their constitution and by-laws, including the names of its 103 members.
* * * * *
KANSAS.—I am pursuing the course alone, and feel that I need the stimulus
of outside aid and correspondence. Since my school days were over my
reading has been of too miscellaneous a character to result in the profit
it should have done. I am enjoying the Greek History and the Preparatory
Course very much. My husband has been brushing up his knowledge of the
Greek language, and comes to my assistance occasionally, so it is a
source of profit to him as well. Even my eleven-year-old boy has caught
the spirit, and begs me to mark all the battles for him to read, and is
learning the Greek alphabet. I am pleased with the name of our class—“The
Plymouth Rocks.” My ancestors were among those that landed on the bleak
old Rock, and I know something of the sturdy perseverance and uprightness
of their character. I can only hope that the “mantle” of those old
pilgrims will fall upon us as “Plymouth Rocks,” and that, like them, we
may grow strong in wisdom and goodness.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.
BY A. M. MARTIN,
General Secretary C. L. S. C.
I.—SEVENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “SHORT HISTORY OF THE
REFORMATION.”
1. Q. What is the Reformation? A. It is that great religious and
intellectual revolution which marks the boundary line between the Middle
Ages and the Modern Period.
2. Q. What was the first aim of the reformers, and which proved a total
failure? A. The purification of the church within itself, and by its own
servants.
3. Q. What was the next step, and one which succeeded? A. To withdraw
from the fold, and establish an independent confession, and a separate
ecclesiastical structure.
4. Q. Who planted the first seeds of Protestantism in France? A. The
Paris reformers.
5. Q. Who were three prominent Paris reformers? A. D’Ailly, Gerson, and
Clémanges.
6. Q. What was the most obvious cause of the failure of the Paris
theologians? A. They never withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church, or
took steps to establish a separate ecclesiastical organization.
7. Q. How did the Mystics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
arise? A. As a spiritual reaction against the supremacy of the scholastic
philosophy.
8. Q. What was the central scene and native country of the most notable
reformatory Mystics? A. Germany.
9. Q. What four names are prominent among the early Mystics of Germany?
A. Eckart, Ruysbroek, Suso, and Tauler.
10. Q. Who were the two most notable members of the school of St. Victor?
A. Hugo and Richard.
11. Q. What was the chief of important general movements, without
connection with prominent characters, in progress to hasten the approach
of reform? A. In the field of intellectual progress, was the revival of
literature, which took the name of Humanism.
12. Q. In this revival, what were the studies, as distinguished from the
theological themes which had long held sway in all the universities and
learned circles of Europe? A. They were purely human and literary.
13. Q. Who were three prominent champions of the new Humanism? A. John
Reuchlin, of Germany, Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and Thomas More, of England.
14. Q. What three councils were formal acknowledgments, on the part
of the Roman Catholic Church, of the evils within its pale, and the
necessity of relief from them? A. The councils of Pisa, Kostnitz, and
Basel.
15. Q. With what bitter controversy did the fourteenth century open? A. A
controversy between the church and the leading civil rulers. It was the
old question of authority—whether pope or king was the supreme head.
16. Q. Why was the Avignon papacy popularly called by the Romanists
“The Babylonian Captivity?” A. From the light in which it was held as
an ecclesiastical calamity, and from its continuance of nearly seventy
years—from 1309 to 1377.
17. Q. Although the three councils failed of their prime object, what
fact did they reveal to the world? A. The fact that no prospect for
reform could exist in any new council.
18. Q. What way was it now clear was the only one open for improvement?
A. The independence of the individual reformer.
19. Q. What now became the theater for the Reformation? A. Central
Germany.
20. Q. Who responded to the universal aspiration for a leader to guide
into new and safe paths? A. Martin Luther.
21. Q. When and where was Luther born? A. In Eisleben, Saxony, November
11, 1483.
22. Q. What wealthy lady befriended Luther in youth, and gave him the
advantages of an excellent teacher? A. Ursula Cotta.
23. Q. After finishing his course at the University of Erfurt, what did
Luther then do? A. He bade the world farewell, and in 1505 entered the
Augustinian cloister as a monk.
24. Q. In 1508 to what place was Luther called as professor? A. To
Wittenberg.
25. Q. After two years in Wittenberg to what city did he make a visit? A.
Rome.
26. Q. What effect did this visit have upon Luther? A. He took with him,
when he left Rome, an abhorrence of the superstition and immorality of
the church at its fountainhead, which never left him.
27. Q. In what bill of charges did Luther subsequently arraign the
church? A. His ninety-five theses, directed principally against the sale
of indulgences.
28. Q. In an “Address to the Nobles of the German People” what did Luther
declare which led to his excommunication by the pope? A. That the time
had come when Germany ought to cast off allegiance to Rome, to start out
on an independent religious and national life, and take care of its own
interests.
29. Q. Before what body was Luther summoned, where his doctrines were
condemned, and the sentence of ban and double ban pronounced against him?
A. The Diet of Worms.
30. Q. To what place was Luther taken for safety after leaving Worms? A.
To the Wartburg Castle, where he remained for eight months.
31. Q. About how many separate writings appeared from the pen of Luther?
A. About one hundred and twenty, among them a translation of the Bible.
32. Q. To whom did Luther commit the task of formulating a systematic
treatment of doctrine? A. To his nearest friend, Melancthon.
33. Q. Of what do the annals of literature and theology not furnish
a more beautiful illustration than we find in the case of Luther and
Melancthon? A. Of the manner in which a great work can be performed by
the combined action of two men.
34. Q. To what were the labors of Melancthon directed, in the great
cause of reform? A. To the improvement of the methods of study in the
university of Wittenberg. He urged the students to the fountain-heads
of truth, and placed before them the Bible as the only source of real
knowledge.
35. Q. What five princes of Saxony were devoted friends of the new
movement for the liberation of the conscience? A. George, Maurice,
Frederick the Wise, John, and John Frederick.
36. Q. Who was the leader of the new movement in Switzerland? A. Ulric
Zwingli.
37. Q. Into what did the religious conflict in the eastern cantons of
Switzerland grow? A. Into an appeal to arms, that resulted in civil war.
38. Q. What followed the battle of Cappel, where Zwingli was killed? A.
The peace of Cappel, which declared that each canton should decide its
religion for itself.
39. Q. What name is most prominent in connection with the Reformation in
French Switzerland? A. John Calvin.
40. Q. What work did Calvin publish in 1536, which became the doctrinal
standard for all the Reformed Churches of the Continent and Great
Britain? A. “The Institutes of the Christian Religion.”
41. Q. By what great reformer was the work, left unfinished by Calvin at
his death, taken up? A. Beza.
42. Q. In the history of the Reformation, what honor belongs to
England? A. That of having discovered the need of a universal religious
regeneration in Europe.
43. Q. In whom did the beginnings of reform in England center? A.
Wyckliffe, who was born about 1324.
44. Q. What were Wyckliffe’s greatest services to the coming Reformation?
A. First, his translation of the New Testament, and afterward the whole
Bible, into English.
45. Q. What was a striking feature of the English Reformation, from the
outside? A. Its political character.
46. Q. What three names are prominent in the first period of the English
Reformation? A. Colet, Sir Thomas More, and Cranmer.
47. Q. What was the most powerful single agency in bringing about the
English Reformation? A. The publication of the Bible in the language of
the people.
48. Q. What followed the ascension of Mary to the throne of England? A.
A violent persecution of the Protestants, during which, it is estimated,
about eight hundred persons were burned at the stake.
49. Q. What faith did Elizabeth, the successor of Mary, recognize as
national? A. Protestantism.
50. Q. From what sect did the puritan Pilgrims of America come? A. The
Brownist sect.
51. Q. Who was the first Protestant leader in Scotland? A. Patrick
Hamilton. He suffered martyrdom.
52. Q. Who was the natural successor to Hamilton? A. John Knox. By the
time of his death the triumph of the Scotch Reformation was complete.
53. Q. What was the chief aim of the Brothers of the Common Life, a
society of the Netherlands, founded in 1384? A. To improve the morals of
the people, and looked intently upon a thorough reform.
54. Q. What preparation was there for the Reformation in the Netherlands?
A. In no land was there such a complete and popular preparation for the
Reformation as in the Netherlands.
55. Q. What character did the Reformation assume in the Netherlands? A. A
political character.
56. Q. What order against all sympathy with the Protestant cause was
made binding upon the Netherlands? A. The Edict of Worms.
57. Q. Who, of Rotterdam, belongs to the front rank of reformers? A.
Erasmus.
58. Q. How alone was Erasmus important as a Reformer? A. As a profound
and versatile scholar.
59. Q. What is one of the most unpleasant chapters in the history of the
Reformation? A. The unfraternal relationship between Erasmus and Luther.
60. Q. From what did the real danger to the French Protestants come?
A. From a firm alliance between the authorities at Rome and the French
throne.
61. Q. What were the Protestants in France called? A. Huguenots.
62. Q. What great massacre of the Protestants took place in France on the
24th of August, 1572? A. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.
63. Q. By whom were the Italians prepared to give hearty credence to the
new doctrines of the Reformation? A. Savonarola.
64. Q. What causes led to the failure of the Reformation in the Spanish
Peninsula? A. Protestantism was largely a measure of scholars and
thinkers, while the persistent energy of the Spanish authorities,
reinforced from Rome, made thorough work of suppression.
65. Q. In what was the groundwork of Protestantism in the three
Scandinavian countries—Sweden, Denmark, and Norway—already laid? A. In
the dissatisfaction of the people with the prevailing order of civil and
ecclesiastical government.
66. Q. Into what two Scandinavian countries was the Reformation
introduced and formally adopted? A. Sweden and Norway.
67. Q. Who was the great reformer of Bohemia? A. John Huss.
68. Q. As what did his followers afterward become known, under
Zinzendorf? A. As the United Brethren.
69. Q. What was the political effect of the Reformation? A. To elevate
the people to a thirst for liberty, and a higher and purer citizenship.
70. Q. Of what did the Reformation become the mother? A. Of republics.
71. Q. To what does the American Union owe a large measure of its
genesis? A. To the European struggle for reform.
72. Q. What was one of not the least benefits conferred upon the world by
the Reformation? A. The promotion of learning.
73. Q. What sprang up throughout Germany, as an immediate fruit of the
Reformation? A. Universities.
74. Q. By what celebration have the memories of the Reformation been
recently renewed? A. By the celebration on November 11, 1883, of the four
hundredth anniversary of the birth of Luther.
75. Q. How was the day observed? A. With becoming festivities in all the
Protestant countries of the world.
II.—TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “CHEMISTRY,” FROM PAGE 157 TO
THE END OF THE BOOK.
76. Q. What are some of the most important uses of borax? A. In the
manufacture of porcelain, and in other of the industrial arts, and as a
remedial agency in medicine.
77. Q. In addition to the well known substances sodium and oxygen, what
element does borax contain? A. A special and peculiar element, called
boron.
78. Q. What are two of the most important sources of borax? A. Borax
Lake, in California, and the borax lagos in Tuscany.
79. Q. What element constitutes about eighty per cent. of our atmospheric
air? A. Nitrogen.
80. Q. As a simple and uncombined substance, by what is nitrogen
characterized? A. By extreme inactivity. It does not burn; it does not
support combustion; it can not be made to enter into chemical union with
other substances, except by specially devised and circuitous processes.
81. Q. Of what is nitrogen a constituent? A. Of a very large number of
compounds, which are themselves often characterized by a high degree of
activity.
82. Q. What are two important compounds of nitrogen? A. Ammonia gas and
nitric acid.
83. Q. In addition to oxygen and nitrogen what are some of the other
substances always present in atmospheric air? A. Vapor of water, carbon
di-oxide, and ammonia gas; minute quantities of a vast multitude of other
gaseous substances; and it is likewise charged most of the time with
still more minute quantities of solid dust materials of various kinds.
84. Q. To what do the principal explosives owe their activity to a very
large degree? A. To the presence of nitrogen in them.
85. Q. What are the four explosives of chief importance? A. Gunpowder,
the fulminates, gun cotton, and nitro-glycerine.
86. Q. What are the three principal constituents of gunpowder? A.
Potassic nitrate, charcoal, and sulphur.
87. Q. Why is phosphorus a most interesting chemical element? A. Because
of its exceptional chemical properties, the very important part it plays
in the chemistry of animal and vegetable life, and its employment in the
friction match.
88. Q. In what country is the manufacture of friction matches carried on
to a very large extent? A. In Sweden; and that country, it is now stated,
produces about seventy-five per cent. of all the matches made in the
world.
89. Q. What is probably the most familiar and representative form of
carbon? A. That known as charcoal.
90. Q. How is lamp-black produced? A. It is a product of the imperfect
combustion of substances like oil, tar, resin, and the like, which are
very rich in carbon.
91. Q. What are two well known compounds of carbon? A. Anthracite coal
and bituminous coal.
92. Q. Of what origin do both of these combustibles, when carefully
studied, show distinct evidences? A. Of their vegetable origin.
93. Q. What is the diamond? A. It is nearly pure carbon, crystallized.
94. Q. What are some of the other natural forms in which carbon is found
in large quantities? A. In petroleum, marble, and limestone.
95. Q. When combined with oxygen alone, what two compounds only does
carbon form? A. Carbon mon-oxide and carbon di-oxide.
96. Q. What is the material on which the manufacture of illuminating gas
is based? A. Bituminous coal.
97. Q. In the distillation of coal for the manufacture of gas, what three
distinct classes of substances are produced? A. Solids, which are left
in the retorts; liquids, which are condensed in the various coolers; and
gases, which pass on to the gas holder.
98. Q. What coloring matters are obtained from the liquids produced by
these processes? A. Alzorine, affording Turkey red and other colors, and
the well known analine colors.
99. Q. To what quantity does silicon exist in our globe? A. In a quantity
equal to about one fourth its entire weight, including its atmospheres
and its oceans.
100. Q. What is the principal earthy matter of our planet? A. The
compound of silicon and oxygen, existing either alone in the form of
sand, quartz crystal, and similar minerals, or else in combination with
other well known abundant earth materials, such as oxides of calcium,
magnesium, and aluminum.
EDITOR’S OUTLOOK.
PUBLIC MEN IN LITERATURE.
Until recently Americans have had good grounds for complaining that
their public servants were almost a minus quantity in literature. The
complaint had an especially sharp edge in view of the fact that at an
earlier period our Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Adams, and others,
had been among the foremost writers of the country; and it was still
further aggravated by the contrast we seemed to present to France,
England, and Germany, where a public man is usually also a literary man.
The rule in France is that an eminent politician is an author, and the
most distinguished statesmen and princes have written books. Even Louis
Napoleon wrote a book on Cæsar, and one of the best accounts of our late
war is the stately volumes of Count de Paris. In England, the rule is the
same. The queen herself takes pride in the books she has produced. John
Bright is almost alone in having no literary tastes, but his speeches
will long survive in the volumes they will fill. Disraeli and Gladstone,
Bulwer and Macaulay, Fawcett and Dilke, are only a few contemporary names
in along list of distinguished statesmen who have excelled as writers
for periodicals and as producers of books. In this country, from about
1830 to 1880, our public men wrote little. Benton’s “Thirty Years,”
Webster’s speeches, and Sumner’s orations, and some other less famous
works, do indeed redeem the half century; but when we have said all that
can be said in praise of exceptions, the rule seems to have been that an
American politician was not a writer, and a phrase of contempt attributed
to an eminent Senator expresses the feelings of our politicians against
“them literary fellers” in a form which is full of a significance from
which we prefer to turn away our ears. Too many of our public men have
despised literature, and justified literature in returning the sentiment
with interest.
We are entering upon a happier period. The American statesman is
returning to authorship. It is a wholesome change. Mr. Blaine’s history
will occur to many readers as an illustration. It is hardly less
noteworthy that his late associate on the Republican ticket has written
for THE CHAUTAUQUAN able papers on a public question which is a living
issue. A very long list might be made of public men who are in good
fame as writers. The witty S. S. Cox will at once occur to all our
memories, and another eminent Democrat is said to be writing a history
of his times. General Grant finds relief from the terrible strain of his
financial misfortunes in writing the history of his battles. We have
employed some of our most gifted authors as diplomats; as, for example,
Motley, the historian, James Russell Lowell, the poet and literary
critic, and George P. Marsh, the man of universal knowledge; but it may,
probably will, come to pass that some of their stamp will more and more
appear in our public life at home. We have kept poets, philosophers, and
novelists alive by giving them clerkships in Custom Houses. Nathaniel
Hawthorne, Howells, “Ik Marvel” (Donald G. Mitchell), and others, rose
to the dignity of consulships. Francis Lieber was tolerated in a Custom
House clerkship in New York. We are probably coming to the time when such
men may be members of Congress and shape the legislation of the country.
Literary men are usually the most practical of men; that they are
dreamers of impossibilities is the strangest of our popular delusions. A
few exceptions have been carelessly considered as making the rule for the
class. The sort of practicality—tempered by philosophy—which the literary
man brings to affairs is what our public life most needs. All clean
knowledge is a light where it abides, and the value of unclean knowledge
(such as some practical politicians boast themselves in), is a forlorn
minus quantity.
The advantages to be anticipated from the increase of the literary spirit
in our public men are too numerous to be here set forth in detail. A
few suggestions must suffice for our present purpose. In the first
place, public men are experts, and have therefore valuable knowledge to
impart. We are all well aware that General Grant knows important things
about his battles which other men do not know. It is equally true that
any clerk in a department, or any member of Congress has an intimate
acquaintance with many concernments of considerable moment. A man who has
served ten years in Congress could instruct and please us all if he had
the art of describing the methods of law making. It is not a pleasant
fact that the writing of a book on “Congressional Government,” which
is at once philosophical and entertaining, should have been left to a
college professor; nor is it pleasant to feel that the author of this
book, Professor Woodrow Wilson, is probably the last man whom Baltimore
will think of sending to Congress. The men who see the meaning of
things and connect them with principles, and align them with historical
precedents, are needed in Congress to give it dignity and character. In
short, we ought to send our best men to Congress, and we are approaching
an era when “best men” will generally be possessed of literary tastes
and habits. Our public life is rich in materials for useful books and
entertaining novels. Most of these materials lie neglected because we
send inferior men to our public work. Another distinct advantage will be
found in the preservation of many bright men whom we send to Congress
from rusting out of intellectual brightness and becoming mere political
workers. The majority of men sent to Congress are college men; they have
had some literary tastes and habits. They have often been journalists.
The public opinion which hedges them in converts them into office hunters
and office peddlers, and consumes their lives in routine and political
anxiety, to the detriment of all generous and aspiring manhood. The man
whose brain work, in periodicals and books, will secure his position
before his constituents, is a man saved.
The change which is going on is mainly the work of the enterprising
managers of periodicals. Most good literary work in our day first
reaches the public in periodicals. Much excellent work is found only in
periodicals. The editors have discovered that there is valuable matter
to be had by encouraging public men to write. Our articles by General
Logan, for example, contain a view of a great question which is best
seen in all its aspects by a public man who has seen all sides of it in
a Congressional committee. Many similar articles have in recent years
appeared in literary periodicals. An invitation to present his views to
the public through such a periodical as THE CHAUTAUQUAN is a challenge
to candor and a stimulus to thoroughness. The work done educates the
statesman while it informs the people. It creates an intelligent sympathy
between public servants and those whom they serve. It carries on that
form of education in which light and wisdom are put into the first place,
while turgid bombast and self-seeking buncombe are rendered odious to the
people whom they have deceived.
THE DECLINE OF SPIRITUALITY IN THE CHURCH.
Among the unpleasant reflections which the reading of Bishop Hurst’s
“History of the Reformation” will be apt to awaken in many minds is
that there has been a great decline in the spirituality of the church.
In those days religious earnestness was at its maximum; we seem to be
passing through a period when it is at a minimum. How far the seeming is
accurate, it may not be easy to determine; but appearances are against
the modern church. All our religious services lack in spirituality.
The lack is in the sermon, the song, the prayer. Family religion has
_apparently_ little of the intense power of the former days. The
conversation of Christians is less frequently on religious subjects.
We are carefully weeding out of familiar speech the old references to
Providence, Death and Judgment. We fall into silence when one among us
introduces such themes. Religious feeling and expression have disappeared
_from the surface_ of our life in a most astonishing way. We are not
made, the unconverted are not made, to feel the force and warmth of
religious conviction. The sermons are logical, literary and cold; if
there be warmth, it seems to be rather intellectual than religious. The
more able religious editors complain that they can not get written for
them articles which are at once readable and spiritual; while other
editors condemn any articles of that type as savoring of a “dreary
religiosity;” and others say that the expression of religious experience
has “hopelessly gone into the keeping of cranks and weak-headed and
morally-unsound persons.” One man says: “I can imagine nothing sweeter
to hear than religious experience ought to be; but when I listen to it
I hear either out-worn phrases or senseless fanaticism; and these have
been driven from the respectable churches and are monopolized by ignorant
egotists in the out-of-the-way corners of the country.”
A partial explanation of the facts lies in the statement just quoted. But
it is very partial. Why should fanatical zeal kill genuine earnestness?
If we think and feel earnestly in religion, why do we not talk of what
is burning in our hearts, as the fathers did, in language of our own?
A round of set phrases does denote vacancy of spirit, but the earnest
spirit is not banished from our heart by the formalism of another’s
speech. It may be pleaded for us that we are in a transition state;
that the Reformation did develop a form of earnestness, and that our
earnestness can not work in that harness and is reverently silent because
appropriate speech is wanting. But why do not hundreds of ministers
who have all gifts of intellect utter spiritual thought and emotion?
Why are they forever dealing rather with opinions than facts of the
spiritual life? We ask such questions in no censorious spirit; they
are pressed home to many anxious hearts, and the wonder grows whether
modern Christianity is tongueless respecting its experience because it
is backslidden and even skeptical. We could frame, as has often been
done, explanations; but we still doubt whether they really explain. The
spiritual activity is of all inner motions the one least likely to lose
all power to express itself.
It is true that a vast body of believers have the spirit of giving
and of work. They make noble offerings, they teach the children in
Sunday-schools, they make sacrifices of time and ease and money to carry
on churches. In these things no former generation had so glorious a
record. It is probably true that this vast body of believers contains
as large a proportion as any Reformation body of persons who would die
for their faith. It can not be said of such a body of persons that faith
is not in it. Making all allowances for conventionality and religious
fashion, there remains proof enough that the modern church believes. Nor
can we doubt its spiritual poverty. It is poor in the divine life. This
state of things can not last. We are in a condition where faith must fail
if love does not come to the rescue. The greatest of all revivals may
be at the door. The church wants nothing but vital godliness—experience
of divine things. It has so much of zeal, benevolence, self-sacrifice,
philanthropy, that we can not so much as hint at despair. Is it possible
that some of our philanthropies are too consuming and exhaust us? If we
will stop to think and take account of ourselves, we shall probably find
that we lack spirituality because we do not want it. That discovery may
be the one thing needed to arouse us to strenuous spiritual endeavor.
THE SHAKSPEREAN ANNIVERSARY.
The fourth century of Shakspere will be remembered either as the century
of Shaksperean skepticism or as the one in which the play-actor was
stripped of Bacon’s clothes and reduced to his proper condition of
play-actor. That we can so much as entertain this latter thought proves
that the skepticism has made considerable progress. We do not believe
that Bacon wrote the Shaksperean plays; but we are obliged to pay to
those who do believe it such respect as is paid to Strauss with his
theory that Jesus is a mythical person. Another Shaksperean year is
completed on the 23d of April, and its most significant event is an
increase of skeptics. We are doubtless to have a thorough sifting of the
facts and a large debate. No lover of the great dramas need regret the
discussion. It will provoke the study of them and enlarge their fame.
They are the great dramas of the world. No others equal them in breadth
and fervor. Whatever stimulates the study of them must be useful to the
higher forms of literature. One way of looking at the subject of the
authorship of these plays is to regard the question as of no absolute
importance. The plays are what they are, whoever wrote them; just as the
Homeric poetry does not lose a line through the Homeric skepticism. It
is an audacious thing to attack Shakspere as a wearer of another man’s
clothes, after three centuries of his renown. He lived in the public eye.
All London knew him. Some envied and sneered, but none doubted him until
some three hundred years after his birth; if there were doubts they were
so feeble that nothing came of them. Is it the function of the press and
the reporter—making great and small seem alike—which has made Shaksperean
skepticism almost respectable, if not entirely so? Whatever be the cause,
“the news” spreads that Bacon wrote our Shaksperean works, and the debate
is growing into bulk, if not into a serious concernment. We are not a bit
touched with the skepticism; it seems to us unreasonable, beyond ordinary
measure in unreason; and yet we must recognize the growth of the new
theory of the authorship of our glorious drama.
The change next to the foregoing in importance which marks the fourth
Shaksperean century is the new way in which the great mass of his
admirers come to know and enjoy him. He has passed from the stage to the
study, the parlor, the school-room. He is acted a little; he is read
a great deal. In his first and second centuries he was known almost
exclusively through the stage; in his third, the stage and the book
divided about equally the office of making him known; in the fourth,
Shaksperean acting has become insignificant in comparison with the
general reading and teaching of Shakspere. His works are coming to be
studied in all high schools, academies and colleges. Shakspere is in
nearly all libraries, be they large or small. One may almost say that he
is at home in nearly every house where English is read. There is hardly
a town in the country which does not boast at least one well-established
“Shakspere Club.” Year after year the members meet weekly to read and
talk over the merits of the one writer who never tires them. The scholars
of all lands know him in the printed page; all the great tongues have
books of criticism in which he occupies a conspicuous place. One view
of this transition from the stage to the study and the school is that
Shakspere was always too large for the theater. It was in the largest
sense impossible to act his plays. All acting narrowed and misrepresented
him. The larger field of the book is his proper home. He gains by the
liberty and healthfulness of the modern environment. The two changes
which we note will bear on each other. Too many persons are coming to
know what and how Shakspere wrote to permit any star-chamber of criticism
to settle the authorship of these plays in darkness and secrecy; the
power to form a judgment is being created in the minds of the great jury
whose verdict will probably kill off the Shaksperean skepticism. We
do not believe it will survive to 1964, the end of Shakspere’s fourth
century.
ART IN THE UNITED STATES.
If it is _possible_ for this nation to become artistic in tastes and
habits, we shall not fail. There is no branch of special education more
enthusiastically advocated and patronized. Of course the end in view will
require more advocacy and more patronage—a great deal more—but we are
doing so much that the necessary more will doubtless be done. It should
be remembered too, that if blood tells in the matter of art culture we
have no lack of blood drawn from the artistic nations. Flemings, Germans,
Italians, Spaniards, and even Greeks, come to New York in large numbers;
and if Anglo-Saxon blood were condemned as unartistic by inevitable
natural incapacity, we should still be able to produce great artists in
abundance—if method, zeal, and patronage could do this thing. We will not
prophesy; let us wait and see. It is understood, of course, that much,
perhaps most of our art, is industrial. We need to educate a large corps
of designers for useful goods, which are also ornamental; and this type
of artist is so well rewarded when he displays inventive faculty that we
are likely to surpass all other peoples in this department of work. It
is not easy to separate completely in our thinking this branch of art
from that which aims only at artistic pleasure. A design for goods may
be perfect art, and satisfy all the requirements of the æsthetic sense.
But it is obvious that decorative art is very close to industrial art in
nature and purpose. And the purpose has always been condemned by high
art, for it looks straight at the sale of the goods at good prices.
It is complained every year in New York, when the art exhibitions come
on for criticism, that the pecuniary motive for work, and the avidity of
artists for good sales, depress the imagination of the lovers of good
work. In substance, then, our trouble as to art—that we are a commercial
race—seems to get into the schools and infect their atmosphere. The evil
is not that success is rewarded; but that success is not possible to an
artist who thinks always of his reward. Art, like religion, requires
a spirit of self-renunciation. Success in art is not possible to one
who consumes his energy in thinking about the sale of his pictures. To
become rich by art one must be first willing to starve to death in the
service of art truth. We are not demanding such sacrifices; we are only
suggesting that without the spirit of them the pure art of this country
will not attain the eminence which our enthusiasm seeks to reach.
“Sordid treatment” of themes is inevitable in the sordid atmosphere
which, we are told, is breathed in all our circles of art. Besides,
the museums are founded by good natured people who are poor guides and
directors and yet must control, because they are patrons. One art journal
declares that enough energy has in the last five years been expended in
behalf of art to have given it a firm establishment. It adds that most
of this energy has been wasted. Art students and art teachers and art
institutions and publications multiply, but they do not give us high
art. We read this complaint and recall the story of the oil-king in
western Pennsylvania who ordered the teacher of his daughter to “buy her
a capacity, without regard to expense.” If art comes to us to stay it
will come by a slow change of thought, feeling, and aspiration. It is
probable that this change has begun; let us hope that it will ripen to a
gracious and mellowed maturity. The art-life will find ample room in our
hospitable civilization, if it can acquire the courage to live its own
life and escape being a parasite on the robust body of our commercial
life.
EDITOR’S NOTE-BOOK.
The force of the “Chautauqua Idea” is not abating; on the contrary it
works its way into new homes and distant fields—for instance, we have the
C. L. S. C. Class of 1888, which commenced to form last July, and now
numbers about 20,000 members. The “Florida Chautauqua,” in Florida, is a
new plant, and now our C. L. S. C. friends in Canada are raising a fund
of $50,000 with which to purchase and furnish grounds near Niagara Falls,
for an Assembly after the Chautauqua fashion.
* * * * *
Many prominent Chautauqua workers are at the Florida Chautauqua now in
session at Lake de Funiak. Among them are the Rev. Frank Russell, Mrs. G.
R. Alden (Pansy), the Rev. A. A. Wright, Dean of the Chautauqua School of
Theology, Prof. W. D. Bridge, Prof. W. F. Sherwin, Mrs. Juvia C. Hull,
the Rev. S. G. Smith, D.D., the Meigs-Underhill Combination, Prof. C.
E. Bolton, Mrs. Emily Huntington Miller, Dr. O. P. Fitzgerald, Prof.
R. L. Cumnock, Wallace Bruce, Hon. John N. Stearns, Col. G. W. Bain,
Mrs. Emma P. Ewing, Hon. Lewis Miller, etc. Many prominent lecturers,
singers and readers as yet not known publicly at Chautauqua, are at this
Southern Chautauqua, or on the program for the closing week. Dr. Gillet,
in preparing the royal feast of four weeks’ continuance, has subsidized
the country generally for his purposes, and all prominent denominations
are tributary thereto. Nearly or quite all the departments (save the C.
S. L.), known at Chautauqua, are in successful operation. The Assembly
already takes high rank in design and desire, and professors, lecturers,
readers, singers, helpers, are among the very best. No Assembly in the
land starts off with a more brilliant outlook, or with such strong
financial backing.
* * * * *
In our December issue we called attention to the effort being made to
establish an Assembly in Canada, at Niagara. The plan is developing
very satisfactorily. The proposition involves the acquirement from
the Dominion Government of the piece of land known as Paradise Grove,
containing about eighty acres, situated upon the bank of the Niagara
River just outside the town of Niagara. The company which holds the lease
has signified its willingness to consent to a transfer. Toronto is also
thoroughly aroused to the importance of the movement, so much so that at
a very largely attended public meeting called in February to discuss the
matter the citizens pledged themselves almost unanimously to give a bonus
of ten thousand dollars to the company. In addition to this promises of
stock subscriptions have been made of at least as much more. It is easy
to see that, if carried out, this project will prove a great boon to the
old town. Already a large number of persons on both sides of the line
have signified their intention to erect cottages and make it their summer
home.
* * * * *
The Chautauqua Circle has just added a new and important branch to the
many into which it is already divided. This is an art “circle,” to be
called the Chautauqua Society of Fine Arts, in which it is proposed to
give lessons in drawing and painting by correspondence. Every branch of
art will be taught, from elementary drawing to oil-painting. The plan is
a thoroughly practical one, and will be carried out in the best interests
of the fine arts. Mr. Frank Fowler has been appointed director, and
Messrs. R. Swain Gifford, Thomas Moran and Will H. Low will act as a
committee of award. The course of study will extend over two years, at
the end of which time diplomas will be given and prizes awarded for the
best work in the different classes. The membership fee is fifty cents a
year. Application for circulars and further information should be made to
Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J.
* * * * *
With the fall of Khartoum, the death of General Gordon, the Irish
dynamiteurs and their explosions in London, together with the land
troubles in Ireland, a growing dissatisfaction with the Gladstone
ministry, and the threatening aspect of Russia, England has enough of
perplexing questions on hand to keep her Queen, Ministry and Parliament
employed for an indefinite period of time. To be an English politician
to-day is to have unrivaled opportunities for strong and vigorous action.
Apropos of the Soudan trouble our readers will find the article by Dr.
Wheeler, on England and Islam, in this impression, both spirited and
profitable reading.
* * * * *
Roller skating is now claiming the attention of, first, physicians, who
seem to be divided in their verdict as to the injurious physical effects
of the exercise; second, of clergymen and laymen in the churches, who
object to the “rink” on account of the associations, quite as much as
the doctors do to the skating; third, of economists. In a railroad car
bound west recently, we overheard a conversation between two cattle
drovers on the “Roller Rink,” one of whom held up a paper named the
_Rink and Roller_, the organ of the new sport. These two men discussed
the financial side of “roller skating,” one insisting thus: “A boy will
chop wood for seventy-five cents a day, or work at the bench for that
amount, and then spend fifty cents in the evening for himself and girl
to attend the rink; they keep it up; what’s the good; it is a craze.”
Rinks are being built in all our towns and cities, but it will come to an
end like every craze. Some will be injured physically—perhaps some will
date a moral lapse to an unfortunate acquaintance made in the promiscuous
company; while all who go will spend their money. _What is the profit?_
* * * * *
The venerable Mr. George Bancroft, having passed his eightieth birthday,
still preserves his physical vigor and looks like one of the patriarchs
of Washington. His mind is active and retains its strength, though now
enjoying a much needed respite from literary work. Mr. Bancroft has
finished his “History of the United States,” which has been a long and
laborious task. Some new historian must appear, who can live in the midst
of political changes, and like this great man, preserve an impartial
judgment, as a historian, to continue Bancroft’s standard history of the
United States.
* * * * *
The closing act of President Arthur’s term of office was one of simple
justice to a worthy man. The following note explains it all:
TO THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES—I nominate Ulysses S. Grant,
formerly General Commanding the armies of the United States, to
be General on the retired list of the army, with full pay of such
rank.
CHESTER A. ARTHUR.
Executive Mansion, March 4, 1885.
Congress had passed an act which made it possible that General Grant
could be placed on the retired list. The Senate by a unanimous vote
confirmed the President’s nomination.
* * * * *
The number of books and periodicals supported on a given subject, is
a good sign of its interest to the public. Following this indication
we conclude that the public interest in sports and amusements is fully
double what it was a year ago. A tabulated statement of the publications
of 1884, compared with the books issued in 1883, gives the works on
sports in the two years as twenty-two in 1883 to fifty-one in 1884. This
suggestive comparison is but one of many signs that we are awakening to
the absolute necessity of healthful exercise, if we would lead useful
lives ourselves, and would propagate a sturdy race.
* * * * *
Every summer many ladies and gentlemen engaged in educational work make
a vacation tour to the Old World. Those having such intentions for the
coming summer will perhaps accept a few words of advice. In order to
economize your time and derive the full benefit of your trip abroad, the
best thing to be done is to join a party, the management of which is
in the hands of an experienced traveler. The question naturally arises,
Where is there a party formed in which we will find most advantages for
the money expended? We do not hesitate in saying that we can recommend no
better than Professor de Potter’s parties, organized each year in Albany,
New York, and which have the reputation of being ably conducted.
* * * * *
There is going on in the newspapers just now a very suggestive contest
over the spelling of a word. Shall it be dynami_teur_ or _ter_? Both
forms have reliable followings, though no reasons have been advanced for
either termination. The word is a good example of several interesting
features of word-making. It illustrates how each new development in
history requires a vocabulary, and how the vocabulary is formed from the
facts involved. Further, the difference in the termination shows how
each word must have its period of instability before usage selects the
form which shall be permanent. This Irish agitation has, by the way,
introduced several new words into the language.
* * * * *
We Americans believe very firmly in ourselves. But sometimes we can not
help wondering if this vigorous, athletic government of ours, and these
growing institutions, seem to others a success. It will be gratifying to
read Mr. Matthew Arnold’s opinion of us: “A people homogeneous, a people
which had to constitute itself in a modern age, an epoch of expansion,
and which has given to itself institutions entirely fitted for such an
age and epoch, and which suit it perfectly—a people not in danger of war
from without, not in danger of revolution from within—such is the people
of the United States. The political and social problem we must surely
allow that they solve successfully.”
* * * * *
Last year women were for the first time admitted to the Oxford University
examinations. Since they have been allowed to hear certain college
lectures, and are now finally admitted to the classes. It is a surprising
concession, but it is the course of the future. Women in England have
proven conclusively their ability to cope with university studies.
They have zealously and quietly improved each added liberty. This last
recognition comes as the inevitable effect of a law which works through
all human affairs, viz.: a demand creates a supply.
* * * * *
President Arthur closed his term of service with the confidence and
respect of the American people. He performed the difficult task of
filling the highest office in the government with prudence and ability,
when, in fact, he was not the choice of the people for the place, but it
fell to his lot in the order of a mysterious providence. Among the Vice
Presidents who have succeeded to the presidency Chester A. Arthur will
be honored in history as a wise statesman, faithful to the people whom
he served. President Cleveland’s administration is the dawn of a new
political era in the country, but we believe that he will make a safe
President.
* * * * *
There has been recently organized in New York State a State Forestry
Association. President White, of Cornell University, has accepted the
presidency. The society proposes to make a vigorous effort to arouse the
people to the necessity of laws which shall preserve their forests from
the lawless destruction which has robbed thousands upon thousands of
acres in the Adirondacks of their wealth of timber. Such a society is,
without doubt, the only means by which a proper sentiment can be aroused.
The cause of the wholesale depredations has been lack of thought. As one
of the lumbermen put it: “It all comes to this—it was because there was
nobody to think about it, or do anything about it. We were all busy, and
all to blame. But I could do nothing alone, and my neighbor could do
nothing alone, and there was nobody to set us to work together on a plan
to have things better; nobody to represent the common object. Why did not
you come along to talk to us about it years and years ago?”
* * * * *
A look through a railroad guide shows a list of names which are a sad
criticism on our refinement. Think of going down to posterity as born in
such a place as You Bet, Red Hot, Fair Play, Muddy Creek, Looking Glass,
Lone Star, or Saw Tooth. These undignified, ill-sounding names are very
common, and in the new portion of the country it seems to be a matter
of pride to invent absurd names. A gentleman who had the misfortune to
reside in a town which bore one of these unmelodious names recently
said to us: “I am actually ashamed to register myself when traveling,
as from ‘Goose Creek,’ and for years I have had my mail sent to a town
three miles away rather than endure the sight of that odious name on my
letters.” There are ways of changing these names, and in the interest of
good taste it should be done.
* * * * *
In spite of the difficulties in his way, the Rev. Sheldon Jackson has
succeeded in getting into his Industrial Training School for Indian Boys
and Girls at Sitka, Alaska. Not the least of these difficulties has been
getting lumber for the building. Here is the story as he writes us:
“Since coming here last August, I sent a crew of three Indians in a canoe
a round trip of 400 miles along the coast, with a letter to a saw mill.
The trees were felled, the logs were sawed up, a schooner chartered to
bring the lumber, and in due time 100,000 feet of lumber was rafted from
the schooner on the beach, through the surf, carried on men’s shoulders
to the building site, a three story building 130x50 feet in size erected,
and so far completed that we were able to move into it the first week
in January. I have also in the same time organized a church of seventy
members, of whom sixty are natives, received on confession of faith and
baptism. These converts are largely the fruit of the work of Mr. Austin,
one of our teachers.”
* * * * *
The Rev. H. M. Bacon, D.D., pastor of the Central Congregational Church,
Toledo, Ohio, in a recent article on “Our English Tongue,” in which he
quotes Richard Grant White’s statement in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December,
that “This modern English, which is the youngest, is also the greatest
language ever spoken,” mentions several valuable confirmations of this
opinion. Among them is the tribute of Jacob Grimm, the learned German
lexicographer, who says: “In wealth, good sense, and closeness of
structure, no other language at this day spoken, not even our German,
deserves to be compared to it” (the English). He also calls attention
to similar opinions expressed by the late Baron Humboldt, and by Guizot,
and recalls the fact that once when the Academy of Berlin offered a prize
for the best essay on a comparison of fourteen of the ancient and modern
tongues, the prize was awarded to a writer who had given the first place
to the English.
* * * * *
On the 23d of February the Washington Monument was formally dedicated at
Washington, D. C. Thirty-six years have elapsed since its corner stone
was laid. Of the Senate which attended the ceremonies on that occasion
but nine are still living, and since that date the most trying years of
our national life have been passed. Though the delays in completing the
work have been annoying, now that it is complete, it is gratifying to
know that the monument is in every way worthy of its object. Indeed, we
have no hesitancy in pronouncing it the most beautiful structure in the
nation’s capital. An obelisk of light gray stone, at a distance it looks
like a clearly defined cloud lying against the sky. Its great height (555
feet) is not realized, so perfect is the proportion. The location of the
monument has been criticised. It stands on a Government reservation,
adjacent to the Potomac River, and directly facing the Capitol. The land
is low, and many believe it was a serious mistake not to have placed the
obelisk on Capitol Hill. We can not agree with them. The advantage of
having the monument on public grounds, where the view of the entire shaft
will never be obstructed, is much greater than a higher location with an
obstructed view would have been. Then, too, this site was one approved
by Washington himself for a monument which, in 1783, the Continental
Congress voted to be erected to him. Of course “going to the top” is,
and will be, one of the chief features of sight seeing in Washington.
Every half hour the steam elevator in the monument carries a crowded
load to the top, allowing them ten minutes for looking around before the
descent. The stairway is not yet open to the public, and even if it were
most people would hesitate before undertaking to mount its 900 steps. The
interior of the shaft is lighted by incandescent electric lights. Not the
least interesting feature of the monument is the number of marble tablets
presented by different states and institutions, and which are being
inserted in the inside walls. Several of these have considerable artistic
and historic value.
C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL.
SHORT HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION.
There is so much reading on the Reformation, and it is so well known and
easily accessible that it seems almost unnecessary to give a list of
supplementary readings. But among so many books it is hard to choose, so
we append the names of a few, thinking we may perhaps help some to decide
what to read. In order to enjoy this little “History of the Reformation”
in the required course, one ought to read many larger ones. “History
of the Reformation.” By G. P. Fisher. $3.00; D’Aubigne’s “History of
the Reformation;” Burnet’s “Reformation in England;” “History of the
Christian Church.” By W. W. Blackburn. $2.50; Motley’s “Rise of the Dutch
Republic.” $6.00; “Protestantism.” By De Quincy. “Short Studies.” By J.
A. Froude. “History of the Rise of the Huguenots.” By Henry M. Baird.
$3.50; “John Knox.” By Thomas McCrie. $2.00; “Martin Luther and his
Work.” By J. H. Treadwell. $1.00; “The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.” By
Henry White. $1.75; “Schönberg-Cotta Family.” By Mrs. Charles. $1.00;
“The Martyrs of Spain.” By Mrs. Charles. $1.00; “Savonarola.” By W.
R. Clarke. $1.50; “Romola.” By George Eliot. (Treats of the times of
Savonarola); “Christians and Moors of Spain.” By Miss Yonge. $1.25.
P. 3.—“Council of Constance.” A council of the Roman Catholic Church,
opened in 1414, and closed in 1418. In its earlier sessions the doctrines
of Wycliffe were examined and condemned. John Huss was also condemned and
executed, as was Jerome, of Prague. The council was called to consider
measures to remedy the division arising in the church from the long
residence of the popes at Avignon, and the consequent desire on the part
of the French for a national church. See page 89 in the “Short History.”
“Julian, the Apostate.” (331-363.) A Roman emperor, the nephew of
Constantine the Great. Immediately upon his accession he openly avowed
his abandonment of Christianity, but he published an edict which granted
perfect liberty to all sects and all religions. He, however, excluded
Christians from civil and military offices, and compelled them to
contribute toward sustaining pagan temples. He permitted the Jews to
rebuild their temple at Jerusalem, and published a large volume against
Christianity.
P. 4.—“Medici,” māˈde-che. A distinguished Florentine family appearing in
history since the close of the thirteenth century.
P. 5.—“d’Ailly,” dāˈye; “John Chartier Gerson,” shär-te-ā zhair-soⁿᵍ.
P. 6.—“Nicholas Clémanges,” clā-manj; “Gallican Church.” The name given
to the Catholic Church in France.
“Father Hyacinthe.” Charles Loyson, a French pulpit orator, born in
1827. At the age of twenty-two he was ordained a priest. He was
highly educated. Suspicions as to his doctrines were awakened, and he
was summoned to appear before the pope, but cleared himself. Shortly
after some speeches of his gave offense, and he was ordered to change
his manner or be quiet, but he paid no heed. He was soon forbidden to
preach, and threatened with excommunication. In 1869 he visited America,
where he was warmly welcomed by many Protestants, but he declared he
had no intention of leaving the Catholic Church. He protested against
the doctrine of the pope’s infallibility, and defended the right of the
clergy to marry. In 1870, on his return to France, the pope relieved him
of his monastic vows, and he became a secular priest. In 1872 he was
married to an American lady. He is now pastor of a church in Paris, a
sort of independent Catholic church.
P. 7.—“Huguenots,” hūˈgē-nots. The name applied to the French Reformers.
Its origin is uncertain, some asserting that it was derived from one of
the gates of the city of Tours, named Hugons, where the Protestants held
their first assemblies. Others say it came from the name of their first
leader, Hugues.
P. 8.—“Dominican Order.” An order founded by St. Dominic, in 1216; “John
Ruysbroek,” roisˈbrek.
P. 12.—“Wittenberg,” vitˈten-bairg. A town in Prussia, in which there
is an immense bronze statue of Luther, and not far from it one of
Melancthon. It is the seat of a great university.
“St. Victor.” A monastery in Paris.
P. 13.—“Origen.” (185-253.) One of the fathers of the church, noted for
his unwearied diligence and life of self-denial. For two years, during
the persecution under Maximin, he lay concealed in a friend’s house, and
here wrote his “Hexapla.” In the Decian persecution he was imprisoned and
subjected to extreme torture. Many of his valuable writings have been
lost.
“Alexandrian school.” A name applied to the philosophers of Alexandria in
the second century. It aimed to harmonize all philosophy and all religion.
P. 14.—“Thomas à Kempis. (1379-1471.) A German writer, a prior in the
monastery of Mount St. Agnes.
“Kaisersheim,” kīˈzers-hīmeˌ; “Rheinfeld,” rīneˈfelt; “Pfaffenheim,”
päfˈfen-hime.
P. 17.—“Boccaccio,” bok-katˈcho. (1313-1375.) An Italian novelist, and
friend of Petrarch; “Chrysoloras,” kris-o-loˈras.
P. 18.—“Pa-læ-olˈo-gus;” “Bes-sāˈri-on.”
P. 19.—“Argyropylus,” ar-ghe-ropˈoo-los; “Lasˈca-ris;” “Chalkondylas,”
kal-konˈde-las; “Gemistus Pletho,” je-misˈtus pleˈtho; “Moschopylus,”
mos-kopˈy-lus; “Gasperinus,” gäs-pä-reeˈnus; “Aurispa,” ow-rēsˈpä;
“Poggius,” pojˈus; “Perothes,” perˈō-tēs; “Politianus,” po-lishˈā-nus.
P. 20.—“Hierarch.” One who rules or has authority in sacred things.
P. 21.—“Vulgate Bible.” One of the oldest Latin versions of the
Scriptures. So called from its common use in the church. The Catholic
Church claims this to be the only authentic translation.
“Guizot,” gēˌzōˈ. (1787-1874.) A French historian.
“Reuchlin,” roikˈlin. (1455-1522.)
P. 23.—“Bordeaux,” bor-dōˈ; “Avignon,” ă-vē-nyoⁿᵍ.
P. 27.—“Eisleben,” iceˈla-ben.
P. 28.—“Eisenach,” īˈzen-näk.
P. 30.—“Scala Santa,” sacred staircase. A staircase in the church and
palace of the Lateran, so called because Christ was said to have ascended
and descended it. This magnificent building was used as the residence of
the popes, from 312 till their removal to Avignon in 1309. The staircase,
according to tradition, belonged to the house of Pilate, and was brought
to Rome by the mother of Constantine. It is composed of twenty-eight
marble steps, which have been covered by order of the popes with a
casing of wood. The wood has several times had to be replaced, having
been worn through by the knees of ascending pilgrims. This staircase was
preserved from the fire which destroyed the building in 1308. The Lateran
was rebuilt, to be again burned in 1360. It was restored in 1364, and
completely modernized in 1559. This church has always been the cathedral
of the bishops of Rome, and takes precedence of all other churches in the
Catholic world.
P. 32.—“Schlosskirche,” schlusˈkeer-ka. The church belonging to a castle;
“Mos-celˈla-nus.”
P. 33.—“Bull.” An edict of the pope, sent to the churches over which he
is head, containing some decree or decision.
“Hapsburg.” Originally a castle in Switzerland. It gave its name to the
imperial house of Austria.
P. 35.—“Frederick the Wise.” Frederick III., elector of Saxony.
P. 37.—“Zwickaw,” tswikˈkow. A city in Saxony.
P. 43.—“Augsburg Confession.” The first Protestant confession of faith.
“Convention at Smalcald,” smälˈkält. A confederation of the Protestants
held in 1531, in which they were secretly aided by England and France.
P. 45.—“Melancthon,” me-lankˈthon; “Pforzheim,” pfortsˈhime;
“Tüˈbing-en;” “Œcolampadius,” ĕkˌo-lăm-pāˈdĭ-us.
“Terence.” (B. C. 195-159.) A Roman comic poet.
P. 50.—“Ulrich von Hutten,” oolˈrik fon hootˈen; “Si-kingˈen;” “Cranach,”
kräˈnäk.
P. 51.—“Zwingle,” tswinˈgle.
P. 52.—“Wittenbach,” vitˈten-bäk; “Glarus,” gläˈroos. A canton of
Switzerland; “Einsiedeln,” īneˈze-deln.
P. 53.—“Mariolatry,” mā-rí-olˈa-try. The worship of the Virgin Mary.
P. 54.—“Helvetic Confession.” This differed materially from the Lutheran
only in holding that Christ was not bodily present in the eucharist.
P. 57.—“Viret,” vē-rā; “Froment,” frō-moⁿᵍ; “Farel,” fä-rel.
P. 58.—“Bourges,” boorzh; “Angoulême,” aⁿᵍ-goo-laim.
“Psychopannychia,” sī-kō-pan-nikˈi-a.
P. 59.—“Tillet,” til-lā; “Martianus Lucanius,” mar-she-āˈnus lu-caˈni-us;
“Courault,” coo-rō.
P. 61.—“Neuenburg,” noiˈen-boorg. A town in Germany.
P. 62.—“Bucer,” booˈtser. (1491-1551.)
P. 64.—“Lausanne,” lō-zanˈ.
P. 66.—“Archbishop of Canterbury.” This archbishop is the primate or
ruling officer in the national Church of England, the first peer of the
realm, and member of the privy council. It is he who places the crown
upon the king.
P. 67.—“Lambeth Palace.” The town residence of the Archbishop of
Canterbury. It stands on the Thames River, and is surrounded by gardens
twelve acres in extent.
P. 68.—“Ochino,” o-kīˈno; “Fagius,” fäˈge-ŏos; “Anne Boleyn,” ann bulˈlen.
P. 72.—“Froschover,” froshˈo-vair.
P. 78.—“Act of Uniformity.” An act enforcing observance of the English
Church service. Severe penalties were enforced against any one who should
conduct religious service in any other way than that prescribed by the
Book of Common Prayer.
P. 80.—“Cardinal Beatoun,” bēˈtun. Usually written Beaton. (1494-1546.)
A persecutor of the Protestants. On the death of King James, he
conceived the idea of seizing the government, and forged a will of the
king’s, naming himself as successor, but he was prevented from carrying
out his plan and was imprisoned for a time. He was shortly afterward
reëstablished in his ecclesiastical administration. His enemies seeing no
release from his terrible persecutions put him to death.
P. 84.—“Gerard Groot,” jĕ-rardˈ grōt; “Florentius Radewin,”
flo-ronˈshe-us räˈde-win; “Herzogenbusch,” hairts-ōˈgen-boosh.
P. 85.—“Yuste,” yoosˈtā.
“Inquisition.” This was a court established for the purpose of examining
and punishing heretics.
P. 87.—Luther’s doctrine concerning the will was that it has no “positive
ability in the work of salvation, but has the negative ability of ceasing
its resistance under the general influence of the Spirit in the Word and
Sacraments.”
P. 88.—“Momus.” In Greek mythology the god of mockery and censure. He is
represented as raising a mask from his face.
P. 89.—“Vaudois,” vo-dwä.
P. 90.—“Sorbonne,” sor-bun. A school of theology in Paris, founded in
1253, by Robert de Sorbonne, whence its name. The members were divided
into fellows and commoners. The former were selected for their eminent
learning, and took the position of teachers. The commoners were chosen
from among those receiving instruction, after a severe ordeal, and
were supported by the college, but had no voice in its government. They
ceased to be members when they graduated as doctors. No member of any
religious body was allowed to enter this order. The large lecture halls
of the institution were opened free of all charges, to all poor students,
and the professors were directed never to refuse instruction to such.
Students who had money were required to pay regular fees. The school was
without a rival all through the Middle Ages. Its controlling power was
felt everywhere. It was frequently appealed to in disputes between the
civil power and the papacy. It opposed the claims of Henry VIII. for
a divorce from Catharine; condemned the doctrines of Luther and other
reformers, and declared that Henry III. had forfeited his crown. It was
suppressed in 1789, and its buildings are now used by the University of
France.
“Meaux,” mō; “Angers,” âⁿᵍ-zhā; “Poictiers,” pwä-tyā.
P. 91.—“Gallic Confession.” This was essentially Calvinistic in its
import, as were also the system of government and method of discipline
adopted. They were, however, modified somewhat, to suit a church—not like
that at Geneva, in union with the state, but antagonistic to it.
“Bourbons.” This line of kings in France began with Henry IV. Six of his
descendants in direct line occupied the throne after him. The Louises
XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVIII., and Charles X. The last representative of
this line was the Count de Chambord, who died in 1883. There is a younger
branch known as the Orleans branch.
“Guises,” gheez. A branch of the ducal family of Loraine, which took a
prominent part in the civil and religious wars in France.
P. 95.—“Sä-vo-nä-roˈlä,” “Brescia,” brāˈsha.
P. 98.—“Chardon de la Rocette,” shar-doⁿᵍ dĕ lä rŏh-shĕt; “Brucioli,”
broo-choˈlee; “Marmochini,” mar-mo-keeˈnee; “Teofilo,” tā-o-feeˈlo.
P. 99.—“Mauricha,” mä-rēˈka; “Della Rovere,” delˈlä rō-vāˈrā; “Cherbina,”
sher-beeˈna; “Gonzago,” gon-zäˈgō; “Ca-rafˈfa;” “Paschali,” pas-caˈlēe.
P. 100.—“Paolo di Colli,” pä-oˈlo dē colˈlee; “Gratarole,” grät-ä-rōˈlee;
“Cor-räˈdo;” “Teglio,” täˈglē-o.
P. 103.—“Vives,” vēˈvace; “Ponce de la Fuente,” pōnˈthā dā lā fwenˈtā;
“Enzinas,” en-zēˈnas; “Valladolid,” väl-yä-dō-leedˈ; “Varelo,” vä-rāˈlo;
“Ægidius,” ē-gidˈē-us.
P. 104.—“Hernandez,” her-nanˈdā; “Boborguez,” bō-borˈgā.
P. 110.—“Cyriace,” si-rēˈä-see.
P. 116.—“Dollinger,” dolˈling-er. A learned Catholic theologian, born at
Bamberg, in 1799. He has published a church history, and several other
works.
CHEMISTRY.
P. 169.—The formula (N₂O₂) shows that two atoms of nitrogen have united
with two atoms of oxygen to form a molecule of nitrogen di-oxide. The
formula Cu (NO₃)₂ shows that one atom of copper has united with two
molecules, each composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of
oxygen, to form one molecule of cupric nitrate. In like manner Fe₂
(NO₃)₆ indicates that two atoms of iron have united with six molecules,
each composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of oxygen, to form
one molecule of ferric nitrate.
P. 173.—“Refractive power” of water. When a ray of light strikes the
surface of a new medium, a portion of it is turned out of its original
course or refracted. This gives rise to some well-known effects. When any
object is placed in water and viewed obliquely it looks to be nearer the
surface than it is, because the light in passing from the denser medium
takes a direction more inclined to the horizontal, and an object always
appears directly in line with the ray of light entering the eye.
P. 178.—“Crécy,” kresˈse. This battle took place August 26, 1346, between
the English under Edward III. and the French under Philip VI. It is said
that Edward had six pieces of artillery. Artillery had probably not been
used in the field before this time.
P. 182.—“Trinˌi-tro-cĕlˈlu-lose.”
P. 185.—“Mont Cenis,” mōⁿᵍ sŭh-nē. This tunnel under the Alps is in
reality some sixteen miles from Mont Cenis, whose name it bears. The
first mine was fired in 1857, and for four years the piercing was done
by hand; the need of a quicker method led to the invention of a machine
drill—a perforating machine worked by compressed air. The work was
carried on by day and night, from both sides of the mountains, until the
two bodies of workmen met, December 26, 1870. The tunnel was opened for
railway travel September 17, 1871. Its length is nearly eight miles, and
the cost of the tunnel was $15,000,000.
“St. Gotˈhard.” This tunnel is also through the Alps. The length is nine
and one fourth miles. Its construction was begun in 1872, and it was
completed in eight years.
P. 189.—“Phosphorus ne-croˈsis.” The latter term is derived from a Greek
word, meaning to make dead, to mortify, and is a disease which attacks
bony tissues, as gangrene effects the soft parts. “The acid fumes
thrown off from phosphorus in the various processes of making matches,
frequently cause among the people employed a terrible disease, which
attacks the teeth and jaws.… Its natural course is to rot the entire jaw
bone away.”
P. 190.—“Al-lŏtˈro-pĭsm.” Dana says allotropism is “the property of
existing in two or more conditions which are distinct in their physical
or chemical relations. Thus, carbon occurs crystallized in octahedron,
and other related forms, in a state of extreme hardness, in the diamond;
it occurs in hexagonal forms, and of little hardness, in black lead; and
again occurs in a third form, with entire softness, in lamp-black and
charcoal. In some cases one of these is peculiarly an active state, and
the others a passive one. Thus, ozone is an active state of oxygen, and
is distinct from ordinary oxygen, which is the element in its passive
state.”
P. 194.—“Chemicking,” kemˈik-ing.
P. 203.—Translation of French sentence: “This last virtue I believe it
still to possess, if the husband is rich enough to buy the jewel which
his wife is ambitious to own.”
P. 217.—“Boussingault,” booˌsănˈgoˌ; Jean Baptiste. A noted French
chemist of this century.
NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.”
ARISTOTLE.
1. “Schoolmen.” Philosophers and divines who in the middle ages adopted
the principles of Aristotle and dwelt much upon abstract speculation.
Scholasticism was a philosophy of dogmas. “Its elements were doctrines
which the authority of the church made indisputable,” and which were
looked upon as absolute truth. Facts in nature were set aside and an
artificial, logical scheme developed. Scholiasts thought experiment only
fit to follow and illustrate theories.
2. “Haroun-al-Raschid,” Aaron the Just. (765-809.) The caliph who raised
Bagdad to its greatest splendor, and whose reign was looked upon as the
golden era of the Mohammedan nation. He reigned twenty-three years and
performed the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. He is famous as the hero of
the Arabian tales. Tennyson wrote of him in his “Recollections of Arabian
Nights.”
3. “Ex post facto.” A Latin expression, meaning an after act or thing
done afterward. An _ex post facto_ law is a law enacted after the
commission of a crime, for the purpose of being enforced upon the person
having committed the crime, who could not be held a criminal, or at least
a criminal in the same degree, until after the enaction of the law. All
such laws are forbidden by the constitution of the United States.
4. Transcriber’s Note: This note (presumably “Hypolais.”) was omitted
in the original. _Hippolais_ is a scientific genus of tree warblers.
CHEMISTRY.
[ERRATA.—A few typographical errors in articles of this series have
escaped correction. Page 254, change “300,000,000” to 3,000,000; for
“alcohol,” thirty-third line, page 325, substitute paraffine; same page,
eighth line, second column, use not for “but;” in “experiment,” same
column, use heat for “sensation,” and in next to the last line of the
article change “topics” to optics.—_Prof. J. T. Edwards._]
1. “Geysers,” gīˈsers. Intermittent hot springs, found in different
parts of the world. Those of Iceland are the best known. More than one
hundred of these springs are there found, within a space of two miles.
The geysers of the Yellowstone are the most wonderful ever discovered.
The country lying between latitude 43° and 47° north, and longitude 110°
and 114° west, is dotted with groups of springs. Some of them, when in
action, send up columns of water to a height of 200 feet.
2. “Hugh Miller.” (1802-1856.) A British geologist. He was by trade
a stone mason, but he devoted all his leisure hours to study. Soon
“detecting the wonders of the fossil world” in the quarries in which he
worked, he made them the special subject of his thought, and soon became
an eminent geologist. He published many works, most of them bearing on
this subject. He worked so incessantly, taking little sleep or exercise,
that his mind was on the verge of giving way. Realizing this with terror,
he took his own life. A note left for his wife read as follows: “A
fearful dream rises upon me. I can not bear the horrible thought.”
The old red sandstone is the name given to the rock in Great Britain
formed in the Devonian age, or age of fishes. Its thickness is in some
parts 8,000 to 10,000 feet. It includes sandstone, marlytes of red and
other colors, and some limestone.
The sandstone of the Triassic period, which includes the latest
formations of the earth’s crust, is also characterized by fossils, and is
often red in color; hence the name, new red sandstone, has been applied
to it.
3. “Dr. Hitchcock.” (1793-1864.) An American geologist and author.
4. “Minute animals.” The carbonate of lime which is found in rocks is
most of it formed directly of shells, corals, and other animal remains.
These little creatures take their stony-like structures from the water
or from their food through the power of secretion, just as man forms his
bones, and after their death they are given over to be made into rocks.
The great extent and thickness of the limestone rocks of the earth give
some idea of the amount of life that flourished there in past time.
5. “Anhydride.” For definition see “Chemistry,” page 151.
6. “Old Stone Mill.” It is asserted by some antiquaries that this
structure was built by the Northmen, 500 years before Columbus landed on
these shores. Its purpose, as well as its origin, has been a theme of
much discussion. Its present appearance is that of a large round tower
overgrown with vines.
7. “The Stone age.” One of the divisions of prehistoric time. In this age
men were not acquainted with the use of metal and fashioned their rude
implements exclusively out of stone.
8. “Ceramic,” se-ramˈic.
9. “Cesnola collection.” Cesnola was an American soldier and
archæological explorer, born in Italy in 1832. He served in the Crimean
war, and in the civil war, was for a long time in Libby Prison. At the
close of the war he was sent as consul to Cyprus. Having his attention
attracted by some fragments of terra cotta and some coins, he began
making excavations in search of relics. He met with such rewards that he
continued his work for three years, employing hundreds of men. Among his
discoveries were statues, lamps, vases, coins, glassware, gold ornaments,
bronzes, and inscriptions, in all about 13,000 articles. This remarkable
collection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
10. “The mound builders.” The race of people found in America by its
first settlers had clearly been preceded by a race of higher type and
attainments. Relics proving this have been discovered throughout the
Mississippi valley. Earthworks are their principal testimony, of which
many thousands have been found in Ohio alone. These mounds vary in size
and shape, but are always regularly formed, sometimes being square,
sometimes round, hexagonal, octagonal, or truncated. They are ascended by
spiral paths, and frequently contain skeletons. Sometimes the earthworks
are thrown up so as to represent in outline men and animals, and appear
as huge “bas-reliefs on the surface of the ground.”
11. “Humboldt,” Baron von. (1769-1859.) A German naturalist, the most
distinguished scholar of the nineteenth century. After a thorough
education, under the best masters in different universities, he
determined to devote himself to finance as a business, and familiarized
himself with everything pertaining to this calling. He changed his career
and wished to engage in practical mining. And again he went through
with a full preparation for this work. He was sent to explore several
mining districts, and made many experiments to discover the nature of
fire-damp. Later he made a great scientific expedition which only led the
way to others, until he had visited as a scientist almost every land. He
is distinguished for the comprehensiveness of his researches. During his
travels he made astronomical, botanical and magnetic researches, measured
elevations, investigated the nature of the soil, and the thermometrical
relations; he also collected herbariums, and founded the new science of
the geography of plants. Of his numerous published works, “Kosmos” has
perhaps attracted public attention most widely. It has been without an
equal in giving an impulse to natural studies.
12. “Lord Lytton,” Sir Edward George. Earle Lytton, son of General
William Earle Bulwer, born in 1805. Upon his succeeding to the vast
estates of his mother, the heiress of the Lyttons, he by royal license
assumed this name, writing it after his own. He is the author of several
works, mostly of fiction.
THE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES.
1. “Syllogism.” Every argument, to be valid, must be placed in regular
logical form, which consists of three propositions, two called the
_premises_, and the third the _conclusion_. The conclusion follows from
the premises, so that if the former are true, the conclusion must be.
For example: Major premise—It was not lawful to scourge a Roman citizen;
minor premise—Paul was a Roman citizen; conclusion—Therefore, it was not
lawful to scourge Paul.
2. “Dr. Porter.” An American scholar and author, born in 1811. The
eleventh president of Yale College.
3. “Ruskin,” John. (1819-⸺.) An English author. He has given much
attention to the study of art, many of his numerous books being written
on that subject.
4. “Utopia.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for February, 1885.
5. “Campanella.” (1568-1639.) An Italian philosopher. He was suspected
of joining a conspiracy against the Spanish government, was put to the
rack, and finally imprisoned in Spain. Later he was transferred to the
inquisition at Rome. On gaining his liberty he went to France. He was
famous for undermining other systems of philosophy rather than for
establishing one of his own.
6. “Owen,” Robert. (1771-1858.) An English social reformer. He lived for
a few years in Scotland, where he advocated his theory of communism,
an absolute equality in all rights and duties. By the aid of his large
fortune he was enabled to distribute great numbers of tracts explaining
his views, and these soon won him a large following. He was, however,
opposed and attacked on all sides. In 1823 he came to the United States,
bought 20,000 acres of land in Indiana, intending to found his community
there, but the scheme proved a failure and he returned to England. He
spent the rest of his life as a traveler, advocating his views both by
his books and public lecturing.
7. “Fourier,” (foo-ri-ā) Charles. (1772-1837.) A French writer on social
science.
SUNDAY READINGS.
1. “Thebes and Luxor.” Thebes was a celebrated Egyptian city, formerly
the capital of Upper Egypt. Its ruins are among the most magnificent in
the world, and comprise what form now nine villages, among which Luxor is
one. The large and costly palaces of the Luxor quarter were founded by
Amenophis III., and from here was taken the obelisk which stands in Place
de la Concorde in Paris.
2. “Archbishop Whately.” (1787-1863.) An English prelate. He was for some
years a professor at Oxford, and in 1831 was consecrated archbishop of
Dublin. He was the author of many important works.
3. “Paˌlæ-o-cosˈmic.” Pertaining to the ancient universe.
4. “Old Man of Cromagnon.” “In the _Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ_, by Messrs.
Lartet and Christy, there is a full account of the archæology of the
old Stone age, as exhibited in the south of France, especially in the
caves in the valley of Cro-Magnon. … Bones of the reindeer are abundant,
and the co-existence of man with this animal in latitudes so much lower
than its present habitat implies a certain degree of elevation above
savages, as not only food, clothing and implements, but materials for
ornamentation were obtained from it. The domestic economy of these
earlier races is shown by their hearths, boiling stones, rough hammers,
and hollow, dish-like pebbles. … M. Pruner-Bey, from the examination of
skeletons found in the cave of Cro-Magnon maintains that the crania of
the reindeer age belong to a double series, one approaching the Lapp and
the other the Finn of the present day. He concludes that they had massive
bones, long, flat feet, comparatively short arms and long forearms, with
powerful muscles, greatly developed jaws, widely opened nostrils, and
were of unbridled passions.”
ANIMAL BIOLOGY.
PRONUNCIATION OF NAMES IN TABLE.
Pro-to-zoˈa, mo-neˈra, greg-a-rinˈi-da, rhiz-opˈo-da, in-fu-sōˈri-a,
spon-gĭˈda, cœ(kē)lenˈte-rā-ta, hy-dro-zoˈa, an-tho-zoˈa,
mad-re-poˈra, poˈrites, tuˌbi-pōˈra, cor-ralˈle-um, ruˈbrum,
cte(te)-nophˈo-ra, e-chinˌ(kin)o-dermˈa-ta, crī-noidˈe-a, as-ter-oidˈe-a,
e-chen(ken)-oidˈe-a, holˈo-thu-roidˌe-a, verˈmēs, ro-tifˈe-ra,
pol-y-zoˈa, brachˌ(brak)-i-opˈo-da, an-nelˈi-dæ, mol-lusˈca,
la-melˌle-bran(g)-chi(ki)-āˈta, gas-ter-opˈo-da, ceph(sef)-a-lopˈo-da,
ar-ticˈu-lāˈta, crus-taˈcē(se)-a, a-rachˈ(rak)-ni-da, myr-i-opˈo-da,
tu-ni-cāˈta, ver-te-brāˈta, pisˈ-cēs(sēs), aˈvēs.
1. “Amœba.” This little animal is known to microscopists under the name
of proteus, from the rapid and continuous changes of shapes which it
presents to their notice.
2. “Tentacles.” Processes usually slender and thread-like, proceeding
from the head of invertebrate animals, such as insects, snails and crabs,
being used for the purpose of feeling, prehension or motion.
3. “Oviparous.” An adjective applied to all animals which produce eggs,
as distinguished from _viviparous_, producing young in the living state.
4. “Ganglia.” Collections of nerve cells, from which nerve fibers are
given off in different directions. They are thought to be the organs in
which all action originates.
5. “Ventral surface.” The surface of the body opposite the back. The back
is called the dorsal surface.
6. “Medˈul-la-ry.” Consisting of marrow. The fibrous nervous matter of
the brain contains nerve tubes, within which is a layer of thick, fluid,
highly refractive matter, called the medullary layer.
PARAGRAPHS FROM NEW BOOKS.
PORTRAITS FROM CARLYLE.—If Carlyle had taken to the brush instead of
to the pen he would probably have left a gallery of portraits such as
this century has not seen. In his letters and journals, reminiscences,
etc., for him to mention a man is to describe his face, and with what
graphic pen and ink sketches they abound. Let me extract a few of them.
Here is Rousseau’s face, from “Heroes and Hero Worship:” “A high but
narrow contracted intensity in it; bony brows; deep, straight-set eyes,
in which there is something bewildered looking—bewildered, peering with
lynx-eagerness—a face full of misery, even ignoble misery, and also of an
antagonism against that; something mean, plebeian there, redeemed only by
_intensity_: the face of what is called a fanatic—a sadly _contracted_
hero!…”
Here we have Dickens in 1840: “Clear-blue, intelligent eyes; eyebrows
that he arches amazingly; large, protrusive, rather loose mouth; a face
of most extreme _mobility_, which he shuttles about—eyebrows, eyes,
mouth, and all—in a very singular manner while speaking. Surmount this
with a loose coil of common-colored hair, and set it on a small, compact
figure, very small, and dressed à la D’Orsay rather than well—this is
Pickwick.”
Here is a glimpse of Grote, the historian of Greece: “A man with straight
upper lip, large chin, and open mouth (spout mouth); for the rest, a tall
man, with dull, thoughtful brows and lank, disheveled hair, greatly the
look of a prosperous Dissenting minister.”
In telling Emerson whom he shall see in London, he says: “Southey’s
complexion is still healthy mahogany brown, with a fleece of white hair,
and eyes that seem running at full gallop; old Rogers, with his pale
head, white, bare, and cold as snow, with those large blue eyes, cruel,
sorrowful, and that sardonic shelf chin.”
In another letter he draws this portrait of Webster: “As a logic-fencer,
advocate, or parliamentary Hercules, one would incline to back him, at
first sight, against all the extant world. The tanned complexion; that
amorphous, crag-like face; the dull black eyes under their precipice of
brows, like dull anthracite furnaces, needing only to be _blown_; the
mastiff mouth, accurately closed; I have not traced as much of silent
_Berserkir rage_, that I remember of, in any other man.”—_From John
Burroughs’s “Fresh Fields.”_
* * * * *
SCOTT AT WORK.—I never can forget the description Sir Adam Fergusson
gave me of a morning he had passed with Scott at Abbottsford, which at
that time was still unfinished, and swarming with carpenters, painters,
masons, and bricklayers, was surrounded with all the dirt and disorderly
discomfort inseparable from the process of house-building. The room they
sat in was in the roughest condition which admitted of their occupying it
at all; the raw, new chimney smoked intolerably. Out-of-doors the whole
place was one chaos of bricks, mortar, scaffolding, tiles, and slates.
A heavy mist shrouded the whole landscape of lovely Tweed side, and
distilled in a cold, persistent and dumb drizzle.
Maida, the well beloved stag-hound, kept fidgeting in and out of the
room. Walter Scott every five minutes exclaiming, “Eh, Adam! the puir
beast’s just wearying to get out;” or, “Eh, Adam! the puir creature’s
just crying to come in;” when Sir Adam would open the door to the raw,
chilly air for the wet, muddy hound’s exit or entrance, while Scott with
his face swollen with a grievous toothache, and one hand pressed hard to
his cheek, with the other was writing the inimitably humorous opening
chapters of “The Antiquary,” which he passed across the table, sheet
by sheet, to his friend, saying, “Now, Adam, d’ye think that will do?”
Such a picture of mental triumph over outward circumstances has surely
seldom been surpassed. House-builders, smoky chimney, damp draughts,
restless, dripping dog, and toothache form what our friend Miss Masson
called a “concatenation of exteriorities,” little favorable to literary
composition of any sort; but considered as accompaniments or inspiration
of that delightfully comical beginning of “The Antiquary,” they are all
but incredible.—_From Mason’s “Traits of British Authors.”_
* * * * *
PARADISE FOUND.—Could it once be proven that the Arctic terminus of
the earth has always been the ice-bound region that it is, and which
for thousands of years it has been, it would of course be useless to
entertain for a moment the hypothesis that the cradle of the human
race was there located. Probably the popular impression that from the
beginning of the world the far North has been the region of unendurable
cold has been one of the chief reasons why our hypothesis is so late
in claiming attention. At the present time, however, so far as this
difficulty is concerned, scientific studies have abundantly prepared the
way for the new theory.
That the earth is a slowly cooling body is a doctrine now all but
universally accepted. In saying this we say nothing for or against
the so-called nebular hypothesis of the origin of the world, for both
friends and foes of this unproven hypothesis believe in what is termed
the secular cooling or refrigeration of the earth. All authorities in
this field hold and teach that the time was when the slowly solidifying
planet was too hot to support any form of life, and that only in some
particular time in the cooling process was there a temperature reached
which was adapted to the necessities of living things. On what portion
of the earth’s surface, now, would this temperature first be reached? Or
would it everywhere be reached at the same time? … We asked the geologist
this question: “Is the hypothesis of a primeval polar Eden admissible?”
Looking at the slowly cooling earth alone, he replies: “Eden conditions
have probably at one time or another been found everywhere upon the
surface of the earth. Paradise may have been anywhere.” Looking at the
cosmic environment, however, he adds: “But while Paradise may have been
anywhere, the _first_ portions of the earth’s surface sufficiently
cool to present the conditions of Eden life were assuredly at the
Poles.”—_From Warren’s “Paradise Found.”_
* * * * *
SEPARATION OF DE LONG AND MELVILLE.—De Long verbally directed both of
us to keep, if possible, within hail, and reiterated his orders in case
of separation: “Make the best of your way,” said he, “to Cape Barkin,
which is eighty or ninety miles off, southwest true. Don’t wait for me,
but get a pilot from the natives, and proceed up the river to a place of
safety as quick as you can; and be sure that you and your parties are all
right before you trouble yourselves about any one else. If you reach Cape
Barkin you will be safe, for there are plenty of natives there winter and
summer.” Then addressing me particularly, he continued: “Melville, you
will have no trouble in keeping up with me, but if anything should happen
to separate us, you can find your way in without any difficulty by the
trend of the coast-line; and you know as much about the natives and their
settlements as any one else.” This was our last conversation in a body.
So when De Long waved me permission to leave him, I hoisted sail, shook
out one reef, and as we gathered way the boat shot forward like an arrow,
and the spray flew about us like feathers. Heretofore we had been running
dead before the wind on our southwest course for the land, but the heavy
sea and lively motion of the boat caused the sail to jibe and fill on
the other tack, whereupon we would broach to and ship water. For this
reason I hauled up the boat several points, or closer to the wind, and
our condition at once improved. Now that we were separated I resolved
to concern myself directly with the safety of my own boat; so that when
one of the men said that De Long was signaling us, I told him he must be
wrong, and further directed that no one should see any signals now that
we were cast upon our own resources.
When last seen, the second cutter was about one thousand yards astern of
us, the first cutter probably midway between, and there is no doubt in my
mind that she then foundered. A conversation with the only two surviving
members of the first cutter (Nindemann and Noras) has confirmed me in
this belief; for they witnessed the scene as I have described it, and
state that it was the general opinion of DeLong’s crew that I had shared
the same fate simultaneously with Chipp.—_Melville’s “In the Lena Delta.”_
TALK ABOUT BOOKS.
There can scarcely be a sadder story than that of the loss of the
Jeannette and the subsequent search for DeLong and his party. No event of
recent years has caused more horror in the public mind and led to more
urgent expostulation against further Arctic exploration. We believe,
however, that as a better knowledge of the aim and value of these
undertakings grows on the public, censure will be removed. Certainly
a careful reading of Melville’s “In the Lena Delta”[C] produces this
result. The book is perhaps more full of horror than most readers
imagine, but after reading there can be but one opinion; terrible as it
all is, it has been worth the suffering. It is worth while to have died
bravely in carrying out orders. The unflinching resolution of those men
places them among the heroes of modern history. You can not help feeling
that there is a wonderful amount of unusual heroism in the story. The
Jeannette expedition has furnished a much needed lesson on the nobility
of endurance. The results to our knowledge of these regions have been
considerable, the people of Siberia, the Russian exile, the homes and
customs of various tribes are more fully explained to us in Melville’s
notes than elsewhere; again, no future exploration will be open to equal
dangers.
We have never experienced a greater shock in our book reviewing than that
which came to us when, on turning from Melville’s description of the
Arctic regions, we were told that Paradise had been found[D]—at the North
Pole. It will be a long time before the public mind with its present
ideas of the Pole will be willing to consent to this conclusion, even if
President Warren is able to advance still more skillful arguments than
he yet has in proof of his theory. And the arguments are skillful. He
has quoted high authority to prove that Eden conditions once existed on
every portion of the earth, and first of all at the Pole; he has done his
best to remove our prejudices against a night of six months by showing
that not more than “four fortnights” is the probable length of the night
there; he shows us that palæontology teaches that life first began at
the polar regions, and quotes the mythical lore of Egyptian, Assyrian,
Babylonian, Buddhist, Greek, and Roman, to support his theory. The
hypothesis is certainly entertaining, and this attempt at demonstrating
it contains some very probable arguments.
A book bearing the title “Personal Traits of British Authors”[E] is
sufficient of itself to win the attention and awaken the interest of
all book lovers, but when, on turning its leaves, it is found that
these traits have been noted and given to the world by other authors,
the desire to know what they are is doubled. What great men think and
say about other great men is a matter of interest to all well informed
persons. That pardonable, commendable curiosity to know “what about”
earth’s gifted ones, that lurks in human hearts, has a sort of double
chance to satisfy itself with such an arrangement as this. The persons
of whom this book treats are seven in number: Scott, Hogg, Campbell,
Chalmers, Wilson, DeQuincey, and Jeffrey. In a tabulated form all the
leading events of their lives are given. Several pages are devoted to
sketches of each one, all filled with exquisite little pen pictures,
drawn by master hands at widely differing periods, and from widely
differing scenes in life, giving the greatest contrasts in attitudes,
words, and expression. Indeed, one has hard work sometimes to make
himself believe they were intended to represent the same person. It would
be difficult to find a finer collection of character studies than Mr.
Mason has given in this volume.
There is considerable probability in the suggestion which Mr. Lang makes
in his “Custom and Myth.”[F] He has attempted to find the key to myths
in customs which have prevailed among early tribes, in opposition to
those scholars who find their solutions in the names which they claim
were once applied to objects, and of which the original meaning has been
lost. The essays are made valuable by a great deal of material gathered
evidently by much research in the lore of remote tribes, but they are
singularly unsatisfactory. The work is loosely done. The solutions are
mere suggestions, although such interesting suggestions that one feels
loath to give up the search without more work. In some cases the myths
presented simply show that similar tales exist in many nations. Until Mr.
Lang does more work on this entertaining theory he must not expect a very
wide following.
A good work on English cathedrals has for a long time been in demand. The
interest in architecture which recent years has developed, the increase
in travel and the large scale on which the English people have carried on
the restoration of their cathedrals have made such a work necessary. “The
Cathedral Churches of England and Wales”[G] quite fills the demand. A
book of superior make up, a very handsome parlor book, indeed, it is yet
full of information. Thirty-five cathedrals are described, and so fully
illustrated as to give very satisfactory ideas of the leading features of
each. The articles, written in an encyclopedic style that seems slightly
out of place in the company of such illustrations, paper, and letter
press, are historic and architectural, concerning themselves very little
with poetic associations and fine descriptions. They are, however, all
the more useful for that.
Two little books, helpful to all persons and bearing comfort for stricken
hearts, and for those weary with the burdens of life, are to be found
in “Meditations on Life, Death and Eternity.”[H] They are like friends
to whom one would turn for companionship. The books were translated and
compiled from the larger work of a distinguished German writer, and were
arranged in their present form at the request of Queen Victoria, who
prizes them very highly, as the original was a great favorite of the
Prince Consort.
That Mr. Barnes fully accomplished what he set out to do when he produced
the “Hand-Book of Bible Biography,”[I] a brief examination of the work
will satisfy any one. His aim was to produce a book that would be
complete as to names, that should contain all the facts, and that should
be within the means of all Bible students. Each biography is a story
complete in itself, with many illustrations and maps.
FOOTNOTES
[C] In the Lena Delta. A narrative of the search for Lieutenant Commander
De Long and his companions. Followed by an account of the Greely Relief
Expedition and a Proposed Method of Reaching the North Pole. By George W.
Melville. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.
[D] Paradise Found. The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. By
William F. Warren, S. T. D., LL D. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.
[E] Personal Traits of British Authors. By Edward T. Mason. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1885.
[F] Custom and Myth. By Andrew Lang, M.A. New York: Harper & Brothers.
1885.
[G] The Cathedral Churches of England and Wales. Cassell & Company. New
York: 1884. Price, $5.00.
[H] Meditations on Life, Death and Eternity. By Johann Heinrich Daniel
Zschokkè. Translated by Frederika Rowan. New York: Phillips & Hunt.
Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe.
[I] Hand-Book of Bible Biography. By the Rev. C. R. Barnes, A.B. New
York: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. Price, $2.25.
THE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY.
WHAT ARE ITS CLAIMS?
BY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M.
We shall be careful in what we say to make no claim for the
correspondence system of teaching, as against any other. We claim for it
simply a place as a co-laborer in the work of education. Lest any one
should be misled by any utterances we may have made, or may hereafter
make, and think that here was cast up a royal road over which one
could pass with flying feet to the goal of educational culture, and
enter it, to find only a narrow path, rough, stony, and filled with
difficulties, we wish to plainly state what we claim for this system of
instruction. Lest any one should conceive that the need for university
and college has passed, and that results can be obtained by a home
correspondence-university course, as good or better than can be obtained
from actual college residence, we wish to plainly state what we do not
claim. It may place our positive claims in a stronger light, if we set
them forth against what we do not claim, as a background. Accordingly,
our first statements will be negatives, as follows:
1. We do not claim that the correspondence system of teaching is the
superior of oral teaching;
2. Nor that it is destined to supersede oral teaching;
3. Nor that it has wrought or will work any revolution in educational
methods;
4. Nor that it can compete with oral teaching, on anything like equal
terms;
5. Nor that by this method, years of study in classroom, under able,
living teachers are made unnecessary;
6. Nor that it uses newer and better methods of instruction than are used
in the classroom;
7. Nor that it is freer from defects than other existing systems;
8. Nor that a class, school, college, or university, dependent for its
entire work upon pen, paper and post, should be sought by the student in
preference to established resident institutions;
9. Nor that it is without serious disadvantages, even to the student most
favorably circumstanced;
10. Nor, finally, that it is able to teach all branches of study without
other than postal facilities.
We might carry this line of disclaimer farther, but are persuaded
that enough has been said to enable us to make our claims for the
correspondence system, without danger of being misunderstood. Still
further, we desire the power of voice and pen, as far as it may reach,
to be felt on the side of the college and university. To all who can go
to college, our word is most emphatically—go; and having gone, stay; let
nothing come between you and the completion of the course. Still further,
we will say to such as are so limited by circumstances as to feel
unable to devote the requisite time, means, and presence, to a college
course, “If possible, let not circumstance compel you, but do you compel
circumstance, till the desired way shall open; and this though years be
occupied in the struggle. The goal is worth the race.”
Here, then, we present what we claim for the correspondence system of
teaching:
1. We claim that the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves
of this system, are men and women of mature mind, and hence are able to
make the very best use of whatever advantages are offered them;
2. That the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves of the
advantages we offer, are actuated by an earnest purpose to obtain an
advanced education, by _any_ means which are available to them;
3. That wise direction through correspondence, by competent and
experienced teachers, is calculated to produce better results than can be
expected ordinarily from unaided individual effort;
4. That teaching by correspondence can be successfully applied to a
course of study so wide and comprehensive that one who masters it will
secure a culture that would be rightly called liberal;
5. That this system of teaching is therefore entitled to a place, as
associate, in the ranks of the teaching systems of the age;
6. That as a system, it is no untried experiment, but has been so tested
that it can point to tangible results with no fear of discomfiture if
these results be examined;
7. That it requires determined effort, and calls for rigid
self-discipline, to insure success;
8. That it tends to form critical habits of study;
9. That it tends to produce self-reliance, and to develop individuality
in methods of study;
10. That it affords marked opportunity for deliberation, and so fosters
the judicial habit in study;
11. That it tends to systematize and render methodical all habits,
whether of study or of life;
12. That opportunities for _mal-application_ are reduced to a minimum;
13. That its possibilities are such as to warrant corporate effort to
extend its advantages to those who would be otherwise deprived of any
advanced educational opportunities;
14. That such a corporation is entitled to be called a School of Liberal
Arts;
15. That it allows tests of the student’s acquirement, as rigid as can be
desired by the highest standard of educational excellence;
16. That the student who has submitted to such tests, and successfully
borne them, is entitled to the reward of a diploma and a degree;
17. Finally, that the corporation or institution which can prepare the
student for such an ordeal is entitled to confer such diploma and degree.
The claims which we have now presented are sufficient to show the
spirit and belief which have led to the incorporation of the Chautauqua
University. We have attempted to state them logically, clearly, and
forcibly. There is in them no element of disputation.
We appeal to a vast, an eager and earnest constituency. To know, only
to know, is the earnest cry of multitudes of our fellows. Lament for
lack of early opportunities, and consequent self-depreciation, is the
undertow that sweeps to ruin the possibilities of many a life. High
purposes and noble ambitions have been thwarted on life’s threshold by
the cruel limitations of circumstance. Mistaken views of life’s best
aims, in days when opportunities were possible, have been dispelled
when the opportunities have long been left behind. To each of these
classes the Chautauqua University brings the correspondence system of
teaching, and says: for you, it is possible to supplement the lack of
early years; for you, to realize your ambitions, even within the bond by
which circumstance has bound you; and for you, in the new light which
experience has given, to see other opportunities for obtaining that
culture which, years ago, you neglected and passed by.
SPECIAL NOTES.
THE ACADEMY OF LATIN AND GREEK,
Summer Term of Six Weeks.
TO THE CHANCELLOR OF CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY:
_My Dear Doctor Vincent_:
It gives me great pleasure to be able to offer this summer, at
Chautauqua, a course in Latin and Greek of unusual merit. Of the
assistant teachers, Mr. Otto is already favorably known to our
pupils of last summer, and to many correspondence students as
an energetic and thorough teacher. Dr. Bevier will be a great
acquisition for Chautauqua. He was graduated from Rutgers with
first honors, having also during his course won honors in Latin
and Greek at the inter-collegiate contest. After graduation he
studied at Johns Hopkins University (which conferred on him the
degree Ph.D.), and then continued his studies in Europe. He was a
student at the American School at Athens, Greece, and is now an
enthusiastic and successful teacher.
Although our session in Latin last year began a week late, and we
suffered from other disadvantages, I believe our numbers in Latin
reached a total unparalleled in the history of Chautauqua.
What was, however, especially gratifying, was the improved
quality of scholarship manifested by students.
For this summer we offer the following course:
1. ROMAN LAW (using the Institutes of Justinian) with
information. Not only every lawyer, but every teacher of Latin
to-day should familiarize “_thon_”self with Roman law, lying, as
it does, _at the base of Roman civilization_.
2. THE LATIN OF THE EARLY CHURCH FATHERS.—Recent publication and
discussion have rendered so prominent the influence of the early
Latin Fathers on church doctrine that _every clergyman_, present
or prospective, will do well to examine this question for himself.
3. COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.—(Every student preparing to enter
either of these three classes should at once communicate with
the principal, that there may be no delay at the opening of the
session, in securing apparatus.)
4. PLATO.—Apology and Crito, Tyler’s Ed. (Appletons.)
5. CICERO.—_De Natura Deorum_, Stickney’s Ed. (Ginn, Heath & Co.)
6. HOMER.—Odyssey.
7. VIRGIL.—Æneid.
8. HORACE.—Chase’s Ed. (Eldridge & Bro’s.)
9. CICERO.—Orations.
10. XENOPHON.—Anabasis.
11. CÆSAR.—_De Bello Gallico_ (two hours per day).
12. BEGINNERS IN GREEK. Harkness’s Text-Book, last ed.
(Appletons.)
13. BEGINNERS IN LATIN (THREE HOURS PER DAY BY THE INDUCTION
METHOD).
🖙 Latin students must have the “Hand-Book of Latin Synonyms.”
(Ginn, Heath & Co.)
I hope you will give us at Chautauqua zealous students, who
will concentrate their work on Latin and Greek, but especially
two classes: TEACHERS of Latin and Greek, and those who are
absolutely BEGINNERS. A clear-headed student who doesn’t know a
word of Latin, can, by devoting six weeks to it, secure FIVE
HOURS per day (_Beginners_ and _Cæsar_) or ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY
HOURS in six weeks—quite as much time as the average school gives
in one year.
It is thought that teachers of Latin and Greek will find not only
the method of value, but also the inspiration which indubitably
does arise when teachers gather.
Your ob’t servant,
EDGAR S. SHUMWAY, Principal.
RUTGERS COLLEGE, February 23, 1885.
* * * * *
The C. L. S. C. Correspondence Department, though not often heard from
publicly, is doing an important work. Several hundred students are
enrolled upon its books, and the work is being prosecuted this year
with renewed vigor. An Illinois lady writes: “Having enjoyed and been
benefited by the letters of my C. L. S. C. correspondent, I very much
wish to continue that branch of the work this year. We followed no
special plan, but the letters I received encouraged and strengthened
me, and kept me from falling by the wayside. I love the C. L. S. C. and
am proud to say I have gained for it some members. In my judgment the
Correspondence Circle is grand, good and beneficial.” From New Hampshire
comes the following: “I tender hearty thanks to the originator of the
Correspondence Circle. The frequent letters of my two correspondents are
a continual stimulus. The sympathetic words, the exchange of essays, the
comparing of work done, I find very helpful, while the questions of my
bright girl correspondent have led me to search for and find many items
of information I should have otherwise neglected.” These and many similar
letters received from members of the Correspondence Department show how
helpful this work is proving to many isolated members of the Circle, shut
out from all other means of communication with their fellow students.
* * * * *
From a circle in Connecticut numbering five members comes the suggestion
that Local Circles be put in communication with each other, the
correspondence to be carried on, of course, through the respective
secretaries. There is no reason why a correspondence of this sort should
not prove both interesting and valuable, as it will serve to increase the
feeling of fraternity among local circles, give opportunities for the
exchange of programs, the discussion of difficulties, and in other ways
make the circles of practical benefit to each other.
* * * * *
Members of the C. L. S. C. or local circles wishing to join the
Correspondence Department should report to the office of the C. L. S. C.
at Plainfield, N. J.
* * * * *
The list of C. L. S. C. graduates in the Class of ’84 has been lengthened
by the following names:
Daniels, Mrs. Margaret P. S. New York.
Longee, Mrs. Mary P. New Hampshire.
McConnell, Edward B. Pennsylvania.
Smith, Miss Anna Michigan.
Van Ingen, M. Gertrude New York.
* * * * *
Communications intended for the “Local Circles” of THE CHAUTAUQUAN should
be sent directly to our office. Any circle which has not reported this
year we should be glad to have do so at once.
* * * * *
Transcriber’s Notes:
Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
Page 388, “II” changed to “IV” (Class IV.)
Page 389, “carniverous” changed to “carnivorous” (they have all the five
senses, and are carnivorous)
Page 398, “Fate” changed to “Gate” (Traitor’s Gate)
Page 398, “Tewksbury” changed to “Tewkesbury” (in the field at Tewkesbury)
Page 403, “ahd” changed to “and” (and have bought bonds)
Page 405, “extirminated” changed to “exterminated” in two places (and
their kind exterminated / the native fish are actually exterminated)
Page 406, “extirmination” changed to “extermination” (extermination so
recklessly begun)
Page 406, “their” changed to “the” (the narrow, tortuous defiles)
Page 407, “neans” changed to “means” (by artificial means)
Page 408, “Mariner” changed to “Marner” (Silas Marner)
Page 413, “Easer” changed to “Easter” (1. Essay—Easter.)
Page 424, “make” changed to “made” (which has made Shaksperean skepticism
almost respectable)
Page 429, “with” added (two atoms of nitrogen have united with two atoms
of oxygen)
Page 429, “hydrogen” changed to “oxygen” (The formula Cu(NO₃)₂ … three
atoms of oxygen)