VI. GERMAN LITERATURE SINCE GOETHE (1832-1906)

(a) _Young Germany._--With Goethe's death a great age in German poetry

came to a close. Long before 1832 Romanticism had, as we have seen,

begun to lose ground, and the July revolution of 1830, the effects of

which were almost as keenly felt in Germany as in France, gave the

movement its death-blow. Meanwhile the march of ideas in Germany itself

had not been favourable to Romanticism. Schelling had given place to G.

W.F. Hegel (1770-1831), now the dominant force in German philosophy, and

the Hegelian metaphysics proved as unfruitful an influence on literature

as that of Fichte and Schelling had been fruitful. The transference of

Romantic ideas to the domain of practical religion and politics had

proved reactionary in its effects; Romanticism became the cloak for a

kind of Neo-catholicism, and Romantic politics, as enunciated by men

like F. von Gentz (1764-1832) and Adam Muller (1779-1829), served as an

apology for the Metternich regime in Austria. Only at the

universities--in Gottingen, Heidelberg and Berlin--did the movement

continue, in the best sense, to be productive; German philology, German

historical science and German jurisprudence benefited by Romantic ideas,

long after Romantic poetry had fallen into decay. The day of Romanticism

was clearly over; but a return to the classic and humanitarian spirit of

the 18th century was impossible. The social condition of Europe had been

profoundly altered by the French Revolution; the rise of industrialism

had created new economic problems, the march of science had overturned

old prejudices. And in a still higher degree were the ideas which lay

behind the social upheaval of the July revolution incompatible with a

reversion in Germany to the conditions of Weimar classicism. There was,

moreover, no disguising the fact that Goethe himself did not stand high

with the younger generation of German writers who came into power after

his death.

"Young Germany" did not form a school in the sense in which the word was

used by the early Romanticists; the bond of union was rather the

consequence of political persecution. In December 1835 the German "Bund"

issued a decree suppressing the writings of the "literary school" known

as "Young Germany," and mentioned by name Heinrich Heine, Karl Gutzkow,

Ludolf Wienbarg, Theodor Mundt and Heinrich Laube. Of these men, Heine

(1797-1856) was by far the most famous. He had made his reputation in

1826 and 1827 with _Die Harzreise_ and _Das Buch der Lieder_, both of

which books show how deeply he was immersed in the Romantic traditions.

But Heine felt perhaps more acutely than any other man of his time how

the ground was slipping away from beneath his feet; he repudiated the

Romantic movement and hailed the July revolution as the first stage in

the "liberation of humanity"; while ultimately he sought in France the

freedom and intellectual stimulus which Germany withheld from him. Heine

suffered from having been born in an age of transition; he was unable to

realize in a wholehearted way all that was good in the new movement,

which he had embraced so warmly; his optimism was counteracted by doubts

as to whether, after all, life had not been better in that old Romantic

Germany of his childhood for which, to the last, he retained so warm an

affection. Personal disappointments and unhappiness added to the

bitterness of Heine's nature, and the supremely gifted lyric poet and

the hardly less gifted satirist were overshadowed by the cynic from

whose biting wit nothing was safe.

Heine's contemporary and--although he was not mentioned in the decree

against the school--fellow-fighter, Ludwig Borne (1786-1837), was a more

characteristic representative of the "Young German" point of view; for

he was free from Romantic prejudices. Borne gave vent to his enthusiasm

for France in eloquent _Briefe aus Paris_ (1830-1833), which form a

landmark of importance in the development of German prose style. With

Karl Gutzkow (1811-1878), who was considerably younger than either Heine

or Borne, the more positive aspects of the "Young German" movement begin

to be apparent. He, too, had become a man of letters under the influence

of the July revolution, and with an early novel, _Wally, die Zweiflerin_

(1835), which was then regarded as atheistic and immoral, he fought in

the battle for the new ideas. His best literary work, however, was the

comedies with which he enriched the German stage of the 'forties, and

novels like _Die Ritter vom Geiste_ (1850-1851), and _Der Zauberer von

Rom_ (1858-1861), which have to be considered in connexion with the

later development of German fiction. Heinrich Laube (1806-1884), who, as

the author of lengthy social novels, and _Reisenovellen_ in the style of

Heine's _Reisebilder_, was one of the leaders of the new movement, is

now only remembered as Germany's greatest theatre-director. Laube's

connexion (1850-1867) with the Burgtheater of Vienna forms one of the

most brilliant periods in the history of the modern stage. Heine and

Borne, Gutzkow and Laube--these were the leading spirits of "Young

Germany"; in their train followed a host of lesser men, who to the

present generation are hardly even names. In the domain of scholarship

and learning the "Young German" movement was associated with the

supremacy of Hegelianism, the leading spirits being D.F. Strauss

(1808-1874), author of the _Leben Jesu_ (1835), the historians G.G.

Gervinus (1805-1871) and W. Menzel (1798-1873), and the philosopher L.A.

Feuerbach (1804-1872), who, although a disciple of Hegel, ultimately

helped to destroy the latter's influence.

Outside the immediate circle of "Young Germany," other tentative efforts

were made to provide a substitute for the discredited literature of

Romanticism. The historical novel, for instance, which Romanticists like

Arnim had cultivated, fell at an early date under the influence of Sir

Walter Scott; Wilhelm Hauff, Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848) and K.

Spindler (1796-1855) were the most prominent amidst the many imitators

of the Scottish novelist. The drama, again, which since Kleist and

Werner had been without definite principles, was, partly under Austrian

influence, finding its way back to a condition of stability. In Germany

proper, the men into whose hands it fell were, on the one hand,

undisciplined geniuses such as C.D. Grabbe (1801-1836), or, on the

other, poets with too little theatrical blood in their veins like K.L.

Immermann (1796-1840), or with too much, like E. von Raupach

(1784-1852), K. von Holtei (1798-1880) and Adolf Mullner

(1774-1829)--the last named being the chief representative of the

so-called _Schicksalstragodie_. In those years the Germans were more

seriously interested in their opera, which, under C.M. Weber, H.A.

Marschner, A. Lortzing and O. Nicolai, remained faithful to the Romantic

spirit. In Austria, however, the drama followed lines of its own; here,

at the very beginning of the century, H.J. von Collin (1771-1811)

attempted in _Regulus_ and other works to substitute for the lifeless

pseudo-classic tragedy of Ayrenhoff the classic style of Schiller. His

attempt is the more interesting, as the long development that had taken

place in Germany between Gottsched and Schiller was virtually

unrepresented in Austrian literature. M. von Collin (1779-1824), a

younger brother of H.J. von Collin, did a similar service for the

Romantic drama. Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872), Austria's greatest poet,

began in the school of Mullner with a "fate drama," but soon won an

independent place for himself; more successfully than any other

dramatist of the century, he carried out that task which Kleist had

first seriously faced, the reconciliation of the classicism of Goethe

and Schiller with the Romantic and modern spirit of the 19th century. It

is from this point of view that works like _Das goldene Vliess_ (1820),

_Konig Ottokars Gluck und Ende_ (1825), _Der Traum, ein Leben_ (1834)

and _Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen_ (1831) must be regarded. As far as

the poetic drama was concerned, Grillparzer stood alone, for E.F.J. von

Munch-Bellinghausen (1806-1871), his most promising contemporary, once

so popular under the pseudonym of Friedrich Halm, soon fell back into

the trivial sentimentality of the later Romanticists. In other forms of

dramatic literature Austria could point to many distinguished writers,

notably the comedy-writer, E. von Bauernfeld (1802-1890), while a host

of playwrights, chief of whom were F. Raimund (1790-1836) and J. Nestroy

(1801-1862), cultivated the popular Viennese farce and fairy-play. Thus,

in spite of Metternich's censorship of the drama, the Viennese theatre

was, in the first half of the 19th century, in closer touch with

literature than that of any other German centre.

The transitional character of the age is best illustrated by two eminent

writers whom outward circumstances rather than any similarity of

character and aim have classed together. These were K.L. Immermann, who

has been already mentioned, and A. von Platen-Hallermund (1796-1835).

Immermann's dramas were of little practical value to the theatre, but

one at least, _Merlin_ (1832), is a dramatic poem of great beauty. In

his novels, however, _Die Epigonen_ (1836) and _Munchhausen_

(1838-1839), Immermann was the spokesman of his time. He looked

backwards rather than forwards; he saw himself as the belated follower

of a great literary age rather than as the pioneer of a new one. The

bankruptcy of Romanticism and the poetically arid era of "Young Germany"

left him little confidence in the future. Platen, on the other hand,

went his own way; he, too, was the antagonist both of Romanticism and

"Young Germany," and with Immermann himself he came into sharp conflict.

But in his poetry he showed himself indifferent to the strife of

contending literary schools. He began as an imitator of the German

oriental poets--the only Romanticists with whom he had any personal

sympathy--and with his matchless _Sonette aus Venedig_ (1825) he stands

out as a master in the art of verse-writing and as the least subjective

of all German lyric poets. In the imitation of Romance metres he sought

a refuge from the extravagances and excesses of the Romantic decadence.

Meanwhile the political side of the "Young German" movement, which the

German Bund aimed at stamping out, gained rapidly in importance under

the influence of the unsettled political conditions between the

revolutions of 1830 and 1848. The early 'forties were in German

literature marked by an extraordinary outburst of political poetry,

which may be aptly compared with the national and patriotic lyric evoked

by the year 1813. The principles which triumphed in France at the

revolution of 1848 were, to a great extent, fought out by the German

singers of 1841 and 1842. Begun by mediocre talents like N. Becker

(1809-1845) and R.E. Prutz (1816-1872), the movement found a vigorous

champion in Georg Herwegh (1817-1875), who in his turn succeeded in

winning Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) for the revolutionary cause.

Others joined in the cry for freedom--F. Dingelstedt (1814-1881), A.H.

Hoffmann von Fallersleben (1798-1874), and a number of Austrians, who

had even more reason for rebellion and discontent than the north

Germans. But the best Austrian political poetry, the _Spaziergange eines

Wiener Poeten_, 1831, by "Anastasius Grun" (Graf A.A. von Auersperg,

1806-1876), belonged to a decade earlier. The political lyric culminated

in and ended with the year 1848; the revolutionists of the 'forties

were, if not appeased, at least silenced by the revolution which in

their eyes had effected so little. If Freiligrath be excepted, the chief

lyric poets of this epoch stood aside from the revolutionary movement;

even E. Geibel (1815-1884), the representative poet of the succeeding

age, was only temporarily interested in the political movement, and his

best work is of a purely lyric character. M. von Strachwitz's

(1822-1847) promising talent did not flourish in the political

atmosphere; Annette von Droste-Hulshoff (1797-1848), and the Austrian,

Nikolaus Lenau (1802-1850), both stand far removed from the world of

politics; they are imbued with that pessimistic resignation which is,

more or less, characteristic of all German literature between 1850 and

1870.

(b) _Mid-Century Literature._--When once the revolution of 1848 was

over, a spirit of tranquillity came over German letters; but it was due

rather to the absence of confidence in the future than to any

hopefulness or real content. The literature of the middle of the century

was not wanting in achievement, but there was nothing buoyant or

youthful about it; most significant of all, the generation between 1848

and 1880 was either oblivious or indifferent to the good work and to the

new and germinating ideas which it produced. Hegel, who held the earlier

half of the 19th century in his ban, was still all-powerful in the

universities, but his power was on the wane in literature and public

life. The so-called "Hegelian Left" had advanced so far as to have

become incompatible with the original Hegelianism; the new social and

economic theories did not fit into the scheme of Hegelian collectivism;

the interest in natural science--fostered by the popular books of J.

Moleschott (1822-1893), Karl Vogt (1817-1895) and Ludwig Buchner

(1824-1899)--created a healthy antidote to the Hegelian metaphysics. In

literature and art, on which Hegel, as we have seen, had exerted so

blighting an influence, his place was taken by the chief exponent of

philosophic pessimism, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Schopenhauer's

antagonism to Hegelianism was of old standing, for his chief work, _Die

Welt als Wille und Vorstellung_, had appeared as far back as 1819; but

the century was more than half over before the movement of ideas had, as

it were, caught up with him, before pessimism became a dominant force in

intellectual life.

The literature produced between 1850 and 1870 was preeminently one of

prose fiction. The beginnings which the "Young German" school had made

to a type of novel dealing with social problems--the best example is

Gutzkow's _Ritter vom Geiste_--developed rapidly in this succeeding

epoch. Friedrich Spielhagen (born 1829) followed immediately in

Gutzkow's footsteps, and in a series of romances from _Problematische

Naturen_ (1860) to _Sturmflut_ (1876), discussed in a militant spirit

that recalls Laube and Gutzkow the social problems which agitated German

life in these decades. Gustav Freytag (1816-1895), although an older

man, freed himself more successfully from the "Young German" tradition;

his romance of German commercialism, _Soll und Haben_ (1855), is the

masterpiece of mid-century fiction of this class. Less successful was

Freytag's subsequent attempt to transfer his method to the _milieu_ of

German academic life in _Die verlorene Handschrift_ (1864). As was

perhaps only natural in an age of social and political interests, the

historical novel occupies a subordinate place. The influence of Scott,

which in the earlier period had been strong, produced only one writer,

Wilhelm Haring ("Willibald Alexis," 1798-1871), who was more than a mere

imitator of the Scottish master. In the series of six novels, from _Der

Roland von Berlin_ to _Dorothe_, which Alexis published between 1840 and

1856, he gave Germany, and more particularly Prussia, a historical

fiction which might not unworthily be compared with the _Waverley

Novels_. But Alexis had no successor, and the historical novel soon made

way for a type of fiction in which the accurate reproduction of remote

conditions was held of more account than poetic inspiration or artistic

power. Such are the "antiquarian" novels of ancient Egyptian life by

Georg Ebers (1837-1898), and those from primitive German history by

Felix Dahn (born 1834). The vogue of historical fiction was also

transferred to some extent, as in English literature, to novels of

American life and adventure, of which the chief German cultivators were

K.A. Postl, who wrote under the pseudonym of Charles Sealsfield

(1793-1864) and Friedrich Gerstacker (1816-1872).

Of greater importance was the fiction which owed its inspiration to the

Romantic traditions that survived the "Young German" age. To this group

belongs the novel of peasant and provincial life, of which Immermann had

given an excellent example in _Der Oberhof_, a story included in the

arabesque of _Munchhausen_. A Swiss pastor, Albrecht Bitzius, better

known by his pseudonym "Jeremias Gotthelf" (1797-1854), was, however,

the real founder of this class of romance; and his simple, unvarnished

and naively didactic stories of the Swiss peasant were followed not long

afterwards by the more famous _Schwarzwalder Dorfgeschichten_

(1843-1854) of Berthold Auerbach (1812-1882). Auerbach is not by any

means so naive and realistic as Gotthelf, nor is his work free from

tendencies and ideas which recall "Young German" rationalism rather than

the unsophisticated life of the Black Forest; but the _Schwarzwalder

Dorfgeschichten_ exerted a decisive influence; they were the forerunners

of a large body of peasant literature which described with affectionate

sympathy and with a liberal admixture of dialect, south German village

life. With this group of writers may also be associated the German

Bohemian, A. Stifter (1805-1868), who has called up unforgettable

pictures and impressions of the life and scenery of his home.

Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the revival of an

interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the credit of Fritz

Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour to the Plattdeutsch of the

north, the dialects of which had played a fitful, but by no means

negligible role in the earlier history of German letters. His

Mecklenburg novels, especially _Ut de Franzosentid_ (1860), _Ut mine

Festungstid_ (1863) and _Ut mine Stromtid_ (1862-1864), are a faithful

reflection of Mecklenburg life and temperament, and hold their place

beside the best German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for

Plattdeutsch prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1819-1899), the

author of _Quickborn_ (1852), did for its verse. We owe, however, the

best German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity

with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German, Theodor Storm

(1817-1888) is the author of a series of short stories of delicate,

lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac Romanticism which harmonized

so well with mid-century pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller

(1819-1890), on the other hand, a native of Zurich, was a modern

Romanticist of a robuster type; his magnificent autobiographical novel,

_Der grune Heinrich_ (1854-1855), might be described as the last in the

great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with _Wilhelm Meister_,

and the short stories, _Die Leute von Seldwyla_ (1856-1874) and

_Zuricher Novellen_ (1878) are masterpieces of the first rank.

In the dramatic literature of these decades, at least as it was

reflected in the repertories of the German theatres, there was little

promise. French influence was, in general, predominant; French

translations formed the mainstay of the theatre-directors, while

successful German playwrights, such as R. Benedix (1811-1873) and

Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-1868), have little claim to consideration

in a literary survey. Gustav Freytag's admirable comedy, _Die

Journalisten_ (1852), was one of the rare exceptions. But the German

drama of this epoch is not to be judged solely by the theatres. At the

middle of the century Germany could point to two writers who, each in

his way, contributed very materially to the development of the modern

drama. These were Friedrich Hebbel (1813-1863) and Otto Ludwig

(1813-1865). Both of these men, as a later generation discovered, were

the pioneers of that dramatic literature which at the close of the

century accepted the canons of realism and aimed at superseding outward

effects by psychological conflicts and problems of social life. Hebbel,

especially, must be regarded as the most original and revolutionary

German dramatist of the 19th century. Unlike his contemporary

Grillparzer, whose aim had been to reconcile the "classic" and the

"romantic" drama with the help of Spanish models, Hebbel laid the

foundations of a psychological and social drama, of which the most

modern interpreter has been Henrik Ibsen. Hebbel's first tragedy,

_Judith_, appeared in 1840, his masterpieces, _Herodes und Marianne_,

_Agnes Bernauer_, _Gyges und sein Ring_, and the trilogy of _Die

Nibelungen_ between 1850 and 1862.

In this period of somewhat confused literary striving, there is,

however, one body of writers who might be grouped together as a school,

although the designation must be regarded rather as an outward accident

of union than as implying conformity of aims. This is the group which

Maximilian II. of Bavaria gathered round him in Munich between 1852 and

1860. A leading spirit of the group was Emanuel Geibel, who, as we have

seen, set a model to the German lyric in this age; F. von Bodenstedt

(1819-1892), the popular author of _Mirza Schaffy_; and J.V. von

Scheffel (1826-1886), who, in his verse-romance, _Der Trompeter von

Sackingen_ (1854), broke a lance for a type of literature which had been

cultivated somewhat earlier, but with no very conspicuous success, by

men like O. von Redwitz (1823-1891) and G. Kinkel (1815-1882). The

romance was, in fact, one of the favourite vehicles of poetic expression

of the Munich school, its most successful exponents being J. Wolff (b.

1834) and R. Baumbach (1840-1905); while others, such as H. Lingg

(1820-1905) and R. Hamerling (1830-1889) devoted themselves to the more

ambitious epic. The general tone of the literary movement was

pessimistic, the hopelessness of the spiritual outlook being most deeply

engrained in the verse of H. Lorm (pseudonym for Heinrich Landesmann,

1821-1902) and H. Leuthold (1827-1879). On the whole, the most important

member of the Munich group is Paul Heyse (b. 1830), who, as a writer of

"Novellen" or short stories, may be classed with Storm and Keller. An

essentially Latin genius, Heyse excels in stories of Italian life, where

his lightness of touch and sense of form are shown to best advantage;

but he has also written several long novels. Of these, _Kinder der Welt_

(1873) and, in a lesser degree, _Im Paradiese_ (1875), sum up the spirit

and tendency of their time, just as, in earlier decades, _Die Ritter vom

Geiste_, _Problematische Naturen_ and _Soll und Haben_ were

characteristic of the periods which produced them.

(c) _German Literature after 1870._--In the years immediately following

the Franco-German War, the prevailing conditions were unfavourable to

literary production in Germany, and the re-establishment of the empire

left comparatively little trace on the national literature. All minds

were for a time engrossed by the _Kulturkampf_, by the financial

difficulties--the so-called _Grundertum_--due to unscrupulous

speculation, and, finally, by the rapid rise of social democracy as a

political force. The intellectual basis of the latter movement was laid

by Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864) and Karl Marx (1818-1883), author of

_Das Kapital_ (vol. i, 1867). But even had such disturbing elements been

wanting, the general tone of German intellectual life at that time was

not buoyant enough to inspire a vigorous literary revival. The influence

of Hegel was still strong, and the "historical" method, as enunciated in

_Der alte und der neue Glaube_ (1872) by the Hegelian D.F. Strauss, was

generally accepted at the German universities. To many the compromise

which H. Lotze (1817-1881) had attempted to establish between science

and metaphysics, came as a relief from the Hegelian tradition, but in

literature and art the dominant force was still, as before the war, the

philosophy of Schopenhauer. In his _Philosophie des Unbewussten_ (1869),

E. von Hartmann (1842-1906) endeavoured to bring pessimism into harmony

with idealism. In lyric poetry, the dull monotony was broken by the

excitement of the war, and the singers of the revolution of 1848 were

among the first to welcome the triumph and unification of Germany. At

the same time, men of the older generation, like Herwegh, Freiligrath

and Geibel could ill conceal a certain disappointment with the new

regime; the united Germany of 1871 was not what they had dreamed of in

their youth, when all hopes were set on the Frankfort parliament.

The novel continued to be what it was before 1870, the most vigorous

form of German literature, but the novelists who were popular in the

early 'seventies were all older men. Laube, Gutzkow and Auerbach were

still writing; Fritz Reuter was a universal favourite; while among the

writers of short stories, Storm, who, between 1877 and 1888, put the

crown to his work with his _Chroniknovellen_, and Paul Heyse were the

acknowledged masters. It was not until at least a decade later that the

genius of Gottfried Keller was generally recognized. The historical

novel seemed, in those days, beyond hope of revival. Gustav Freytag, it

is true, had made the attempt in _Die Ahnen_ (1872-1881), a number of

independent historical romances linked together to form an ambitious

prose epic; but there was more of the spirit of Ebers and Dahn in

Freytag's work than of the spacious art of Scott, or of Scott's

disciple, Willibald Alexis.

The drama of the 'seventies was in an even less hopeful condition than

during the preceding period. The classical iambic tragedy was cultivated

by the Munich school, by A. Wilbrandt (b. 1837), A. Lindner (1831-1888),

H. Kruse (1815-1902), by the Austrian F. Nissel (1831-1893), and A.

Fitger (b. 1840); but it was characteristic of the time that Halm was

popular, while Hebbel and Grillparzer were neglected, it might even be

said ignored. The most gifted German dramatist belonging exclusively to

the decade between 1870 and 1880 was an Austrian, Ludwig Anzengruber

(1839-1889), whose _Pfarrer von Kirchfeld_ (1870) recalled the

controversies of the _Kulturkampf_. This was Anzengruber's first drama,

and it was followed by a series of powerful plays dealing with the life

of the Austrian peasant; Anzengruber was, indeed, one of the ablest

exponents of that village life, which had attracted so many gifted

writers since the days of Gotthelf and Auerbach. But the really popular

dramatists of this epoch were either writers who, like Benedix in the

older generation, cultivated the _bourgeoise_ comedy--A. L'Arronge (b.

1838), G. von Moser (1825-1903), F. von Schonthan (b. 1849) and O.

Blumenthal (b. 1852)--or playwrights, of whom P. Lindau (b. 1839) may be

regarded as representative, who imitated French models. The only sign of

progress in the dramatic history of this period was the marked

improvement of the German stage, an improvement due, on the one hand, to

the artistic reforms introduced by the duke of Meiningen in the Court

theatre at Meiningen, and, on the other hand, to the ideals of a

national theatre realized at Bayreuth by Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The

greatest composer of the later 19th century is also one of Germany's

leading dramatists; and the first performance of the trilogy _Der Ring

der Nibelungen_ at Bayreuth in the summer of 1876 may be said to have

inaugurated the latest epoch in the history of the German drama.

The last fifteen or twenty years of the 19th century were distinguished

in Germany by a remarkable literary activity. Among the younger

generation, which was growing up as citizens of the united German

empire, a more hopeful and optimistic spirit prevailed. The influence of

Schopenhauer was on the wane, and at the universities Hegelianism had

lost its former hold. The sponsor of the new philosophic movement was

Kant, the master of 18th-century "enlightenment," and under the

influence of the "neo-Kantian" movement, not merely German school

philosophy, but theology also, was imbued with a healthier spirit. L.

von Ranke (1795-1886) was still the dominant force in German historical

science, and between 1881 and 1888 nine volumes appeared of his last

great work, _Weltgeschichte_. Other historians of the period were H. von

Sybel (1817-1895) and H. von Treitschke (1834-1896), the latter a

vigorous and inspiring spokesman of the new political conditions; while

J. Burckhardt (1818-1897), author of the masterly _Kultur der

Renaissance in Italien_ (1860) and the friend of Nietzsche, exerted an

influence on German thought which was not confined to academic circles.

Literary criticism perhaps benefited most of all by the dethronement of

Hegel and the more objective attitude towards Schopenhauer; it seemed as

if in this epoch the Germans first formed definite ideas--and ideas

which were acceptable and accepted outside Germany--as to the rank and

merits of their great poets. A marked change came over the nation's

attitude towards Goethe, a poet to whom, as we have seen, neither the

era of Hegel nor that of Schopenhauer had been favourable; Schiller was

regarded with less national prejudice, and--most important of

all--amends were made by the new generation for the earlier neglect of

Kleist, Grillparzer, Hebbel and Keller.

The thinker and poet who most completely embodies the spirit of this

period--who dealt the Hegelian metaphysics its death-blow as far as its

wider influence was concerned--was Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900).

Nietzsche had begun as a disciple of Schopenhauer and a friend of

Wagner, and he ultimately became the champion of an individualistic and

optimistic philosophy which formed the sharpest possible contrast to

mid-century pessimism. The individual, not the race, the _Herrenmensch_,

not the slave, self-assertion, not self-denying renunciation--these are

some of the ideas round which this new optimistic ethics turns.

Nietzsche looked forward to the human race emerging from an effete

culture, burdened and clogged by tradition, and re-establishing itself

on a basis that is in harmony with man's primitive instincts. Like

Schopenhauer before him, Nietzsche was a stylist of the first rank, and

his literary masterpiece, _Also sprach Zarathustra_ (1883-1891), is to

be regarded as the most important imaginative work of its epoch.

Nietzschean individualism was only one of many factors which contributed

to the new literary development. The realistic movement, as it had

manifested itself in France under Flaubert, the Goncourts, Zola and

Maupassant, in Russia under Dostoievsky and Tolstoi, and in Norway under

Ibsen and Bjornson, was, for a time, the dominant force in Germany, and

the younger generation of critics hailed it with undisguised

satisfaction; most characteristic and significant of all, the centre of

this revival was Berlin, which, since it had become the imperial

capital, was rapidly establishing its claim to be also the literary

metropolis. It was the best testimony to the vitality of the movement

that it rarely descended to slavish imitation of the realistic

masterpieces of other literatures; realism in Germany was, in fact, only

an episode of the 'eighties, a stimulating influence rather than an

accepted principle or dogma. And its suggestive character is to be seen

not merely in the writings of the young _Sturmer und Dranger_ of this

time, but also in those of the older generation who, in temperament,

were naturally more inclined to the ideals of a past age.

Of the novelists of the latter class, A. Wilbrandt, who has already been

mentioned as a dramatist, has shown, since about 1890, a remarkable

power of adapting himself, if not to the style and artistic methods of

the younger school, at least to the ideas by which it was agitated; F.

Spielhagen's attitude towards the realistic movement has been invariably

sympathetic, while a still older writer, Theodor Fontane (1819-1898),

wrote between 1880 and 1898 a series of works in which the finer

elements of French realism were grafted on the German novel. To the

older school belong Wilhelm Jensen (b. 1837), and that fine humorist,

Wilhelm Raabe (b. 1831), with whom may be associated as other humorists

of this period, H. Seidel (1842-1906) and W. Busch (1832-1908). Some of

the most interesting examples of recent German fiction come, however,

from Austria and Switzerland. The two most eminent Austrian authors,

Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach (b. 1830), and Ferdinand, von Saar

(1833-1906), both excel as writers of Novellen or short stories--the

latter especially being an exponent of that pessimism which is Austria's

peculiar heritage from the previous generation of her poets. Austrians

too, are Peter Rosegger (b. 1843), who has won popularity with his

novels of peasant life, K.E. Franzos (1848-1904) and L. von

Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895). German prose fiction is, in Switzerland,

represented by two writers of the first rank: one of these, Gottfried

Keller, has already been mentioned; the other, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer

(1825-1898), turned to literature or, at least, made his reputation,

comparatively late in life. Although, like Keller, a writer of virile,

original verse, Meyer is best known as a novelist; he, too, was a master

of the short story. His themes are drawn by preference from the epoch of

the Renaissance, and his method is characterized by an objectivity of

standpoint and a purity of style exceptional in German writers.

The realistic novels of the period were written by H. Conradi

(1862-1890), Max Kretzer (b. 1854), M.G. Conrad (b. 1846), H. Heiberg

(b. 1840), K. Bleibtreu (b. 1859), K. Alberti (pseudonym for Konrad

Sittenfeld, b. 1862) and Hermann Sudermann (b. 1857). A want of

stability was, however, as has been already indicated, characteristic

of the realistic movement in Germany; the idealistic trend of the German

mind proved itself ill-adapted to the uncompromising realism of the

French school, and the German realists, whether in fiction or in drama,

ultimately sought to escape from the logical consequences of their

theories. Even Sudermann, whose _Frau Sorge_ (1887), _Der Katzensteg_

(1889), and the brilliant, if somewhat sensational romance, _Es war_

(1894), are among the best novels of this period, has never been a

consistent realist. It is consequently not surprising to find that,

before long, German fiction returned to psychological and emotional

problems, to the poetical or symbolical presentation of life, which was

more in harmony with the German temperament than was the robuster

realism of Flaubert or Zola. This trend is noticeable in the work of

Gustav Frenssen (b. 1863), whose novel _Jorn Uhl_ (1901) was

extraordinarily popular; it is also to be seen in the studies of child

life and educational problems which have proved so attractive to the

younger writers of the present day, such as Hermann Hesse (b. 1877),

Emil Strauss (b. 1866), Rudolf Huch (b. 1862) and Friedrich Huch (b.

1873). One might say, indeed, that at the beginning of the 20th century

the traditional form of German fiction, the _Bildungsroman_, had come

into its ancient rights again. Mention ought also to be made of J.J.

David (1859-1907), E. von Keyserling (b. 1858), W. Hegeler (b. 1870), G.

von Ompteda (b. 1863), J. Wassermann (b. 1873), Heinrich Mann (b. 1871)

and Thomas Mann (b. 1875). _Buddenbrooks_ (1902) by the last mentioned

is one of the outstanding novels of the period. Some of the best fiction

of the most recent period is the work of women, the most distinguished

being Helene Bohlau (b. 1859), Gabriele Reuter (b. 1859), Clara Viebig

(C. Cohn-Viebig, b. 1860) and Ricarda Huch (b. 1864). Whether the latest

movement in German poetry and fiction, which, under the catchword

_Heimatkunst_, has favoured the province rather than the city, the

dialect in preference to the language of the educated classes, will

prove a permanent gain, it is still too soon to say, but the movement is

at least a protest against the decadent tendencies of naturalism.

At no period of German letters were literature and the theatre in closer

touch than at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th

centuries; more than at any previous time has the theatre become the

arena in which the literary battles of the day are fought out. The

general improvement in the artistic, technical and economic conditions

of the German stage have already been indicated; but it was not until

1889 that the effects of these improvements became apparent in dramatic

literature. Before that date, it is true, Ernst von Wildenbruch

(1845-1909) had attempted to revive the historical tragedy, but the

purely literary qualities of his work were handicapped by a too effusive

patriotism and a Schillerian pathos; nor did the talent of Richard Voss

(b. 1851) prove strong enough to effect any lasting reform. In October

1889, however, Gerhart Hauptmann's play, _Vor Sonnenaufgang_, was

produced on the then recently founded _Freie Buhne_ in Berlin; and a

month later, _Die Ehre_ by Hermann Sudermann met with a more

enthusiastic reception in Berlin than had fallen to the lot of any

German play for more than a generation.

Hauptmann (b. 1862), the most original of contemporary German writers,

stands, more or less, alone. His early plays, the most powerful of which

is _Die Weber_ (1892), were written under the influence either of an

uncompromising realism, or of that modified form of realism introduced

from Scandinavia; but in _Hanneles Himmelfahrt_ (1893) he combined

realism with the poetic mysticism of a child's dream, in _Florian Geyer_

(1895) he adapted the methods of realism to an historical subject, and

in the year 1896 he, to all appearance, abandoned realism to write an

allegorical dramatic poem, _Die versunkene Glocke_. Hauptmann's

subsequent work has oscillated between the extremes marked out by these

works--from the frank naturalism of _Fuhrmann Henschel_ (1898) and _Rose

Berndt_ (1903), to the fantastic mysticism of _Der arme Heinrich_ (1902)

and _Und Pippa tanzt!_ (1906).

The dramatic talent of Hermann Sudermann has developed on more even

lines; the success of _Die Ehre_ was due in the first instance to the

ability which Sudermann had shown in adapting the ideas of his time and

the new methods of dramatic presentation to the traditional German

_burgerliches Drama_. This is the characteristic of the majority of the

many plays which followed of which _Heimat_ (1893), _Das Gluck im

Winkel_ (1896) and _Es lebe das Leben!_ (1902) may be mentioned as

typical. With less success Sudermann attempted in _Johannes_ (1898) a

tragedy on lines suggested by Hebbel. A keen observer, a writer of

brilliant and suggestive ideas, Sudermann is, above all, the practical

playwright; but it is unfortunate that the theatrical element in his

work too often overshadows its literary qualities.

Since 1889, the drama has occupied the foreground of interest in

Germany. The permanent repertory of the German theatre has not, it is

true, been much enriched, but it is at least to the credit of

contemporary German playwrights that they are unwilling to rest content

with their successes and are constantly experimenting with new forms.

Besides Hauptmann and Sudermann, the most talented dramatists of the day

are Max Halbe (b. 1865), O.E. Hartleben (1864-1905), G. Hirschfeld (b.

1873), E. Rosmer (pseudonym for Elsa Bernstein, b. 1866), Ludwig Fulda

(b. 1862), Max Dreyer (b. 1862), Otto Ernst (pseudonym for O.E. Schmidt,

b. 1862) and Frank Wedekind (b. 1864). In Austria, notwithstanding the

preponderant influence of Berlin, the drama has retained its national

characteristics, and writers like Arthur Schnitzler (b. 1862), Hermann

Bahr (b. 1863), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874) and R. Beer-Hofmann (b.

1866) have introduced symbolistic elements and peculiarly Austrian

problems, which are foreign to the theatre of north Germany.

The German lyric of recent years shows a remarkable variety of new tones

and pregnant poetic ideas; it has, as is natural, been more influenced

by the optimism of Nietzsche--himself a lyric poet of considerable

gifts--than has either novel or drama. Detlev von Liliencron (1844-1909)

was one of the first to break with the traditions of the lyric as handed

down from the Romantic epoch and cultivated with such facility by the

Munich poets. An anthology of specifically modern lyrics, _Moderne

Dichtercharaktere_ (1885) by W. Arent (b. 1864), may be regarded as the

manifesto of the movement in lyric poetry corresponding to the period of

realism in fiction and the drama. Representative poets of this movement

are Richard Dehmel (b. 1863), K. Henckell (b. 1864), J.H. Mackay (b.

1864 at Greenock), G. Falke (b. 1853), F. Avenarius (b. 1856), F. Evers

(b. 1871), F. Dormann (b. 1870) and K. Busse (b. 1872). A later

development of the lyric--a return to mysticism and symbolism--is to be

seen in the poetry of Hofmannsthal, already mentioned as a dramatist,

and especially in Stefan George (b. 1868). Epic poetry, although little

in harmony with the spirit of a realistic age, has not been altogether

neglected. Heinrich Hart (1855-1906), one of the leading critics of the

most advanced school, is also the author of an ambitious _Lied der

Menschheit_ (vols. 1-3, 1888-1896); more conservative, on the other

hand, is _Robespierre_ (1894), an epic in the style of Hamerling by an

Austrian, Marie delle Grazie (b. 1864). Attention may also be drawn to

the popularity which, for a few years, the so-called _Uberbrettl_ or

cabaret enjoyed, a popularity which has left its mark on the latest

developments of the lyric. Associated with this movement are O.J.

Bierbaum (1865-1910), whose lyrics, collected in _Der Irrgarten der

Liebe_ (1901), have been extraordinarily popular, E. von Wolzogen (b.

1855) and the dramatist F. Wedekind, who has been already mentioned.

Whether or not the work that has been produced in such rich measure

since the year 1889--or however much of it--is to be regarded as a

permanent addition to the storehouse of German national literature,

there can be no question of the serious artistic earnestness of the

writers; the conditions for the production of literature in the German

empire in the early years of the 20th century were eminently healthy,

and herein lies the best promise for the future.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(a) _General Histories_, _Anthologies_, &c.: A.

Koberstein, _Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_

(1827; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 5 vols., 1872-1874; 6th ed., vol. i.,

1884); G.G. Gervinus, _Geschichte der poetischen Nationalliteratur

der Deutschen_ (5 vols., 1835-1842; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874);

A.F.C. Vilmar, _Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_ (1848;

25th ed., 2 vols., 1900, with a continuation by A. Stern); W.

Wackernagel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ (1851-1855; 2nd ed.

by E. Martin, 1879-1894); K. Goedeke, _Grundriss zur Geschichte der

deutschen Dichtung_ (3 vols., 1857-1881; 2nd ed. by E. Goetze and

others, in 9 vols., 1884 ff.); W. Menzel, _Deutsche Dichtung von der

altesten bis auf die neueste Zeit_ (1858-1859); H. Kurz, _Geschichte

der deutschen Literatur mit ausgewahlten Stucken_ (3 vols., 1857-1859;

7th ed., 4 vols., 1876-1882); O. Roquette, _Geschichte der deutschen

Dichtung_ (2 vols., 1862; 3rd ed., 1878-1879); W. Scherer, _Geschichte

der deutschen Literatur_ (1883; 10th ed., 1905). English translation

by Mrs F.C. Conybeare (2 vols., 1885; new ed., 1906); Kuno Francke,

_German Literature as determined by Social Forces_ (1896; 6th ed.,

1903); F. Vogt and M. Koch, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_

(1897; 2nd ed., 2 vols., 1903); J.G. Robertson, _History of German

Literature_ (1902); A. Bartels, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_

(2 vols., 1901-1902), with the accompanying bibliographical summary,

_Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_ (1906). There are

also histories of the literature of separate countries and districts,

such as J. Bachtold, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur in der

Schweiz_ (1887); R. Krauss, _Schwabische Literaturgeschichte_ (2

vols., 1897-1899); J.W. Nagl and J. Zeidler, _Deutsch-Osterreichische

Literaturgeschichte_ (2 vols., 1899 ff.). The most comprehensive

collection of German literature in selections is J. Kurschner,

_Deutsche Nationalliteratur_ (222 vols., 1882-1898). Of general

anthologies mention may be made of W. Wackernagel, _Deutsches

Lesebuch_ (4 vols., 1835-1872; new ed., 1882 ff.), and F. Max Muller,

_The German Classics from the Fourth to the Nineteenth Century_ (1858;

ed. by F. Lichtenstein, 2 vols., 1886; new ed., 1906). For

illustrations to the history of German literature, see G. Konnecke,

_Bilderatlas zur Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur_ (1887;

2nd ed., 1895).

(b) _Special Periods_: i. _Old High German and Middle High German

Periods_: R. Kogel and W. Bruckner, "Geschichte der althochdeutschen

Literatur," and F. Vogt, "Geschichte der mittelhochdeutschen

Literatur," in H. Paul's _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_ (2nd

ed., vol. ii. pt. i., 1901); F. Khull, _Geschichte der altdeutschen

Dichtung_ (1886); J. Kelle, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur_,

i.-ii. (1892-1896); R. Kogel, _Geschichte der deutschen Literatur bis

zum Ausgang des Mittelalters_, i. (1894-1897); W. Golther, _Geschichte

der deutschen Literatur von den ersten Anfangen bis zum Ausgang des

Mittelalters_ (in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, vol. 163,

pt. i., 1892); W. Scherer, _Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im 11.

und 12. Jahrhundert_, and by the same author, _Geistliche Poeten der

deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (both works in _Quellen und Forschungen_,

1874-1875); O. Lyon, _Minne- und Meistersang_ (1882). There are

numerous series of editions of medieval texts: K. Mullenhoff and W.

Scherer, _Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus den 8.-12.

Jahrhundert_ (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1892); M. Heyne, _Bibliothek der

altesten deutschen Literaturdenkmaler_ (14 vols., begun 1858); F.

Pfeiffer, _Deutsche Klassiker des Mittelalters_ (12 vols., begun

1865), with the supplementary _Deutsche Dichtungen des Mittelalters_,

edited by K. Bartsch (7 vols., 1872 ff.); K. Goedeke, _Deutsche

Dichtung im Mittelalter_ (2nd ed., 1871); J. Zacher, _Germanistische

Handbibliothek_ (9 vols., begun 1869); H. Paul, _Altdeutsche

Textbibliothek_ (16 vols., begun 1882); _Deutsche Texte des

Mittelalters_, ed. by the Berlin Academy (1904 ff.). Convenient

editions of the Minnesang are K. Lachmann and M. Haupt, _Des

Minnesangs Fruhling_ (4th ed. by F. Vogt, 1888), and K. Bartsch,

_Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrh._ (4th ed. by W.

Golther, 1903).

ii. _From 1350-1700._--L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in

Italien und Deutschland_ (1882; 2nd ed. 1899); K. Borinski,

_Geschichte der deutschen Literatur seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters_

(in Kurschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_, vol. 163, ii., 1898); H.

Palm, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 16. und 17.

Jahrhunderts_ (1877); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations

of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_ (1886); C. Lemcke,

_Von Opitz bis Klopstock_, i. (1871; 2nd ed. 1882); M. von Waldberg,

_Deutsche Renaissance-Lyrik_ (1888), and _Die galante Lyrik_ (1885);

F. Bobertag, _Geschichte des Romans in Deutschland_, i. (to 1700)

(1877-1884); K. Borinski, _Die Poetik der Renaissance und die Anfange

der literarischen Kritik in Deutschland_ (1886). A vast quantity of

the literature of these centuries has been republished by the

Stuttgarter literarischer Verein (founded in 1839), whose publications

now number considerably over two hundred volumes; further, W. Braune,

_Neudrucke deutscher Literaturwerke des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts_

(begun 1882); K. Goedeke and J. Tittmann, _Deutsche Dichter des 16.

Jahrhunderts_ (18 vols., 1867 ff.), and _Deutsche Dichter des 17.

Jahrhunderts_ (15 vols., 1869 ff.). A valuable anthology is K.

Goedeke's _Elf Bucher deutscher Dichtung von Sebastian Brant bis auf

die Gegenwart_ (2 vols., 1849). Since 1890 the _Jahresberichte fur

neuere deutsche Literaturgeschichte_ have provided an exhaustive

survey of all publications dealing with modern German literature. A

useful practical bibliography for English readers, covering this and

the succeeding periods, is J.S. Nollen, _A Chronology and Practical

Bibliography of Modern German Literature_ (1903).

iii. _The Eighteenth Century._--J. Schmidt, _Geschichte der deutschen

Literatur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit_ (4 vols., 1862-1867; 2nd

ed. 1886-1890); J. Hillebrand, _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur im 18.

und 19. Jahrhundert_ (3 vols., 1845-1846; 3rd ed. 1875); H. Hettner,

_Geschichte der deutschen Literatur im 18. Jahrhundert_ (4 vols.,

1862-1870; 4th ed. by O. Harnack, 1893-1895); J.W. Schafer,

_Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1855-1860;

2nd ed. by F. Muncker, 1881); J.K. Morikofer, _Die schweizerische

Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1861); J.W. Lobell, _Entwickelung der

deutschen Poesie von Klopstock bis zu Goethes Tod_ (3 vols.,

1856-1865). There are also innumerable more special treatises, such as

A. Eloesser, _Das burgerliche Drama_ (1898); O. Brahm, _Das deutsche

Ritterdrama des 18. Jahrhunderts_ (1880), &c. Of collections of the

literature of this and the following century, reference need only be

made to the _Bibliothek der deutschen Nationalliteratur des 18. und

19. Jahrhunderts_, published by Brockhaus (44 vols., 1868-1891), and

_Deutsche Literaturdenkmale des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts_, edited

first by B. Seuffert (1882-1894), and subsequently by A. Sauer.

iv. _The Nineteenth Century._--Th. Ziegler, _Die geistigen und

sozialen Stromungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_ (1899; 2nd ed.

1901); R. von Gottschall, _Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19.

Jahrhunderts_ (1854; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1900-1902); R.M. Meyer, _Die

deutsche Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (1899; 4th ed. 1910); R.M.

Meyer, _Grundriss der neueren deutschen Literaturgeschichte_ (1902);

C. Busse, _Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im neunzehnten

Jahrhundert_ (1901); R. Haym, _Die romantische Schule_ (1870; 2nd ed.

1906); G. Brandes, "Den romantiske Skole i Tyskland" (1873), and "Det

unge Tyskland" (1890), in _Hovedstromninger i det 19de Aarhundredes

Litteratur_, vols. ii. and vi. (German translations, 1887 and 1891;

several subsequent editions, Danish and German; English translations,

ii. 1903, and vi. 1905); R. Huch, _Die Blutezeit der Romantik (2nd ed.

1901), and Ausbreitung und Verfall der Romantik_ (1902); F. Wehl, _Das

junge Deutschland_ (1886); J. Proelss, _Das junge Deutschland_ (1892);

A. Bartels, _Die deutsche Dichtung der Gegenwart_ (7th ed., 1907); A.

von Hanstein, _Das jungste Deutschland_ (2nd ed., 1901); J.F. Coar,

_Studies in German Literature in the Nineteenth Century_ (1903); Ch.

Petzet, _Die Blutezeit der deutschen politischen Lyrik_ (1903); H.

Mielke, _Der deutsche Roman des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (4th ed., 1900); S.

Friedmann, _Das deutsche Drama des 19. Jahrhunderts_ (2 vols.,

1900-1903); B. Litzmann, _Das deutsche Drama in den literarischen

Bewegungen der Gegenwart_ (4th ed., 1898). (J. G. R.)

GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT. The dramatic and musical entertainment which

for many years was known in London by the title of "German Reed" was a

form of theatrical enterprise deserving of commemoration in connexion

with those who made it successful. Mr THOMAS GERMAN REED (born in

Bristol in 1817, died 1888) married in 1844 Miss PRISCILLA HORTON

(1818-1895), and in 1855 they started their entertainment at the

"Gallery of Illustration," in Waterloo Place, London. From 1860 to 1877

they were assisted by JOHN ORLANDO PARRY (1810-1879), an accomplished

pianoforte player, mimic, parodist and humorous singer; and the latter

created a new type of musical and dramatic monologue which became very

popular. His tradition was carried on after 1870 by MR CORNEY GRAIN

(1844-1895), who, as a clever, refined, and yet highly humorous society

entertainer (originally a barrister), was one of the best-known figures

of his day. After the retirement of the elder German Reeds, their son,

ALFRED GERMAN REED (1846-1895), himself a capital actor, carried on the

business in partnership with Corney Grain. The "German Reed

Entertainment"--which was always patronized by a large class of people,

many of whom objected on principle to going or taking their children to

a regular theatre or a music-hall--retained its vogue for forty years at

Waterloo Place and at the St George's Hall, Regent Street. But the death

of Mr Corney Grain almost simultaneously with Mr Alfred German Reed, in

1895, together with the changed public attitude towards the regular

theatre, ended its career.

GERMAN SILVER or NICKEL SILVER, an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc,

prepared either by melting the copper and nickel together in a crucible,

and adding piece by piece the previously heated zinc, or by heating the

finely divided metals under a layer of charcoal. To destroy its

crystalline structure and so render it fit for working, it is heated to

dull redness, and then allowed to cool. German silver is harder than

silver; it resembles that metal in colour, but is of a greyer tinge.

Exposed to the air it tarnishes slightly yellow, and with vinegar

affords a crust of verdigris. At a bright red heat it melts, losing its

zinc by oxidation unless protected from the atmosphere. At a heat above

dull redness it becomes exceedingly brittle. German silver in various

modifications of composition is much used in the arts. Alloys, of which

about 50% is copper and the residue zinc and nickel in about equal

proportions take a fine polish, and are used as imitation silver for

knives and forks. With a somewhat higher proportion of copper an alloy

is formed suitable for rolling and for wire. In Chinese _white silver_

or _packfong_ (paktong) the amount of copper is smaller, about 40%, with

about 32% of nickel, 25 of zinc, and 2 or 3 of iron. German silver for

casting contains 2 or 3% of lead, which like iron increases the

whiteness of the alloy. German silver, having a high specific resistance

and a low temperature coefficient, has been used for electrical

resistance coils, and these qualities are possessed in a still greater

degree in _manganin_, which contains manganese in place of zinc, its

composition being 84% of copper, 12 of manganese and 4 of nickel. The

addition of a trace of tungsten to German silver, as in _platinoid_,

also largely increases the resistance.

GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA. This German possession is bounded W. by the

Atlantic, N. by Angola, S. by the Cape province, E. by Bechuanaland and

Rhodesia, and is the only German dependency in Africa suited to white

colonization. It has an area of about 322,450 sq. m., and a population

of Bantu Negroes and Hottentots estimated in 1903 at 200,000.[1] The

European inhabitants, in addition to the military, numbered 7110 in

1907, of whom the majority were German.

_Area and Boundaries._--The boundary separating the German

protectorate from the Portuguese possessions of Angola is the lower

Kunene, from its mouth in 17 deg. 18' S., 11 deg. 40' E. to the limit

of navigability from the sea, thence in a direct line, corresponding

roughly to the lat. of 17 deg. 20' S., to the river Okavango, which it

follows eastwards until the stream turns abruptly south (towards Lake

Ngami). From this point a strip of German territory 300 m. long and

about 50 m. broad, projects eastward until it reaches the Zambezi a

little above the Victoria Falls. On the south this narrow strip of

land (known as the Caprivi enclave) is separated from southern

Rhodesia by the Kwando or Chobe river. On the east the frontier

between British and German territory is in its northern half the 21st

degree of E. longitude, in its southern half the 20th degree. This

frontier is drawn through desert country. The southern frontier is the

Orange river from its mouth to the 20 deg. E. The coast-line between

the Kunene and Orange rivers is not wholly German. Just north of the

tropic of Capricorn is the British enclave of Walfish Bay (q.v.). The

northern part of the protectorate is known as Ovampoland, the central

portion as Damara (or Herero) land; the southern regions as Great

Namaqualand. These names are derived from those of the dominant native

races inhabiting the country.

_Physical Features._--The coast-line is generally low and little

broken by bays or promontories. In its entire length of about 800 m.

it has no good natural harbour, and its bays--Angra Pequena, otherwise

Luderitz Bay, Sierra Bay, Sandwich Harbour--are in danger of being

filled with sand by the strong, cold, northerly coast current.

Swakopmund is an artificial harbour at the mouth of the river Swakop.

The small islands which stud the coast north and south of Angra

Pequena belong to Great Britain. The coast-line is bordered by a belt

of sand-dunes and desert, which, about 35 m. wide in the south,

narrows towards the north. This coast belt is flanked by a mountain

range, which attains its highest elevation in Mount Omatako (8972

ft.), in about 21 deg. 15' S., 16 deg. 40' E. N. E. of Omatako is the

Omboroko range, otherwise known as the Waterberg. South of Omboroko,

occupying the centre of the country, the range attains its highest

average altitude. The following massifs with their highest points may

be distinguished: Gans (7664 ft.), Nu-uibeb (7480 ft.), Onyati (7201

ft.), Awas (6988 ft.), Komas (5331 ft.) and Ganab (4002 ft.). In the

S.E. are the Karas mountains, which attain an elevation of 6570 ft.

The mountains for the main part form the escarpment of the great

Kalahari plateau, which, gently rising from the interior towards the

west, slopes again towards the south and north from the point of its

highest elevation. The Kalahari plateau changes the undulating

character it has in the west to a perfect plain in the far east, where

the watered and habitable country merges into the sterile Kalahari

desert. In the northern half of the country the central plateau

contains much rich grass-land, while in the north-eastern region the

Omaheke desert has all the characteristics of the Kalahari.

There are no rivers of importance wholly within German South-West

Africa. The Kunene (q.v.) has but a small portion of the southern bank

in the colony, and similarly only part of the northern bank of the

Orange river (q.v.) is in German territory. Several streams run south

into the Orange; of those the chief is the Great Fish river, which has

a course of nearly 500 m. Both the Kunene and the Orange carry water

all the year round, but are not navigable. Neither is the Great Fish

river, which, however, is rarely dry. The Okavango, which comes from

the north and runs towards Ngami (q.v.), is perennial, but like the

Kunene and Orange, belongs only partly to the hydrographic system of

the country. From the inner slopes of the coast chain many streams go

N.E. to join the Okavango. They cross the Omaheke waste and are

usually dry. Ovampoland has a hydrographic system connected with the

Kunene, and, in seasons of great flood, with that of Ngami. Before the

Kunene breaks through the outer edge of the plateau, it sends

divergent channels south-east to a large marsh or lake called Etosha,

which is cut by 17 deg. E. and 19 deg. S. Of these channels the

Kwamatuo or Okipoko, which is perennial, enters Etosha at its N.W.

corner. The lake when full extends about 80 m. W. to E. and 50 m. N.

to S. From its S.E. corner issues the Omuramba, which divides into two

branches, known respectively as the Omaheke and the Ovampo. These

streams have an easterly direction, their beds, often dry, joining the

Okavango. The other rivers of the protectorate have as a rule plenty

of water in their upper courses in the rainy season, though some river

beds are dry for years together. After a heavy thunderstorm such a

river bed will be suddenly filled with a turbid current half a mile

wide. The water is, however, before long absorbed by the thirsty land.

Only in exceptionally rainy years do the streams which cross the sand

belt carry water to the ocean. But in the sand which fills the river

beds water may be obtained by digging. Of rivers running direct to the

Atlantic the Little Fish river enters the sea at Angra Pequena and the

Kuisip in Walfish Bay. The Swakop rises in the hills near the

Waterberg, and north of it is the Omaruru, which carries water for the

greater part of the year. Hot springs are numerous, and it is

remarkable that those of Windhoek flow more copiously during the dry

than the rainy season. There are also many cold springs, and wells

which contain water all the year.

_Geology._--Gneiss and schist, with intrusive granites and porphyries,

overlain to a great extent by sand and lateritic deposits, occupy the

coast belt, coast mountains and the plateau of Damaraland. In the Huib

and Han-ami plateaus of Great Namaqualand the crystalline rocks are

overlain by sandstones, slates, quartzites and jasper rocks, and these

in turn by dolomites. They are probably equivalent to the Transvaal

and Pretoria series (see TRANSVAAL: _Geology_). The next oldest rocks

are of recent geological date. The Kalahari Kalk, which extends over

large areas to the south-east of Ovampoland, may be of Miocene age,

but it has not yielded fossils. Extensive tracts of alluvium occur in

the basin of the Ovampo, while the dunes and sand-tracts of the

Kalahari occupy the eastern regions.

_Climate._--On the coast the mean temperature is low, and there is

little rainfall. Moisture is supplied by dense fogs, which rise almost

daily. South-west winds prevail. Inland the climate is temperate

rather than tropical, with bracing, clear atmosphere. There are

considerable differences of temperature between day and night, and two

well-marked seasons, one cold and dry from May to September, the other

hot and rainy from October to April. In winter ice frequently forms

during the night on open water on the plateau, but it never remains

all day. The yearly rainfall is about 20 in. in the Damara Hills;

there is more rain in the north than in the south, and in the east

than in the west. In the greater part of the colony the climate is

favourable for European settlement.

_Flora and Fauna._--The vegetation corresponds exactly with the

climate. In the dry littoral region are plants able to exist with the

minimum of moisture they derive from the daily fog--_Amarantaceae_,

_Sarcocaula_, _Aloe dichotoma_, _Aristida subacaulis_ and the

wonderful _Welwitschia_. Farther inland are plants which spring up and

disappear with the rain, and others whose roots reach permanent water.

The former are chiefly grasses, the latter exist almost solely in or

near river-beds. Amongst the fine trees often seen here, the ana tree

(_Acacia albida_) is the most noteworthy, its seeds being favourite

fodder for all domestic animals. _Acacia giraffae_, _Ac. horrida_,

_Adansonia sterculia_, near the Kunene the _Hyphaene ventricosa_,

deserve special notice. The vegetation in the mountain valleys is

luxuriant, and towards the north is of a tropical character. The palm

zone extends a considerable distance south of the Kunene, and here

vegetation spreads over the sand-dunes of the coast plain, which are

covered with grasses.

Large game, formerly abundant, especially pachyderms, is scarce. Of

antelopes the following species are plentiful in parts: springbok,

steenbok, kudu, rietbok, pallah; of monkeys, the _Cynocephalus

porcarius_ is frequent. Various kinds of hyenas and jackals with fine

fur (_Canis mesomelas_), also _Felis caracal_, abound. The spring-hare

(_Pedestea caffer_) and rock-rabbit (_Hyrax capensis_) may often be

observed. Of birds there are 728 species. Crocodiles, turtles and

snakes are numerous.

_Inhabitants._--Among the natives of German South-West Africa three

classes may be distinguished. In the first class are the Namaqua

(Hottentots) and Bushmen. The Namaqua probably came from the south,

while the Bushmen may be looked upon as an indigenous race. The

Hottentots, the purest existing types of that race, are divided into

numerous tribes, independent of one another, such as the Witbois,

Swartzbois, Bondelzwarts. The Bushmen are found scattered over the

eastern parts of the country (see HOTTENTOTS and BUSHMEN). The second

class consists of the mountain Damara (Hau-Khoin), a race of doubtful

affinities, probably of Bantu-Negro origin, but speaking the Hottentot

language. The third class belongs to the Bantu-Negro stock, and came

from the north-east, expelling and enslaving the mountain Damara, and

settling in various parts of the country under different names. The most

prominent are the Herero, thorough nomads and cattle-breeders; while the

Ovampo (Ovambo or Ambo), in the northern part of the protectorate, are

agriculturists. The Herero (q.v.) are also known by the Hottentot name

Damara, and by this name their country is generally called. The

Bastaards, who live in Namaqualand, are a small tribe originating from a

mingling of Cape Boers with Hottentots. They are Christians, and able to

read and write. The other natives are spirit-worshippers, save for the

comparatively few converts of the Protestant missions established in the

country. Of white races represented the chief are Germans and Boers. In

the S.E. Boer settlers form the bulk of the white population. There are

also numbers of British colonists in this region--emigrants from the

Cape. The immigration of Germans is encouraged by subsidies and in other

ways.

_Towns._--The chief port is Swakopmund, built on the northern bank of

the Swakop river (the southern bank belonging to the British territory

of Walfish Bay). The harbour is partially protected by a breakwater.

There are also settlements at Luderitz Bay (white pop. 1909, over

1000) and at Sandwich Harbour. Swakopmund is connected by a narrow

gauge railway with Windhoek, the administrative capital of the colony,

situated in a hilly district 180 m. due east of the port, but 237 m.

by the railway. Karibib is the only place of consequence on the line.

Otyimbingue is a government station 70 m. W.N.W. of Windhoek, and

Tsumeb a mining centre 240 m. N.N.E. of the same place. Olukonda is a

government post in Ovampoland. In the S.E. corner of the colony, 30 m.

N. of the Orange river, is the town of Warmbad. Keetmanshoop, 100 m.

N. of Warmbad and 180 m. E. of Luderitz Bay, is the centre of a small

mining industry. Gibeon is a government station and missionary

settlement about midway between Keetmanshoop and Windhoek. Besides

these places there are numbers of small native towns at which live a

few white traders and missionaries. The missionaries have given

Biblical names to several of their stations, such as Bethany and

Beersheba in Namaqualand, and Rehoboth in Damaraland. In the Caprivi

enclave are a German residency and the site of the town of Linyante,

once the capital of the Makololo dynasty of Barotseland (see BAROTSE).

_Industries._--Agriculture is followed by the natives in the northern

districts, but the chief industry is stock-raising. The scarcity of

water in the southern parts is not favourable for agricultural

pursuits, while the good grazing lands offer splendid pasturage for

cattle, which the Herero raise in numbers amounting to many hundred

thousands. Sheep and goats thrive well. Horses have been imported from

the Cape. Unfortunately the climate does not suit them everywhere, and

they are subject to a virulent distemper. Cattle and sheep also suffer

from the diseases which are common in the Cape Colony. Camels have

been imported, and are doing well. Wheat, maize and sorghum are the

chief crops raised, though not enough is grown to meet even local

requirements. Near the coast the natives collect the kernels of the

nara, a wild-growing pumpkin which, in the words of an early

traveller, C.J. Andersson, "are eaten by oxen, mice, men, ostriches

and lions." About half the European settlers are engaged in

agriculture. They raise maize, wheat, tobacco, fruit and vegetables.

Cotton cultivation and viticulture are carried on in some districts.

Minerals, especially copper, are plentiful in the country. The chief

copper deposits are at Tsumeb, which is 4230 ft. above the sea, in the

Otavi district. Diamonds are found on and near the surface of the soil

in the Luderitz Bay district, and diamonds have also been found in the

neighbourhood of Gibeon. A little pottery is made, and the Hottentot

women are clever in making fur cloths. In the north the Ovampo do a

little smith-work and grass-plaiting. The external trade of the

country was of slow growth. The exports, previous to the opening up of

the Otavi mines, consisted chiefly of live stock--sent mainly to Cape

Colony--guano, ivory, horns, hides and ostrich feathers. The chief

imports are food stuffs, textiles and metals, and hardware. In 1903

the value of the exports was L168,560, that of the imports L388,210.

The war which followed (see below, _History_) led to a great shrinking

of exports, rendering the figures for the period 1904-1907 useless for

purposes of comparison. About 85% of the imports are from Germany.

_Communications._--The economic development of the country is largely

dependent on transport facilities. The railway from Swakopmund to

Windhoek, mentioned above, was begun in 1897, and was opened for

traffic in July 1902. It cost nearly L700,000 to build. Another narrow

gauge railway, to serve the Otavi copper mines, was begun in 1904 and

completed in 1908. It starts from Swakopmund and is 400 m. long, the

terminus being at Grootfontein, 40 m. S.E. of Tsumeb. The highest

point on this line is 5213 ft. above the sea. In 1906-1908 a railway,

180 m. long, was built from Luderitz Bay to Keetmanshoop. This line is

of the standard South African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), that gauge being

adopted in view of the eventual linking up of the line with the

British railway systems at Kimberley. A branch from Seeheim on the

Keetmanshoop line runs S.E. to Kalkfontein.

Besides railways, roads have been made between the chief centres of

population. Along these, in the desert districts, wells have been dug.

Across the Awas Mountains, separating Windhoek from the central

plateau, a wide road has been cut. In 1903 the colony was placed in

telegraphic communication with Europe and Cape Colony by the laying of

submarine cables having their terminus at Swakopmund. There is a

fairly complete inland telegraphic service.

There is regular steamship communication between Hamburg and

Swakopmund, Walfish Bay and Luderitz Bay. Regular communication is

also maintained between Cape Town and the ports of the colony.

_Administration._--At the head of the administration is an imperial

governor, responsible to the colonial office in Berlin, who is

assisted by a council consisting of chiefs of departments. The country

is divided into various administrative districts. In each of these

there is a _Bezirksamtmann_, with his staff of officials and police

force. In each district is a law court, to whose jurisdiction not

alone the whites, but also the Bastaards are subject. As in all German

colonies, there is a court of appeal at the residence of the governor.

The government maintains schools at the chief towns, but education is

principally in the hands of missionaries. The armed force consists of

regular troops from Germany and a militia formed of Bastaards. The

local revenue for some years before 1903 was about L130,000 per annum,

the expenditure about L400,000, the difference between local receipts

and expenditure being made good by imperial subsidies. In 1908 local

revenue had risen to L250,000, but the imperial authorities incurred

an expenditure of over L2,000,000, largely for military purposes. On

articles of export, such as feathers and hides, 5% _ad valorem_ duty

has to be paid; on cattle and horses an export tax per head. There is

a 10% _ad valorem_ duty on all imports, no difference being made

between German and foreign goods. The sale of spirituous liquors is

subject to a licence.

_History._--The coast of south-west Africa was discovered by Bartholomew

Diaz in 1487, whilst endeavouring to find his way to the Indies. He

anchored in a bay which by reason of its smallness he named Angra

Pequena. Portugal, however, took no steps to acquire possession of this

inhospitable region, which remained almost unvisited by Europeans until

the early years of the 19th century. At this time the country was

devastated by a Hottentot chief known as Afrikander, who had fled

thither with a band of outlaws after murdering his master, a Boer farmer

by whom he had been ill-treated, in 1796. In 1805 some missionaries (of

German nationality) went into Namaqualand in the service of the London

Missionary Society, which society subsequently transferred its missions

in this region to the Rhenish mission, which had had agents in the

country since about 1840. The chief station of the missionaries was at a

Hottentot settlement renamed Bethany (1820), a place 125 m. E. by Angra

Pequena. The missionaries had the satisfaction of stopping Afrikander's

career of bloodshed. He became a convert, a great friend of the mission,

and took the name of Christian. The proximity of Great Namaqualand to

Cape Colony led to visits from British and Dutch farmers and hunters, a

few of whom settled in the country, which thus became in some sense a

dependency of the Cape.

In 1867 the islands along the coast north and south of Angra Pequena, on

which were valuable guano deposits, were annexed to Great Britain. At

this time a small trade between the natives and the outside world was

developed at Angra Pequena, the merchants engaged in it being British

and German. The political influence of the Cape spread meantime

northward to the land of the Herero (Damara). The Herero had been

subjugated by Jonker Afrikander, a son of Christian Afrikander, who

followed the early footsteps of his sire and had renounced Christianity,

but in 1865 they had recovered their independence. The Rhenish

missionaries appealed (1868) to the British government for protection,

and asked for the annexation of the country. This request, although

supported by the Prussian government, was refused. In 1876, however, a

special commissioner (W. Coates Palgrave) was sent by the Cape

government "to the tribes north of the Orange river." The commissioner

concluded treaties with the Namaqua and Damara which fixed the limits of

the territories of the two races and placed the whole country now

forming German South-West Africa within the sphere of British influence.

In the central part of Damaraland an area of some 35,000 sq. m. was

marked out as a British reservation. The instrument by which this

arrangement was made was known as the treaty of Okahandya. Neither it

nor the treaty relating to Great Namaqualand was ratified by the British

government, but at the request of Sir Bartle Frere, then high

commissioner for South Africa, Walfish Bay (the best harbour along the

coast) was in 1878 annexed to Great Britain.

German rule established.

In 1880 fighting between the Namaqua, who were led by Jan Afrikander,

son of Jonker and grandson of Christian Afrikander, and the Damara broke

out afresh, and was not ended until the establishment of European rule.

In 1883 F.A.E. Luderitz (1834-1886), a Bremen merchant, with the

approval of Prince Bismarck, established a trading station at Angra

Pequena. This step led to the annexation of the whole country to Germany

(see AFRICA, S 5) with the exception of Walfish Bay and the islands

actually British territory. On the establishment of German rule Jonker

Afrikander's old headquarters were made the seat of administration and

renamed Windhoek. The Hottentots, under a chieftain named Hendrik

Witboi, offered a determined opposition to the Germans, but after a

protracted war peace was concluded in 1894 and Hendrik became the ally

of the Germans. Thereafter, notwithstanding various local risings, the

country enjoyed a measure of prosperity, although, largely owing to

economic conditions, its development was very slow.

Herero war.

In October 1903 the Bondelzwarts, who occupy the district immediately

north of the Orange river, rose in revolt. This act was the beginning of

a struggle between the Germans and the natives which lasted over four

years, and cost Germany the lives of some 5000 soldiers and settlers,

and entailed an expenditure of L15,000,000. Abuses committed by white

traders, the brutal methods of certain officials and the occupation of

tribal lands were among the causes of the war, but impatience of white

rule was believed to be the chief reason for the revolt of the Herero,

the most formidable of the opponents of the Germans. The Herero had

accepted the German protectorate by treaty--without fully comprehending

that to which they had agreed. To crush the Bondelzwarts, an object

attained by January 1904, the governor, Colonel Theodor Leutwein, had

denuded Damaraland of troops, and advantage was taken of this fact by

the Herero to begin a long-planned and well-prepared revolt. On the 12th

of January 1904 most of the German farmers in Damaraland were attacked,

and settlers and their families murdered and the farms devastated.

Reinforcements were sent from Germany, and in June General von Trotha

arrived and took command of the troops. On the 11th of August von Trotha

attacked the Herero in their stronghold, the Waterberg, about 200 m. N.

of Windhoek, and inflicted upon them a severe defeat. The main body of

the enemy escaped, however, from the encircling columns of the Germans,

and thereafter the Herero, who were under the leadership of Samuel

Maherero, maintained a guerrilla warfare, rendering the whole

countryside unsafe. The Germans found pursuit almost hopeless, being

crippled by the lack of water and the absence of means of transport. To

add to their troubles a Herero bastard named Morenga, with a following

of Hottentots, had, in July, recommenced hostilities in the south. On

the 2nd of October 1904 von Trotha, exasperated at his want of success

in crushing the enemy, issued a proclamation in which he said: "Within

the German frontier every Herero with or without a rifle, with or

without cattle, will be shot. I will not take over any more women and

children. But I will either drive them back to your people or have them

fired on." In a later order von Trotha instructed his soldiers not to

fire into, but to fire over the heads of the women and children, and

Prince Bulow ordered the general to repeal the whole proclamation.

Whenever they had the chance, however, the Germans hunted down the

Herero, and thousands perished in the Omaheke desert, across which

numbers succeeded in passing to British territory near Ngami.

On the day following the issue of von Trotha's proclamation to the

Herero, i.e. on the 3rd of October 1904, Hendrik Witboi sent a formal

declaration of war to the Germans. Hendrik had helped to suppress the

Bondelzwarts rising, and had received a German decoration for his

services, and his hostility is said to have been kindled by the

supersession of Colonel Leutwein, for whom he entertained a great

admiration. The Witbois were joined by other Hottentot tribes, and their

first act was to murder some sixty German settlers in the Gibeon

district. Both British and Boer farmers were spared--the Hottentots in

this matter following the example of the Herero. In November,

considerable reinforcements having come from Germany, the Witbois were

attacked, and Hendrik's headquarters, Reitmont, captured. Another defeat

was inflicted on Hendrik in January 1905, but, lacking ammunition and

water, the Germans could not follow up their victory. As in Damaraland,

the warfare in Namaqualand now assumed a guerrilla character, and the

Germans found it almost impossible to meet their elusive enemy, while

small detachments were often surprised and sometimes annihilated. In May

1905 von Trotha tried the effect on the Hottentots of another of his

proclamations. He invited them to surrender, adding that in the contrary

event all rebels would be exterminated. A price was at the same time put

on the heads of Hendrik Witboi and other chiefs. This proclamation was

unheeded by the Hottentots, who were in fact continuing the war with

rifles and ammunition seized from the Germans, and replenishing their

stock with cattle taken from the same source. In the north, however,

Samuel Maherero had fled to British territory, and the resistance of the

Herero was beginning to collapse. Concentration camps were established

in which some thousands of Herero women and children were cared for.

Meanwhile, the administration of von Trotha, who had assumed the

governorship as well as the command of the troops, was severely

criticized by the civilian population, and the non-success of the

operations against the Hottentots provoked strong military criticism. In

August 1905 Colonel (afterwards General) Leutwein, who had returned to

Germany, formally resigned the governorship of the protectorate, and

Herr von Lindequist, late German consul-general at Cape Town, was

nominated as his successor. Von Trotha, who had publicly criticized

Prince Bulow's order to repeal the Herero proclamation, was superseded.

He had in the summer of 1905 instituted a series of "drives" against the

Witbois, with no particular results. Hendrik always evaded the columns

and frequently attacked them in the rear.

In November 1905 von Lindequist arrived at Windhoek. The new governor

issued a general amnesty to the Herero, and set aside two large reserves

for those who surrendered. His conciliatory policy was in the end

successful, and the Ovampo, who threatened to give trouble, were kept in

hand. The task of pacifying Damaraland was continued throughout 1906,

and by the close of that year about 16,000 Herero had been established

in the reserves. Some 3000 had sought refuge in British territory, while

the number who had perished may be estimated at between 20,000 and

30,000.

The Hottentots subdued.

In Namaqualand von Lindequist found an enemy still unbroken. On the 3rd

of November, however, Hendrik Witboi died, aged seventy-five, and his

son and successor Samuel Isaac Witboi shortly afterwards surrendered,

and the hostility of the tribe ceased. Morenga now became the chief of

the rebel Hottentots, and "drives" against him were organized. Early in

May 1906 an encounter between Morenga and a German column was fought

close to the British frontier of the Bechuanaland protectorate. Morenga

fled, was pursued across the frontier, and wounded, but escaped. On the

16th of May he was found hiding by British patrols and interned. Other

Hottentot chiefs continued the conflict, greatly aided by the immense

difficulty the Germans had in transporting supplies; to remedy which

defect the building of a railway from Luderitz Bay to Kubub was begun

early in 1906. A camel transport corps was also organized, and Boer

auxiliaries engaged. Throughout the later half of 1906 the Hottentots

maintained the struggle, the Karas mountains forming a stronghold from

which their dislodgment was extremely difficult. Many of their leaders

and numbers of the tribesmen had a considerable strain of white (chiefly

Dutch) blood and were fairly educated men, with a knowledge not only of

native, but European ways; facts which helped to make them formidable

opponents. Gradually the resistance of the Hottentots was overcome, and

in December 1906 the Bondelzwarts again surrendered. Other tribes

continued the fight for months longer, but by March 1907 it was found

possible to reduce the troops in the protectorate to about 5000 men. At

the height of the campaign the Germans had 19,000 men in the field.

In August 1907 renewed alarm was created by the escape of Morenga from

British territory. The Cape government, regarding the chief as a

political refugee, had refused to extradite him and he had been assigned

a residence near Upington. This place he left early in August and,

eluding the frontier guards, re-entered German territory. In September,

however, he was again on the British side of the border. Meantime a

force of the Cape Mounted Police under Major F.A.H. Eliott had been

organized to effect his arrest. Summoned to surrender, Morenga fled into

the Kalahari Desert. Eliott's force of sixty men pursued him through a

waterless country, covering 80 m. in 24 hours. When overtaken (September

21st), Morenga, with ten followers, was holding a kopje and fired on the

advancing troops. After a sharp engagement the chief and five of his men

were killed, the British casualties being one killed and one wounded.

The death of Morenga removed a serious obstacle to the complete

pacification of the protectorate. Military operations continued,

however, during 1908. Herr von Lindequist, being recalled to Berlin to

become under-secretary in the colonial office, was succeeded as governor

(May 1907) by Herr von Schuckmann. In 1908 steps were taken to establish

German authority in the Caprivi enclave, which up to that time had been

neglected by the colonial authorities.

Discovery of diamonds.

The discovery of diamonds in the Luderitz Bay district in July 1908

caused a rush of treasure-seekers. The diamonds were found mostly on the

surface in a sandy soil and were of small size. The stones resemble

Brazilian diamonds. By the end of the year the total yield was over

39,000 carats. One of the difficulties encountered in developing the

field was the great scarcity of fresh water. During 1909 various

companies were formed to exploit the diamondiferous area. The first

considerable packet of diamonds from the colony reached Germany in April

1909. The output for the year was valued at over L1,000,000.

AUTHORITIES.--Karl Dove, _Deutsch-Sudwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1903); W.

Kulz, _Deutsch-Sudafrika_ ... (Berlin, 1909); T. Leutwein, _Elf Jahre

Gouverneur in Deutsch-Sudwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1908), an authoritative

work, largely historical; P. Rohrbach, _Deutsche Kolonialwirtschaft_,

Band 1: _Sudwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1907), a comprehensive economic

study; I. Irle, _Die Herero, ein Beitrag zur Landes-, Volks- und

Missionskunde_ (Gutersloh, 1906), a valuable summary of information

concerning Damaraland; Major K. Schwabe, _Im deutschen Diamantenlande_

(Berlin, 1909); T. Rehbock, _Deutsch-Sudwestafrika, seine

wirtschaftliche Erschliessung unter besonderer Berucksichtigung der

Nutzbarmachung des Wassers_ (Berlin, 1898); C. von Francois,

_Deutsch-Sudwestafrika: Geschichte der Kolonisation bis zum Ausbruch

des Krieges mit Witbooi_, April 1893 (Berlin, 1899), a history of the

protectorate up to 1893; H. Schintz, _Deutsch-Sudwestafrika,

Forschungsreisen durch die deutschen Schutzgebiete Gross-Nama und

Hereroland, nach dem Kunene, &c., 1884-1887_ (Oldenburg, N.D. [1891]);

H. von Francois, _Nama und Damara_ (Magdeburg, N.D. [1896]). See also

for Ethnology, "Die Eingeborenen Deutsch-Sudwestafrikas nach

Geschichte, Charakter, Sitten, Gebrauchen und Sprachen," in

_Mitteilungen des Seminars fur orientalische Sprachen_ (Berlin and

Stuttgart) for 1899 and 1900; and G.W. Stow, _The Native Races of

South Africa_ (London, 1905); ch. xvii. contains an account of the

Afrikander family. For geology consult A. Schenk, "Die geologische

Entwicklung Sudafrikas (mit Karte)," _Peterm. Mitt._ (1888); Stromer

von Reichenbach, _Die Geologie der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika_

(Munich and Leipzig, 1896). Of early books of travel the most valuable

are: F. Galton, _Tropical South Africa_ (1853; new ed. 1889); Charles

J. Andersson, _Lake Ngami_ (1856), _The Okavango River_ (1861) and

_Notes of Travel_ (1875). See also Sir J.E. Alexander, _An Expedition

of Discovery into the Interior of Africa_ (London, 1838). Reports on

the German colonies are published by the British foreign office. The

_Kriegskarte von Deutsch-Sudwestafrika_ (Berlin, 1904), in nine sheets

on a scale of 1 : 800,000, will be found useful. (F. R. C.)