _Verwaltungsgerichte_

(administrative courts) for the adjustment of disputes between the

various organs of local government, and other special courts, such as

military, consular and arbitration courts (_Schiedsgericht_). In

addition to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious

matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship and

the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions, all which are

almost entirely within the province of the _Amtsgerichte_. There are

uniform codes of criminal law (_Strafgesetzbuch_), commercial law and

civil law (_Burgerliches Gesetzbuch_), the last of which came into force

on the 1st of January 1900. The criminal code, based on that of Prussia

anterior to 1870, was gradually adopted by all the other states and was

generally in force by 1872. It has, however, been frequently emended and

supplemented.

The lowest courts of first instance are the _Amtsgerichte_, each

presided over by a single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty

criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks (L15). They are also

competent to deal with all disputes as to wages, and letting and

hiring, without regard to the value of the object in dispute. Petty

criminal cases are heard by the judge (_Amtsrichter_) sitting with two

_Schoffen_--assessors--selected by lot from the jury lists, who are

competent to try prisoners for offences punishable with a fine, not

exceeding 600 marks (L30) or corresponding confinement, or with

imprisonment not exceeding three months. The _Landgerichte_ revise the

decisions of the _Amtsgerichte_, and have also an original

jurisdiction in criminal and civil cases and in divorce proceedings.

The criminal chamber of the _Landgericht_ is composed of five judges,

and a majority of four is required for a conviction. These courts are

competent to try cases of felony punishable with a term of

imprisonment not exceeding five years. The preliminary examination is

conducted by a judge, who does not sit on the bench at the trial. Jury

courts (_Schwurgerichte_) are not permanent institutions, but are

periodically held. They are formed of three judges of the

_Landgericht_ and a jury of twelve; and a two-thirds majority is

necessary to convict. There are 173 _Landgerichte_ in the empire,

being one court for every 325,822 inhabitants. The first court of

second instance is the _Oberlandesgericht_, which has an original

jurisdiction in grave offences and is composed of seven judges. There

are twenty-eight such courts in the empire. Bavaria alone has an

_Oberstes Landesgericht_, which exercises a revising jurisdiction over

the _Oberlandesgerichte_ in the state. The supreme court of the German

empire is the _Reichsgericht_, having its seat at Leipzig. The judges,

numbering ninety-two, are appointed by the emperor on the advice of

the federal council (_Bundesrat_). This court exercises an appellate

jurisdiction in civil cases remitted, for the decision of questions of

law, by the inferior courts and also in all criminal cases referred to

it. It sits in four criminal and six civil senates, each consisting of

seven judges, one of whom is the president. The judges are styled

_Reichsgerichtsrate_ (counsellors of the imperial court).

In the _Amtsgericht_ a private litigant may conduct his own case; but

where the object of the litigation exceeds 300 marks (L15), and in

appeals from the _Amtsgericht_ to the _Landgericht_, the plaintiff

(and also the defendant) must be represented by an

advocate--_Rechtsanwalt_.

A _Rechtsanwalt_, having studied law at a university for four years

and having passed two state examinations, if desiring to practise must

be admitted as "defending counsel" by the _Amtsgericht_ or

_Landgericht_, or by both. These advocates are not state officials,

but are sworn to the due execution of their duties. In case a client

has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the

latter can be made responsible. In every district of the

_Oberlandesgericht_, the _Rechtsanwalte_ are formed into an

_Anwaltkammer_ (chamber of advocates), and the council of each

chamber, sitting as a court of honour, deals with and determines

matters affecting the honour of the profession. An appeal lies from

this to a second court of honour, consisting of the president, three

judges of the _Reichsgericht_ and of three lawyers admitted to

practice before that court.

Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by the

_Staatsanwalte_ (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the

judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence

as being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the

courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are

cases heard _in camera_.

Military offences come before the military court and serious offences

before the _Kriegsgericht_. The court-martial is, in every case,

composed of the commander of the district as president, and four

officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (_Kriegsgerichtsrat_), who

conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the most

serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates are the

judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he may himself

appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority, but only be

condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are also _Kaufmanns-_ and

_Gewerbegerichte_ (commercial and industrial courts), composed of

persons belonging to the classes of employers and employees, under the

presidency of a judge of the court. Their aim is the effecting of a

reconciliation between the parties. From the decision of these courts

an appeal lies to the _Landgericht_ where the amount of the object in

dispute exceeds 100 marks (L5).

The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before

the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted

persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil

population over twelve years of age:--

+------+-------------------------+-------------------+---------+------------+

| Year.|-------------------------+-------------------| Total. | per 10,000 |

+------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+

| 1900 | 1,143,687 | 94,241 | 396,975 | 72,844 | 469,819 | 119.5 |

| 1901 | 1,205,558 | 101,471 | 419,592 | 77,718 | 497,310 | 125.6 |

| 1902 | 1,221,080 | 104,434 | 431,257 | 81,072 | 512,329 | 127.3 |

| 1903 | 1,251,662 | 105,241 | 424,813 | 80,540 | 505,353 | 123.4 |

| 1904 | 1,287,686 | 105,457 | 435,191 | 81,785 | 516,976 | 124.2 |

+------+------------+------------+---------+---------+---------+------------+

Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted.

_Poor Law._--A law passed by the North German Confederation of the 6th

of June 1870, and subsequently amended by an imperial law of the 12th of

March 1894, laid down rules for the relief of the destitute in all the

states composing the empire, with the exception of Bavaria and

Alsace-Lorraine. According to the system adopted, the public relief of

the poor is committed to the care of local unions (_Ortsarmenverbande_)

and provincial unions (_Landarmenverbande_), the former corresponding,

generally, to the commune, and the latter to a far wider area, a circle

or a province. Any person of eighteen years, who has continuously

resided with a local union for the space of two years, there acquires

his domicile. But any destitute German subject must be relieved by the

local union in which he happens to be at the time, the cost of the

relief being defrayed by the local or provincial union in which he has

his domicile. The wife and children have also their domicile in the

place where the husband or father has his.[5]

Relief of the poor is one of the chief duties of the organs of local

self-government. The moneys for the purpose are mainly derived from

general taxation (poor rates per se being but rarely directly levied),

special funds and voluntary contributions. In some German states and

communes certain dues (such as the dog tax in Saxony), death duties

and particularly dues payable in respect of public entertainments and

police court fines, are assigned to the poor-relief chest. In some

large towns the Elberfeld system of unpaid district visitors and the

interworking of public and private charity is in force. The imperial

laws which introduced the compulsory insurance of all the humbler

workers within the empire, and gave them, when incapacitated by

sickness, accident and old age, an absolute right to pecuniary

assistance, have greatly reduced pauperism and crime.

_Workmen's Insurance._--On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as the result

of the policy announced by the emperor William I. in his speech from the

throne in 1881, passed an act making insurance against sickness,

accident, and incapacity compulsory on all workers in industrial

pursuits. By further laws, in 1885 and 1892, this obligation was

extended to certain other classes of workers, and the system was further

modified by acts passed in 1900 and 1903. Under this system every person

insured has a right to assistance in case of sickness, accident, or

incapacity, while in case of death his widow and children receive an

annuity.

Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Geoponici" to "Germany" Volume 11, Slice 7 · 第 37 / 42 题

TABLE B.--_Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908._