this part of the treatise. In the first chapter the author seeks
for an exact definition of the term “Wind” (_ventus_), and ends by
adopting one which is obviously inaccurate--“wind is air flowing in
one direction,”--for as he afterwards speaks of whirlwinds he was
well aware that the movement may be in every direction, or vorticose.
Dismissing the opinion of Democritus as to the origin of wind, he
states that in his judgment wind may arise from four different causes.
First; The earth itself breathes forth a vast amount of air from its
interior, where there are large rivers and lakes, and where the moist
air naturally gives rise to blasts of wind. Second; Long-continued
evaporation carries the terrestrial emanations aloft, where the
intermingling of the breath results in wind. Third; Much more important
is the fact that the air in its very constitution possesses an innate
power of motion; we cannot imagine that while we ourselves are endowed
with a capacity of movement--and water has this power also--the
atmosphere should be left inert and immovable (197). Fourth; Sometimes
the sun is itself the cause of wind, when he loosens and expands the
thick air (198).
In this enumeration allusion is made to one or two features of natural
history which the author appears to accept as fact. He thinks there
must be some vital force in water, otherwise it could not bring forth
animals and plants, as we know it does. But not only water; fire, too,
which devours everything, possesses this generative capacity, for,
unlikely as it might be thought, it is nevertheless true that fire
gives birth to some animals. The air, too, has some vital energy, as it
alternately thickens, contracts, and expands, and rids itself of its
impurities. The portion of it contained within the earth is asserted
in a later part of the volume to be the source of the life of the
vegetation at the surface (244).
The local winds, now known as “land and sea breezes,” are next
discussed (198). Instead of the simple explanation which in our own day
has shown these aerial currents to be beautiful examples of the results
of diurnal variations of atmospheric pressure, the ancient theory
represented that during the day the exhalations from the land are borne
on high to supply the sun with nourishment, while at night, as they are
not needed for that purpose, they accumulate until they have filled
up a given space enclosed by mountains. When in such a space there is
no more room, they move towards the quarter to which they can most
easily escape; hence the wind. It is curious, however, to note that
Seneca only describes the land breeze, which falls away as the morning
advances. He does not specially refer to the equally characteristic
sea breeze, which springs up after the other dies down, and continues
during the day, until in the evening it is again replaced by the land
breeze.
The important Etesian or northerly winds, with all their important
local modifications in the Mediterranean basin, must have been a
subject of constant observation to the Greeks and Romans. There was
a general belief that as these winds reappeared regularly in summer,
they were in some way connected with the position of the sun in the
firmament. Seneca, after briefly stating this opinion, dissents
from it on the ground that, as the sun reduces the strength of the
morning or land breeze, it cannot be through his influence that the
Etesian winds then begin to blow. But he does not explain how he would
himself account for their occurrence. They are now known to be further
illustrations of the influence of atmospheric pressure. In summer, when
the hot region of the Sahara becomes a vast area of low pressure, the
air streams into it from the north across the Mediterranean basin.
The account given of cloud winds (203) is an excellent illustration
of the utter ignorance of the philosophers of antiquity of the very
rudiments of meteorology, and, at the same time, of the confidence
with which they offered their explanations of the phenomena of the
atmosphere. Even now, after prolonged investigation, the laws that
regulate the production of furious winds and gusts connected with
clouds are far from being fully understood. The boldest meteorologist
of to-day, with all his detailed experience, would hesitate to express
his opinion as dogmatically as is done in the text. The idea that air
accumulating either above ground or below acquires a vast disruptive
force, obtained wide credence in early times. It was this pent-up
accumulation which was supposed to burst clouds asunder and produce
thunder-storms, while the same energy in caverns under ground led to
earthquakes and the eruptions of volcanoes.
The occurrence of whirlwinds is explained by Seneca from the analogy
of eddies in a river. As the water meets with impediments in its flow,
it is driven back and made to whirl round before it can continue the
onward current, so the wind, as long as it meets with no obstacle,
sweeps on, but when it is thrown back by any projection in its course,
or is collected together into a highly inclined narrow pipe, it whirls
round upon itself like the eddies of a river. But the cause of the
vorticose movement where there is no visible impediment is, of course,
left unaccounted for.
In the fifteenth chapter of this Book a story is told of Philip of
Macedon, who sent down a party of miners to examine an old mine. The
men brought back to daylight a wonderful tale of vast caverns with high
over-arching roofs, and filled with huge rivers and vast lakes. If the
author’s intention was to connect the spaciousness of these underground
chambers with the operations of ancient miners, he was sadly mistaken,
since at no time has metal-mining led to the excavation of huge
caverns; on the contrary, it has always been pursued in narrow shafts
and passages. If the report brought back to the king was veracious,
his emissaries had only come upon a series of natural grottos and
tunnels, such as are of common occurrence in limestone districts, and
which have no connection whatever with mining.[117] But the narrative
served Seneca’s purpose, since it furnished him with the occasion
for a diatribe against the cursed love of gold, which had apparently
been rampant in days long before those of Philip, and allowed him to
supply from his own imagination some additional lurid horrors of the
underground world.
[117] It is possible that these ancient mines were driven in search
of metal seams or veins traversing limestone, like those of lead
among the caverned limestones of Derbyshire.
When he gets back to his subject, he enters upon an enumeration of the
various winds known to the ancients. He himself thinks that as the
heavens are divided into twelve sections, so there are twelve distinct
winds, not all felt everywhere, but never exceeding that number. He
does not attempt, however, to account for them. In his reference to
the names given to the various winds, he gives a quotation from Ovid’s
_Metamorphoses_, in which the more conspicuous winds from the different
quarters are mentioned. To this quotation he adds a line from Virgil’s
graphic picture of the storm in the first book of the _Aeneid_, where
Aeolus opens his cave and the south-east, south, and south-west winds
rush out in fury upon the sea. Seneca remarks, in passing, that such a
collocation of winds as Virgil enumerates could never have happened in
a single tempest. The poet, however, has made no mistake. In a great
cyclonic storm the wind veers round with the compass from south-east
by south to south-west. And even if Virgil had added the north wind,
which the philosopher says he left out, he would only have followed
the invariable course of the winds in the cyclones of the northern
hemisphere, which circle round towards the north as the storm area is
passing eastward.
In conclusion, the author points out the teleological significance
of the winds, and is thence led to repeat the time-honoured reproach
against human iniquity which turns the winds from their beneficent
intention to purposes of war.
BOOK VI
This is, perhaps, the most valuable part of the volume, for it contains
more of the author’s own observations than the rest of the work. It
deals more particularly with the great earthquake of 5th February
A.D. 63, which occurred in his own country, and about which he could
collect information at first hand. As already mentioned, the subject
of earthquakes had long fascinated him, and he had published, in his
youth, a volume about it. The calamity which brought so much injury
to the towns of Campania was more especially likely to enlist his
vivid interest, for the region that had been convulsed was with him a
well-known and favourite part of Italy, where he often came to spend,
on the shores of the Bay of Naples, such leisure as the life in Rome
allowed him. Besides, it was the native district of Lucilius, to whom
the volume was addressed, and whose town of Pompeii had suffered
from the shock.[118] Hence he here plunges at once into details of
the damage caused by this particular earthquake. As a prelude to his
inquiry into the whole question of the origin of such catastrophes,
he indulges in reflections on their appalling nature. Some of the
unfortunate residents in the convulsed district had fled from it,
vowing never to return. But where, the writer asks, can they be sure
of safety, seeing that no quarter of the world is exempt from this
form of danger? He urges that it is at least some consolation to be
assured that such calamities are not the work of angry gods, as was
popularly believed, but are traceable to their own special causes in
the processes of nature (228).
[118] In Seneca’s letters, frequent reference is made to his visits
to the district. He seems generally to have taken a villa at Baiae,
or some adjacent place on that western part of the coast. He
appears to have been a poor sailor, glad to make for the nearest
landing-place between Baiae and Naples, so as to escape from the
pangs of sea-sickness. On one of his excursions he revisited Pompeii,
and was set into a reverie of his youth there. See his _Letters_, 49,
51, 53, 55, 57, 70, 77.
He then considers the various opinions entertained on this subject by
earlier writers, which, on the whole, he regards as crude and inexact.
The cause of earthquakes had been found in water, fire, air, and the
earth itself, or in a combination of several of these agencies, or even
in the co-operation of the whole of them. As regards the action of
water, he dismisses the opinion of Thales (231), but in the statements
of other authors, who maintain the power of internal water in causing
earthquakes, he sees a greater probability of truth. He fully admits
the existence of large rivers and extensive lakes inside the earth, and
that in these dark uninhabited regions flooded rivers undermining their
banks, and a swollen sea lashed into fury by the subterranean winds,
may communicate shocks to the surface of the earth (234).
That fire is the origin of earthquakes had been held by various
philosophers, who, however, differed as to the manner in which the
fire acts. Anaxagoras thought it was by explosions caused from the
collision of underground clouds (236); others held that the immense
mass of vapour produced by the subterranean conflagrations as it
accumulates may exert such a pressure as to disrupt all obstructions;
or when the pressure is less may cause no more than a heaving of the
surface. The idea that the shock of an earthquake results from the
removal of material underneath, whereby the stability of the overlying
portion is undermined, and a collapse of the ground ensues, was held in
various forms. Some thought that this destruction arose from extensive
combustion within the earth. Anaximenes supposed that just as at the
surface, rocks and old buildings yield to the ravages of time and fall
down, so in the interior of the earth similar landslips may occur and
cause shocks to the districts above them (237).[119]
[119] The collapse of the roofs or sides of underground caverns may
undoubtedly be in some instances the cause of local earthquakes. This
origin is enforced by Lucretius:
terra superne tremit magnis concussa ruinis,
subter ubi ingentes speluncas subruit aetas.
--_De Rer. Nat._ vi. 544.
But the favourite opinion of antiquity regarded earthquakes as
primarily due to the violent commotion of air. Seneca comments on the
views of various philosophers, and more especially Aristotle’s, as to
the way in which the air acts, and he then proceeds to deliver his own
judgment. He has no doubt that, though some of the other agencies may
co-operate, the chief motive force in earthquakes is air. By no part
of nature, he affirms, is such violent energy displayed as by air; it
kindles fire, tosses the surface of the waters into waves, destroys
large tracts of the earth, uplifts new mountains, and raises in the
midst of the sea islands never seen before. Not only does air exist
above ground, but it also fills the hollows and interstices of the
interior of the earth, into which it freely enters from the surface.
Nothing in nature is so restless as air, and the earth cannot but be
affected by the movements of the air included in its inside. The author
agrees with the general opinion that when the air begins to be agitated
in a subterranean cavern which it has filled, pressed by that which is
still entering, it struggles to escape, and, when it does so, emerges
with a violence proportionate to the narrowness of the passage for
its exit. But if unable to make its way out, it becomes furious, acts
like a swollen impetuous river, and that overthrows everything in its
path.[120]
[120] Lucretius gives a picturesque recital of these views (_De Rer.
Nat._ vi. 535–607).
It is not difficult to realise how this explanation should have been
accepted in antiquity, and should have held its ground down even into
modern times. The violence of the commotions of the atmosphere was a
familiar feature on the surface of the earth, although its physical
causes, variously guessed at, were utterly unknown. To minds that had
no conception of the very rudiments of meteorology, there seemed to
be no reason why air inside the earth should not be affected by as
violent hurricanes as the air outside. And as such hurricanes were the
most powerful natural agencies known, their action was not unreasonably
invoked to account for the phenomena of earthquakes. Assuming that
the air in a large subterranean cavern would behave as the free open
atmosphere does, the old philosophers did not find themselves under the
necessity of explaining what was to set the air in motion within the
subterranean recesses and lash it into fury there, any more than they
had to account for tempests above ground.
Obviously, if the air found its way from the outside into the internal
parts of the earth, it must have had equal facilities for egress. And
in the convulsions of an earthquake it might be supposed to issue with
violence through some of the previous openings or from the rents made
at the time. In corroboration of the truth of the prevalent opinion, it
was asserted that after an earthquake air was found to issue from the
ground, but no account appears to have been preserved of any violent
outrush of air. As a further evidence that it is to the force of air
that all these internal disturbances are due, the author remarks that
after a violent earthquake another shock of equal violence cannot
occur, because the first has opened a passage for the struggling winds.
The progress of investigation has, in modern times, thrown a flood of
light on the phenomena of earthquakes, though there still remain many
problems in the subject which await solution. It is needless to say
that no foundation whatever has been found for the ancient faith that
the air plays the chief part in these subterranean commotions.
Seneca discusses the nature of earthquake motion. He recognises three
kinds of movement--quaking (_succussio_), tilting (_inclinatio_),
and trembling (_vibratio_)--and he gives illustrations of the kind
of causes to which they may be referred (252). He believes that the
extent of country convulsed by an earthquake depends upon the area of
the subterranean cavern in which the wind performs its exploits, and
as these internal cavities do not continuously underlie vast tracts of
the earth’s surface, no large spaces of that surface are simultaneously
shaken. In his day there appears to have been no record of a shock
affecting the whole basin of the Mediterranean Sea. He thinks that no
earthquake ever extends as much as two hundred miles. He cites the
recent calamity in Campania, which did not pass beyond that district,
though marvellous tales about it had spread far and near, and he gives
other examples of the markedly local character of the phenomena, so
far as then known. He affirms that maritime districts are those most
frequently shaken (255, 257), in proof of which he gives various
instances, including the late disaster to Pompeii and Herculaneum in a
region which had never been known to be shaken before.
He had received information about the Campanian shock, and the
narrative in which he embodies it has the interest of being the most
detailed account of an earthquake that has come down to us from
antiquity. First of all, as already mentioned, he states that the
movement was confined to the district of Campania, no mention being
made of its having been felt even so near as Rome. He notices the
injury done to Herculaneum and to Naples by the damage of public and
private buildings; bronze statues were split open and some people
were driven out of their minds. He records that Campania continued
to tremble for some days after the great shock. He had heard that a
flock of six hundred sheep was said to have been killed near Pompeii.
Accepting the report as true, he sees no reason to suppose that the
animals died of fright, but thinks it not unlikely that they were
poisoned by the ascent of pestilential vapours from the ground. This
conjecture of his receives perhaps some support from the fact that
in this volcanic district, after an eruption of Vesuvius, so much
carbonic acid gas has been said to escape from the ground as to
suffocate hundreds of hares, pheasants, and partridges. But the most
vivid experience of the earthquake which he narrates is that of a grave
philosophic friend who, when in his bath, saw the tiles of the floor
separate from each other, allowing the water to sink through the opened
joints, while the next moment, as the pavement closed again, the water
was forced out all bubbling. A better illustration of the transit of a
wave of shock could not be desired.
Seneca was prepared to believe that great changes had been wrought by
earthquakes on the face of the land. He cites in support of this view
some remarkable examples which had occurred within the times of human
history, such as the sinking of the towns of Buris and Helice, the
disappearance wholly or partially of the island of Atalanta, and the
subsidence of Sidon (256). He refers also to various striking features
of landscape in different regions which had been popularly assigned to
the work of earthquakes, such as the separation of Ossa and Olympus,
the disruption of Sicily from the Italian shore, and the severance of
Spain from the continent of Africa (263).
That the phenomena of earthquakes are closely connected with those of
volcanoes was the general belief in antiquity, and continued to be
accepted up to the middle of last century. It was believed in early
days that just as the collision of clouds during storms produces the
fire seen in lightning, so during the tempestuous agitation of the air
within the earth, such heat is generated as to set fire to beds of
sulphur or other combustible materials, and thus that rocks are melted
and are forced up to the surface by the vast energy of the escaping
air.[121] It is to be regretted that Seneca has not left an account of
his own opinions on this subject, but from the allusions in the present
treatise he may be inferred to have held the prevalent opinion. He
alludes in various passages to volcanic eruptions that had taken place
in his own time, or not long before, in the Mediterranean basin. An
eruption of Etna is briefly noticed, when the mountain was in violent
eruption, ejecting such a quantity of fine burning sand and dust as
to turn day into night, accompanied with much thunder and lightning
(77). This may have been the eruption alluded to in similar language by
Cicero, who adds that for two days nobody could see his neighbour.[122]
Seneca further cites two eruptions in the Aegean Sea, one of which had
taken place in his own time, when a new island was upraised “by the
force of air.” He alludes to Thera and Therasia, and the interesting
account given by Posidonius of the uprise of an island in the same sea,
with attendant circumstances closely resembling those of the eruptions
at Santorin in modern times (73, 252). According to Asclepiodotus, the
fire, after overcoming the resistance of the thick mass of sea, shot up
above sea-level to a height of two hundred paces.
[121] This view of the nature of volcanic energy is graphically
expressed by Lucretius (_op. cit._ vi. 639–702).
[122] _De Nat. Deor._ ii. 38. See also Lucretius (_ib._ vi. 641), who
describes the more conspicuous features of an eruption, and concludes
with the line
ne dubites quin haec animai turbida sit vis (693).
From a consideration of the causes of earthquakes the author is led
by his accustomed train of thought to draw the ethical lessons which
the subject suggested to him. He repeats his belief that against the
perils of earthquakes, as against all the other dangers and fears of
life, the only assurance is to be obtained from elevating studies and
a contemplation of nature (265). It matters not when or in what form
we shall quit life, whether from some trifle or from a world-wide
catastrophe. To be happy without fear of anything that may befall us,
we must carry our life in our hands, steeling ourselves against fear,
and prepared even to welcome death as the advent of a friend.
BOOK VII
After a brief introduction, marked by no little elegance and literary
skill, the author introduces the subject of the heavenly bodies, and
more especially of Comets which he is to discuss in this Book. He
proposes at the outset to endeavour to ascertain whether the earth
stands still while the universe revolves round it, or if it is the
universe that remains at rest while the earth revolves. But he is led
on from one topic to another, without having arrived at a definite
solution of this problem when the volume comes to an end. From various
expressions, however, it may be inferred that he adhered to the
primitive belief that it is the universe which goes round the earth.
Thus in Chapter IX. he speaks of the movement that drags the universe
along and asks what is swifter than that revolution (281). The heavenly
bodies may not stand or turn aside, they all move onward with the
irrevocable movement of this eternal creation (299).
The opinions of various philosophers on comets are quoted and
criticised. He is especially severe in his comments on Epigenes, who
thought that comets are produced somewhat as fires are excited by
whirlwinds. The Greek threefold classification of comets is cited, and
then Artemidorus comes in for his share of vituperation; to disprove
his theory of the firmament being a solid roof to the world would be,
in the author’s opinion, nothing but beating the air. Ephorus fares no
better, being briefly dismissed as often deceiving and often deceived.
Apollonius of Myndus held that many comets are distinct planetary
bodies, which wax and wane like the planets, being brightest when
they are nearest us and growing dimmer as they recede to a greater
distance. But Seneca refuses to admit that they have the character of
true planets; in his view they are insubstantial irregular fire (291).
But he does not agree with his Stoic brethren in regarding them as
generated in dense air and pursuing their course according to where
they can find fuel to sustain them (292–4). He conceives that they are
not mere sudden and transient fires, but belong to the eternal works
of nature. They steadily traverse their course, and he can understand
that they may have such wide orbits as to carry them far beyond the
limits of the Zodiac (296). He can see no reason why the five planets
then known should be the only stars that move across the sky, though
others had not yet been discovered. Astronomy, he remarks, is in its
infancy, many mysteries of nature remain still to be discovered, and
the day will come when posterity will marvel at our ignorance of things
which will then appear to be so evident. Some future observer will
demonstrate the paths of the comets, why they wander so far from the
other stars, and what is their size and constitution. We may be content
with what we have found out, and leave something for posterity to
discover.
In a tone of sad pessimism he brings his volume to a close. From a
contemplation of the glories that might be achieved by mankind in
searching out the marvels of creation he turns to his own age and his
own country, only to see on every side proofs of decadence. No one now
cared for the pursuit of wisdom. Philosophy and every liberal study
were neglected. The schools of philosophy were dying. If his countrymen
even now would set themselves with all their energy to the task, if the
young would give their sober attention and the elders would teach them,
they would scarcely succeed in reaching the bottom of the well in which
truth lies. Meanwhile they were searching merely on the surface of the
ground and with but a slack hand.
NOTES BY TRANSLATOR
“AIR”
The word “air” occurs in the text over 200 times, but not always as
a translation of the same Latin word. With a term so elastic and
so ambiguous it would have been mere pedantry to attempt a uniform
rendering; and indeed such uniform rendering would have been more
misleading than the course adopted of rendering according to the
context, which the idiom of our language seemed to demand.
Seneca has two main terms for air--_aër_ and _spiritus_. _Aër_
means, generally speaking, either air generically, or the atmosphere
specifically. _Spiritus_, on the other hand, denotes air under certain
conditions of tension, or strain, or pressure, when it is capable
of exerting force or violence; to its influence are attributed many
effects due in reality to gases, or other causes. On p. 52, l. 1, we
have the definition “air (_spiritus_) is the atmosphere (_aër_) in
violent motion”; and on p. 205 the concluding words of V. xiii. are
“air differs from wind in degree alone. A more violent air is a wind;
air in turn is gently flowing atmosphere,” where again _spiritus_ is
“air” and _aër_ “atmosphere.”
Again, in the _Aetna_, l. 212, we read, “The winds when inflated
are called _spirit_; when in subsidence, _air_” (Professor Ellis’s
translation), where the same terms _spiritus_ and _aër_ are
employed.[123]
[123] For a discussion of the meaning of the term _spiritus_ and the
parallelisms in its use by Seneca and the author of the _Aetna_, see
Professor Ellis’s edition of that poem, Prolegomena, pp. xl-xliii.
Now if our author had been consistent in the use of the words, there
would have been a strong case for a uniform adoption of “air” and
“atmosphere,” whenever they occurred. But numerous passages might be
cited to show that he interchanges the words without apparent motive,
just as we do “air” and “atmosphere.” For example, on p. 69, l. 2, “So
fire will pass into air (_spiritus_),” while on p. 71, l. 9, “the air
(_aër_), which is interchangeable with fire.” Again, on p. 75, l. 6,
“When the clouds have enclosed air” (_spiritus_); l. 26, “atmosphere
(_aër_) shut up in a hollow cloud.” A still more conclusive case,
though the passage is probably in other respects corrupt, occurs in the
last sentence of c. xxix. p. 77, where the first “air” is _spiritus_,
the second, a mere synonym or variant, is _aër_. Cf. p. 187, l. 27, and
the passages cited below from pp. 245, 249, 251, 259, 260.
The translator has little choice. He must follow his author, and,
where the latter makes a distinction, must endeavour to reproduce it;
otherwise he must, as the author did, observe the idiom of his own
language.
In accordance with this principle _aër_ is usually translated
“atmosphere,” and _spiritus_ “air”; but circumstances have rendered
unavoidable a considerable number of exceptions.
The discussion of phenomena in which air plays a part is contained
chiefly in Books II. and VI., and here the distinction of terms in
English has been, so far as practicable, maintained. In Book II. “air”
is a translation of _aër_ about a dozen of times out of a total of over
fifty times that “air” occurs, and in Book VI. about half a dozen out
of a total of nearly seventy.
The following is a list of the places in which “air” translates _aër_:--
Book I. throughout.
Book II. pp. 56, ll. 20, 21; 57, ll. 17, 22; 58, l. 3; 59, l. 26; 61,
l. 18; 66, l. 12; 71, l. 9; 72, l. 22; 77, 1. 17; 98, l. 26; 101, l. 28.
Book III. pp. 120, ll. 8, 9 (four times); 121, ll. 11–20 (five times);
123, l. 28; 129, l. 3; 134, ll. 26, 28; 135, l. 1; 140, l. 29.
Book IV. pp. 176, ll. 6, 9; 184, l. 2; 186, l. 16.
Book V. pp. 195, l. 32; 196, l. 7; 198, l. 3; 199, l. 16; 202, l. 6;
205, l. 11; 206, l. 3; 211, ll. 14, 20.
Book VI. pp. 245, l. 28; 249, l. 10; 251, ll. 8, 9; 259, l. 7; 260, ll.
26, 29.
Book VII. throughout, with _three exceptions_, viz. pp. 277, l. 26;
279, l. 16; 281, l. 4.
In a few cases “air” occurs as a more explicit representation of a
pronoun or an adjective which implies it: in these instances the
context is generally a sufficient guide. _Spiritus_, too, has sometimes
quite a different rendering, _e.g._ breath.
On pp. 111, 139, 152, “air” is used of a very slight breeze, the very
gentlest breath of wind, and represents _aura_--a good illustration of
the ambiguity of language.
QUOTATIONS
Seneca is fond of illustrating his subject by passages from the
poets. His favourites are Virgil and Ovid, and only once does he
quote Lucretius, whose work was much more analogous to his own.
The quotations are apparently from memory and betray occasional
inaccuracies, as even the best memories will.
The following is a list of the references:--
Book I. Pref., 8 (p. 6). Virg. _Aen._ iv. 404.
i. 4 (10). Virg. _Aen._ v. 528.
iii, 4 (17). Ovid, _Metamorp._ vi. 65. 7.
v. 6 (25). Nero in an unknown poem: one or two other tags of that
versatile tyrant have been preserved.
vi. 1 (28). Virg. _Georg._ i. 380. 1.
xi. 2 (35). Virg. _Georg._ ii. 95. 6.
xiv. 2 (38). Virg. _Georg._ i. 367. (cf. VII. xx. 1).
xvii. 5 (45). Virg. _Eclog._ ii. 25. 6.
Book II. i. 2 (51). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 55.
xliv. 1 (91). Ovid, _Metamorp._ iii. 305–7.
Book III. Pref., 3 (109). Origin unknown: a somewhat similar sentiment
occurs in _Aetna_, 24.
i. 1 (114). Ovid, _Metamorp._ iii. 407.
i. 1 (114). Virg. _Aen._ i. 245. 6.
i. 1 (114). Lucilius, to whom the _Q.N._ was addressed. If he was the
author of _Aetna_, as seems not improbable, he may have
written other poems on Sicilian topography.
xx. 2 (133). Ovid, _Metamorp._ xv. 313. 4 (cf. _Ibid._ xi. 3 _sqq._).
xx. 4 (134). Ovid, _Metamorp._ xv. 321.
xx. 5 (134). Ovid, _Metamorp._ xv. 330. 1.
xxvi. 3 (142). Ovid, _Metamorp._ xv. 273–6.
xxvi. 5 (142). Virg. _Eclog._ x. 4. 5.
xxvii. 12 (147). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 292.
xxvii. 12 (147). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 304.
xxvii. 13 (148). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 285. 290.
xxviii. 2 (148). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 272.
Book IV. Pref., 17 (165). Virg. _Aen._ iv. 373.
Pref., 17 (165). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 241. 2.
ii. 2 (168). Tib. _Eleg._ I. vii. 26.
iii. 3 (178). Ovid, _Ars Amat._ i. 475. 6.
iii. 3 (178). Lucret. _De Rerum Nat._ i. 313.
iv. 2 (179). Virg. _Georg._ i. 313.
Book V. i. 1 (193). Virg. _Eclog._ ii. 26.
xiv. 1 (206). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 388.
xvi. 1 (208). Ovid, _Metamorp._ i. 61–6.
xvi. 2 (209). Virg. _Aen._ i. 85.
Book VI. ii. 1 (225). Virg. _Aen._ ii. 354.
ii. 8 (227). Both quotation and author are doubtful: another reading
attributes the poem to A. Gellius.
xiii. 5 (241). Virg. _Aen._ vi. 256.
xvii. 1 (246). Virg. _Aen._ viii. 728.
xviii. 1 (247). Virg. _Aen._ i. 55. 6.
xviii. 3 (248). Virg. _Aen._ i. 53. 4.
xxii. 3 (253). Virg. _Aen._ viii. 525.
xxvi. 2 (258). Virg. _Aen._ iii. 77.
xxix. 3 (262). Virg. _Aen._ iii. 414–9.
Book VII. x. 1 (282). Ovid, _Metamorp._ ii. 71.
xx. 1 (292). Virg. _Georg._ i. 367 (cf. I. xiv. 2).
xx. 3 (293). Virg. _Aen._ ix. 20. 1.
xxv. 1 (298). Virg. _Georg._ i. 137.
xxviii. 1 (302). Virg. _Georg._ i. 392.
xxviii. 1 (302). Virg. _Georg._ i. 362.
SOME OF GERCKE’S READINGS
Rendering in the Text. Translation of Gercke’s Text.
I. p. 5, §7, the Strymon. the Danube and the Balkans.
8, 1, the explanation ... my opinion.
Philosophy.
9, 2, such as ... answer which each knows the other
me. cannot answer.
20, 10, an oar ... water. an oar is covered with
shallow water and presents
a broken appearance.
37, 1, _Bothynae_ (cave- _putei_ (well-like...).
like...).
40, 3, one has seen ... what is struck by them we
(= star-struck). call smitten with a flash,
that is, struck without
lightning-bolt, what the
Greeks call ἀστερόπληκτα
(= star-struck).
40, 4, of which more anon. of which we have spoken.
41, 7, For we judge ... But we judge that it is the
foreign body. deceptive appearance of
a mirror, which merely
gives a counterfeit repre-
sentation of a foreign
body.
II. 51, 2, After “rain, snow,” add “winds, earthquakes,
lightnings.”
56, 2, hold together as one be subject to tension.
body.
63, 4, on account of ... when it has accumulated,
clouds. is thrust violently upward
by the massing of the
clouds.
75, 2, and it might ... and which might with
bladder. greater accuracy be called
harsh, because it emits a
sound like that heard
when a bladder.
95, 2, a third neither. a third mixed, a fourth
neither.
98, 1, (c. lv.) dry air. air in rapid motion.
III. 122, 3, when trees are cut when trees are full of sap
down. and not cut down.
123, 1, air is produced. Gercke places c. xiv. immediately
after this.
132, 3, concealed throughout, after “throughout” insert
until. “in others they run above
ground for some distance.”
142, 5, you have yourself ... you, my dear Lucilius, believe
Virgil. the story as (I said)
in the first part [of my
book], and so does Virgil.
149, 4, nor do the waters, nor do the waters find this
etc. a hard task since the sea
mounts from an elevation
equal to that of the earth
(or land). If the heights
be calculated (or if the
average be taken over
the heights), it will appear
that the surface of the
sea is of uniform level.
IV. 161, 8, the stature ... the text and meaning are
arena. somewhat conjectural.
Gercke reads “the stature
of an ape matched against
a Thracian in the arena.”
For “Apollonius Pycta”
he reads “A. the boxer.”
173, 19, nor yet the Caÿstrus nor the Caÿstrus which lies
... deep. beneath Mount Tmolus
increases in summer, and
yet deep snow lies there
constantly as is natural
in those northern regions.
“_Tmolo_” is an ingenious
and probable emendation.
IV. 186, 1, no one ... virtuous. by which one may become
only more lettered and
not more virtuous.
VI. 232, 2, and, generally if the boats are unduly
speaking ... sunk, the water uses the
whole force of the burthens
it upbears, in order
either to pour over them,
or at any rate to rise to
an unwonted height to
right and left.
244, (c. xv.) to hurry to blow where it lists.
straight forward.
258, 2, philosophers. scholars, [or philologists].
265, 2, (c. xxxi.) soft mate- walls undergo more frequent
rials ... hard. but more gentle shocks
than the nature of hard
material allows.
VII. 296, 4, every star cannot but no star can traverse its
the zodiac, then I say a
comet may have a different
kind of orbit and yet
some point in it may coincide
with the zodiac.
INDEX TO THE “QUAESTIONES NATURALES”
^_a_ prefixed to a name indicates authorities used by Seneca.
^_a_ Academy, 307. School and followers of Plato.
Achaia, 142, 224, 225, 235, 288 (adj.), 303. District in N.W. of
southern part of Greece (Morea).
Actors, regard for, 307.
Adriatic, 153.
Adversity, to be faced with joy, 111, 112.
Aegean (Sea), 73, 252. Eastern part of the Mediterranean.
Aegium, 257 (2). A leading town in Achaia on the Gulf of Corinth.
^_a_ Aeschylus, 172.
Africa, 117, 212, 236, 263.
Africus (Wind), 210.
Air, tension of, 58;
wide diffusion of, 60;
transformed into water, 119, 121;
transformed into fire, 120, 121, 205;
kindled by friction, 205, 206, 277;
kindled within the earth, 236, 251;
the cause of earthquakes, 239–48, 251, 254, 255;
enters interior of earth, 254, 255.
Albula, 134. Small stream flowing into the Arno near Tibur (Tivoli)
some 16 miles E. of Rome.
Alexander (the Great), 110, 215, 254 (2).
Alexandria, 273.
Alpheüs, 142 (2), 235. River in Elis in Southern Greece.
Alps, 110, 173, 184.
Ambracian (Gulf), 153. On W. of Greece (Gulf of Arta).
Ammon; _see_ Jupiter.
Amphitheatre, jets of water in, 59.
^_a_ Anaxagoras, 63, 68, 172, 178, 236, 276. Celebrated Ionian
philosopher, 500–428 B.C.
^_a_ Anaximander, 67. Ionian philosopher, 610–547 B.C.
^_a_ Anaximenes, 67, 237. Ionian philosopher about 500 B.C.
Animals, blind in subterranean waters, 129.
Animals, new forms of, discovered in Seneca’s time, 305;
many still to be found out, 305.
Antiochus, 288. King of Syria, 137–128 B.C.
Antony (Mark), 172.
Ants, mankind compared to, 6.
Apennines, 184.
Apollonia, 12, 68, 176. Town in Illyria.
^_a_ Apollonius (of Myndus), 274, 290, 300. Said to have flourished
about the time of Alexander the Great (330 B.C.). There may
be some confusion in the text between him and the celebrated
Pythagorean philosopher, A. of Tyana, who was born shortly before
the Christian era.
Apollonius Pycta (or pyctes = the boxer), 161. Unknown otherwise;
apparently a gladiator.
Apulia, 211. District in S.E. of Italy.
Aquarius (sign of the Zodiac), 301.
Aquilo (Wind), 209.
^_a_ Aratus, 37. Of Cilicia, astronomical poet, flourished 270 B.C.
Araxes, 246. River in Armenia (Aras).
Arcadia, 122, 137. District in centre of Southern Greece.
^_a_ Archelaus, 239. Philosopher, flourished about 450 B.C. Pupil and
partly disciple of Anaxagoras.
Arethusa, 142 (2), 235. Celebrated fountain in Syracuse in Sicily.
Argestes (Wind), 210.
Argolic, 142. Argolis is a district in N.E. of Southern Greece.
^_a_ Aristotle, 8, 9, 10, 19 (2), 33, 63, 240, 242, 276, 277, 302 (2),
303 (2), 304. See Introduction.
^_a_ Artemidorus (of Parium), 22, 286 (2), 287. Not otherwise known.
^_a_ Asclepiodotus, 74, 77, 207, 246, 253. Not otherwise known.
Asia, 224, 233. Province on the W. coast of Asia Minor, or generic
name for area E. and N.E. of Europe.
Astronomy (_Caelestia_), scope of, 51;
of Egyptians, 274;
of Chaldaeans, 275;
of Greeks, 298.
Atabulus (Wind), 211.
Atalanta, 256. Small island between Euboea and mainland of Greece.
The channel now bears the name Talanta, which is likewise that of
a neighbouring town.
Athens, 211.
^_a_ Attalus, 94, 95. Stoic philosopher, one of Seneca’s teachers.
Attalus, 288. King of Pergamus, 241–197 B.C.
Atlantic Ocean, 174, 175 (2).
Atlantic Ocean, growth of trade to ports on shores of, 175.
Atmosphere, friction of, produces fires, 9, 39;
upper portion dry and hot, 39, 60, 65, 78;
possesses unity or continuity, 52, 57;
place of, in universe, 54;
earthy elements of, 56, 60;
tension of, 56;
lowest portion dense and dark, 60, 184;
and warmer than the rest, 183;
distribution of temperature in, 60, 184;
causes of movements of, 61;
relation of, to the ether, 65, 66;
adapted to transmit sound, 77;
rarefied, kindles fire, 100, 205;
by violent movement sets itself on fire, 102;
proof that it is never absolutely motionless, 193;
possesses a native capacity of movement, 197.
Atoms, the world a fortuitous concourse of, 7.
Augury, kinds of, 79, 80, 82.
Augustus, 9, 12, 42, 211, 290.
Auster (Wind), 210.
^_a_ Authorities (various, not specified by name, but spoken of as
“certain,” “some,” etc.), 18, 31, 35, 57, 63, 67, 73, 75, 93, 101,
110, 116, 118, 119, 122, 135, 148 (2), 150, 182, 184, 186, 230,
233, 236, 238, 239, 242, 243, 244, 283.
Avarice, denounced, 207.
Bactra, 215. In Central Asia (Balkh).
^_a_ Balbillus, 171. Governor of Egypt in Nero’s reign, 53.
Balkan Mountains; _see_ Haemus.
Baths, heating of water of, 136;
effect of Campanian earthquake on tiled floor of, 264.
Bathyllus, 307. A native of Alexandria, freedman at Rome during reign
of Augustus; perfected a pantomimic or ballet dance.
Bear (Great), 208.
Belus, 151. Babylonian deity.
^_a_ Berosus, 151. Priest of Belus, about 250 B.C.
Black Sea; _see_ Pontus.
Boeotia, 137. District in Central Greece.
Boreas (Wind), 208.
Bothynae (meteors), 37.
Breezes, morning, 195, 198.
Buris; _see_ Helice.
^_a_ Caecina, 86, 94, 95, 100. A friend and correspondent of Cicero,
about 48 B.C.
Caesar (Julius), 166, 213, 290.
Caius (Emperor Caligula), 163, 164.
Calabria, 211. District in extreme S.E. of Italy.
^_a_ Callimachus, 172. Grammarian and poet; chief librarian of
Alexandrine library, 260–240 B.C.
^_a_ Callisthenes, 254 (6), 258, 276, 277. Relative and pupil of
Aristotle, friend and victim of Alexander the Great.
Cambyses, 78. King of Persia, 529–522 B.C.
Campania, 221 (2), 224 (2), 225, 239, 257, 259 (adj.), 264, 265.
District in Italy containing Capua, Naples, etc.
Cancer (sign of the Zodiac), 151.
Cannae, 209. In Apulia.
Cannon, ancient types of, 67.
Capitol, 91.
Cappadocia, 138. Centre of Asia Minor.
Capricorn (sign of the Zodiac), 151.
Caria, 132, 142 (adj.). S.W. of Asia Minor.
Carthage, 110, 166.
Caspian, 153.
Cassander, 122. Son of Antipater, regent of Macedonia; eventually
king of Macedonia; died 297 B.C.
Castor and Pollux, 11. Constellation and sign of the Zodiac (Gemini).
Cataegis (Wind), 211.
Cataracts (Nile), 168.
Caucasus, 173.
Caves with noxious air, 134;
felt to be warmer in winter than in summer, 176, 241.
Caÿstrus (or Caÿster), 173. River in W. of Asia Minor flowing into
the sea near Ephesus.
Chalcis, 246, 257. Chief town of Euboea on Strait at narrowest point.
^_a_ Chaldaeans, 81, 275 (3), 302.
^_a_ Charimander (or Charmander), 276. Otherwise unknown.
Charms, laws against, 182.
Charybdis, 153. Whirlpool in Strait of Messina.
Chasmata (meteors), 38.
Chersonese (= peninsula), 142. Carian or Rhodian on S.W. of Asia Minor.
Chios, 175. Island and town (Scio) off coast of Asia Minor.
^_a_ Cicero, 100.
Ciconians, 133. Tribe in Thrace.
Circius (Wind), 211.
Claudius (Emperor), 290, 294, 304.
Cleonae, 181, 182. Town in Argolis.
Cleopatra, 172 (2). Antony’s celebrated partner.
^_a_ Clidemus, 99. A philosopher anterior in date to Aristotle.
Clouds, as sources of lightning and thunder, 10, 62, 63, 64, 75, 203;
invisible when we are within them, 24;
composition of, 24;
compression of, causes thunder, 67;
produce fire, 70, 74, 100;
must be burst before they emit sound, 76, 98;
not necessarily connected with wind, 195;
as sources of wind, 203, 204.
Cloud-winds, 203.
Colours (in rainbow), origin of, 21, 25, 30, 31.
Comets, infrequency of, 272, 288, 301;
what are they? 272;
points of resemblance of, to planets, 273;
resemblance to meteors, 275, 276;
classes of, 276, 290;
not due to wind, 278, 279–282;
curved path of, 279;
long visibility of, 282;
distribution and shape of, 283;
Greek classification of, 283;
different from the planets, 284;
examples of, 288, 290;
vast orbits of, 290, 297, 302;
vary in apparent size as they advance or retreat, 291;
transparency of, 291, 300;
Stoic opinions regarding, 291–294;
directions of, 294, 303, 304;
Seneca’s opinion, 295, 305;
form of, 300;
portents from, 302.
^_a_ Conon, 274. Astronomer; born at Samos; lived at Alexandria about
250 B.C. Said to have been a friend of Archimedes.
Constellations, 301.
Contentment, duty of, 112.
Continuity or unity, defined, 53.
Corus (Wind), 210.
Corycian (Mt.), 122. The district round Corycus in Cilicia was famous
for saffron.
Crassus, 215. Celebrated Roman, slain in battle in Mesopotamia,
53 B.C.
Crete, 123, 153 (adj.).
Crispus Passienus, 160. Stepfather of Nero. Consul in 42.
Crocodiles and dolphins, fight between, 171;
chase of, 172.
Cutiliae, 139 (2). In the Sabine country, N.E. of Rome.
Cyclades, 147. Group of islands in Grecian Archipelago.
Cyclopes, 91. Jove’s fabled armourers with workshops beneath Etna,
Stromboli, etc.
Cyprus, 259.
Dacian, 5.
Danube, as a political boundary, 5, 233;
alleged remarkable character of, 135;
floods of, 146;
contrasted with the Nile, 166;
not swollen in winter, 173.
Darius, 254. King of Persia, 521–485 B.C.
Death, to be faced without fear, 103, 223, 226, 265–268;
equalises mankind, 223;
the introduction to a better place than earth, 267.
Delos, 258, 259. Perhaps the most famous of “the isles of Greece.”
Deluge, that is to destroy the earth, 143.
^_a_ Demetrius, 161. Cynic philosopher, contemporary of Seneca.
Demetrius (father and son), 288. Kings of Syria between 162 and
125 B.C.
^_a_ Democritus, 183 (2), 194, 249, 250, 276. The optimist or
“laughing philosopher” of Abdera in Thrace; said to have lived
460–361 B.C.
^_a_ Diogenes (of Apollonia in Crete), 68, 176, 177. Pupil of
Anaximenes, lived in fifth century B.C.
Dnieper (Borysthenes), 174.
Dog-star, 202.
Dolphins and crocodiles, fight between, 171.
Doris, translated “sea nymph” in the quotation from Virgil, 142.
Dowsers, 127.
Drops, globular form of, 178.
Drunkenness, 134, 188.
Earth, material of, formed from water, 120, 121.
Earth as a whole, place of the, in universe, 55;
formed after the plan of our bodies, 126, 151, 242, 255;
final destruction of, 143;
itself the cause of earthquakes, 237;
whether it or the universe revolves, 273.
Earth’s interior, water supply in, 119, 206, 233, 234;
cold temperature of, 119, 121;
like surface above ground, 128, 206;
blind animals in waters of, 129;
origin of wind within, 206, 239, 243, 244, 254;
landslips in, 238, 249, 251;
store of vital air in, 244, 245.
Earthquakes, causes of, 51, 229, 230, 236, 249;
effects of, 121, 221, 229, 257, 259, 262, 263;
Campanian (of A.D. 63), 221, 257, 259, 262, 264;
influence of, on the human mind, 222, 262;
widespread destruction produced by, 223;
not the work of angry gods, 228;
Seneca’s youthful work on, 230;
water as the origin of, 231;
fire as the origin of, 236, 238;
air as the origin of, 239–248, 251, 255, 256, 264;
mixed sources of, 249;
varieties of movement in (_inclinatio_, _succussio_, _tremor_), 252;
most frequent near the sea, 255;
cause of local extent of, 257;
features of the Campanian, 259–264;
the first shock of, the most violent, 264.
Eclipses, 35, 274, 284, 293.
Egypt, 6, 167–177 (_passim_);
great heat in, 173;
said not to be visited by earthquakes, 258.
^_a_ Egyptians, ideas of, as to the elements, 125;
astronomy of, 274.
Elements, interchangeability of, 120, 121, 245;
four in number, 123;
contrariety of, 301.
Eleusis, 306. In Attica, N.W. of Athens about 12 miles; scene of the
great Eleusinian mysteries.
Elis, 114, 257. District in S.W. of Southern Greece.
Emanations, terrestrial, feed the sun and stars, 55, 198, 244;
cause thunder, lightning, and commotion of the air, 63, 275;
dry and moist, 63, 78.
^_a_ Empedocles, 136 (2). Philosopher of Agrigentum in Sicily,
flourished about 444 B.C.
^_a_ Ephorus, 289 (3). Greek historian of some repute about 340 B.C.
^_a_ Epicurus, 250. Born 342, died 270 B.C.
^_a_ Epigenes, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280 (2), 283. A Greek
astronomer of Byzantium of uncertain date.
Erasinus, 142. River of Argolis.
Etesian (Winds), 174 (4), 175, 201 (4), 202 (4), 212.
Ether, characters of the, 65;
descent of force from the, 68.
Ethiopia, 6, 117, 167, 168, 172, 173, 212, 235. Term was applied very
loosely to all the hinterland of Africa, only the Mediterranean
coast and a portion of the Nile basin being known to the Greeks.
Etna, 77.
^_a_ Etruscans (or Tuscans), 79, 88, 92, 95 (sing.). Etruria lay
immediately N. of the Tiber.
^_a_ Eudoxus, 274. Astronomer of Cnidus in Caria, pupil of Plato,
flourished about 366 B.C.
Euphrates, 5, 215.
^_a_ Euripides, 173.
Euronotus (Wind), 210.
Europe, 173 (adj.), 233.
Eurus (Wind), 208, 209.
^_a_ Euthymenes (of Marseilles), 174, 175 (2). Geographer, probably
about 150 B.C.
Evaporation from the earth, 198, 200, 240.
Expiation, the reason for, 83, 84.
Eyesight swifter than hearing, 64.
^_a_ Fabianus (Papirius), 144. Distinguished Stoic, one of Seneca’s
teachers.
Falernian (wine), 35. District famous for wine in N. of Campania.
Fate, unalterable, 83;
nature of, 84, 91;
uncertainty of visitations of, 225.
Favonius (Wind), 210.
Fear, how to be combated, 103, 225, 229, 265, 266, 267;
arises from ignorance, 229;
leads to loss of reason, 262.
Fidus Annaeus, 161. Apparently a gladiator of gigantic stature.
Fire, kindled in atmosphere, 39, 62, 64, 70, 100, 102;
passes into air, 120;
artificial modes of producing, by percussion or friction, 70;
naturally rises, 71, 102;
endowed with the power of producing some animals, 197;
as the cause of earthquakes, 236, 238;
produced in the earth’s interior, 251;
kindled by air, 251.
Fires, celestial, 8, 39, 294, 295, 296.
Fish in underground waters, 129, 132.
Flattery, counsel against, 159.
Floods, the earth to be finally destroyed by, 143, 144.
Fortune, vicissitudes of, 111.
Fountains, discharges from, 142.
Fucinus, 116. Large lake in Sabine country E. of Rome.
Gaetulicus, 163. Cn. Cornelius Lentulus G., put to death by
Caligula 39.
Galatia, 138.
Gallic, 6.
Gallio, 161, 202. See Introduction.
Gaul, 117, 122 (pl.), 211.
Geography (_Terrena_), scope of, 51, 52.
Germanicus, 9. Nero Claudius Drusus, brother of the Emperor Tiberius,
died 10 B.C.
Germans, 233.
Germany, 5, 117, 166.
Gibraltar, 175.
Glass, globe of, filled with water magnifies objects, 29;
cause of iridescence in, 30.
God, nature of, 3, 4, 7, 8, 91, 305;
sends portents, 80;
unchangeable, 84;
to Him everything is present, 84;
His design in creating the winds, 213, 216.
Gods, dread of infernal, 208;
do not disturb heaven or earth, 228;
not to be feared, 266.
Gold, lust for, denounced, 5, 208, 215.
Greece, 215, 274 (2), 298.
Greek, 58, 95, 210, 255.
^_a_ Greeks, 12, 13, 15, 34, 39, 40, 140, 169, 198, 203, 205, 209
(2), 210, 211, 240, 255, 283.
Gusts of wind, origin of, 203.
Gylippus, 12. Spartan commander against Athenians at Syracuse,
414 B.C.
Haemus (Balkan Mountains), 122.
Hail, 177, 181;
falls more in summer than winter, 179;
prognostications of, 181.
Halos (crowns), round sun and moon, 12, 14, 34, 41.
Hannibal, 110, 209. Famous Carthaginian general in Second Punic War,
219–201 B.C.
Happiness, how to be gained, 5, 266.
Heavenly bodies, influence of, on rivers, 141;
on weather, 275;
apparent retrogression of some, 299.
Heavens, extent of the, 7;
contemplation of the starry, 271;
divisions of the, 210;
supposed by Artemidorus to be a solid vault, 286.
Helice and Buris (or Bura), 254, 257, 259, 267, 276, 277, 289. Towns
in Achaia swallowed by earthquake 373 B.C.
Heracleotic (mouth of the Nile), 171. Most westerly and largest, not
far from Alexandria.
^_a_ Heraclitus, 100. Ancient representative of pessimism, “the
weeping philosopher,” of Ephesus, toward end of sixth century B.C.
Herculaneum, 221 (2), 259.
^_a_ Homer, 258.
Horizon, 211.
Hostius Quadra, 42. Unknown save for Seneca’s unfortunate mention of
him.
Hydissus, 132. Orthography of this Carian town is uncertain; Gercke
reads Idumus.
Hydraulic organs, 56.
Iapygian (Wind), 211.
Ice, 140.
India, 7, 212, 215.
Intermittent action, 128.
Iron, discovery of, 45;
money made of, 46.
Islands, floating, 139.
Ister (or Hister), a name of the Danube, _which see_.
Italy, 110, 117, 133, 212, 261, 262 (adj.), 263.
Junior, _see_ Lucilius, 168.
Jupiter (Jove), temple of, in African desert (Ammon), 78;
his thunderbolts, 88, 89, 91, 92;
affords lessons to earthly rulers, 90;
other names for, 91, 92.
Jupiter, the planet, 284, 299.
Lacedaemonians, 189. Lacedaemon, or Sparta, was in Laconia, the
district in the S.E. of Southern Greece.
Ladon, 257. River in Arcadia, tributary of Alpheus.
Laelius, 268. Friend of the younger Scipio Africanus, consul 140 B.C.
Chief interlocutor in Cicero’s Dialogue on Friendship.
Lakes, with dense water, 138, 139;
underground, 154;
wide extent of some, 233.
Land and sea breezes, 198.
Landslips, 238, 249, 251;
effects of, 253.
Latin, 210 (2).
Leo (sign of the Zodiac), 301.
Lepidus, 166 (3). Formed with Augustus and Antony the Second
Triumvirate after Caesar’s assassination in 44 B.C.
Libonotus (Wind), 210.
Libyan (Wind), 210.
Life, the proper conduct in, 112, 159, 266;
uncertainty of, 226;
to be carried in our hand if we desire to live happy and without
fear, 266.
Lightning, 62, 66, 69, 86, 87, 100;
effects of, 78, 87, 88, 96;
portents indicated by, 79, 81, 82, 86, 92, 94, 95, 215;
possible pestilential power in, 97;
cause of zigzag course of, 102;
moral lessons to be derived from a consideration of, 104;
safe retreats from, 223;
blinding effects of, 292;
connected with the planets, 275.
^_a_ Livy (Titus Livius), 209, 213. Roman historian, 59 B.C.-17.
Lower Sea; _see_ Propontis.
Lucilius Junior, 1, 103, 109, 114, 142, 159 (2), 161, 162, 163, 217,
221, 265, 267, 268. See Introduction.
Luxury, introduction of, 45, 46;
growth of, 47, 188;
illustrations of, 129, 187;
denunciation of, 130, 187, 306.
Lycia, 140. District S.W. of Asia Minor.
Lycus, 142. River, probably of Phrygia in Asia Minor, flowing into
the Maeander.
Lydia, 139. District in W. of Asia Minor.
Lyncestis, 134.
Macedonia, 138, 207, 224, 303.
Magnesia, 122. Town of Lydia.
Mankind, compared to ants, 6;
early ages of, 45, 46;
final destruction of, 147, 152;
re-creation of, after the deluge, 155;
world not made only for, 305.
Marmora or Marmara (Sea of); _see_ Propontis.
Mars, the planet, 10, 275, 284.
Marseilles, 174.
Marshes, 233;
of the Nile, 236.
Magalenopolis (or Megalepolis or Megalopolis), 257. Town in Arcadia.
Melas, 137. River of Boeotia in Central Greece.
Memphis, 170. Great Egyptian city a little above Cairo.
^_a_ Menander, 165. Athenian comic poet, 342–291 B.C.
Mercury, the planet, 284.
Messalina, 163. Third wife of Emperor Claudius;
put to death by Narcissus, 48.
Messana (Messina), 142.
Metalliferous veins, 126.
Metals, melted by lightning, 78, 96;
denunciation of the search for the precious, 207, 215.
Meteorology (_Sublimia_), scope of, 51.
Meteors, 8–11, 37, 38, 40, 275, 276, 292, 293, 296.
^_a_ Metrodorus (of Chios), 248 (2). Philosopher who flourished about
330 B.C. “Sceptic.” Disciple of Democritus, perhaps.
Milky Way, 289.
Mind, the human, its nature and seat unknown, 297.
Mines, water in, 154;
ancient, explored by Philip of Macedon, 207.
Mirrors, 22, 23, 24, 27, 41, 42, 44, 45, 47.
Mock-suns, 35.
Moon, eclipse of, 298;
varying colour of, 300.
Moral reflections, Seneca’s, 1–8, 42, 44–47, 102–105, 109–114,
130–132, 143–156, 159–166, 186–190, 207, 213–217, 222–229, 254,
265–268.
Mountains, insignificance of height of, compared with the whole mass
of the earth, 184.
Mushrooms, 189.
Mylae, 142. Town on N. coast of Sicily, near Messina.
Myndus, 274, 290. Town in Caria.
Naples, partly damaged by earthquake of A.D. 63, 221.
Narcissus, 164. Freedman of Claudius, put to death by Agrippina, 54.
Natural Philosophy, 3, 8.
Nature, influence of, 3;
origin of, 7;
as a synonym for God, 92;
advantage of the study of, 113, 265;
finds no task hard, 144, 154;
inadequate conceptions of, 228;
study
of, the highest pursuit, 230;
power of variation in, 301;
inexhaustibility of, 306;
still most imperfectly known, 306.
Naval wars denounced, 213.
Nebaioth, 208. An Arabian people, put for East in general. Latin form
is Nabataei.
Neptune (Earthshaker), 255.
^_a_ Nero Caesar, 25, 235, 290, 294; probably referred to, though
not named, 90 (last two sentences).
Nicopolis, 259. City in W. of Greece at entrance to Ambracian
Gulf. The word means “city of victory,” something like our
oft-recurrent “Victoria.”
Nile, unusual character of, 114, 135, 166;
physiological effect of water of, 140;
rise of, 141, 167, 169, 172;
course of, 168, 170, 233;
cataracts of, 168;
mode of descent of, 169;
delta of, 170, 171;
canalisation of, 170;
deposit of, 170, 258;
inundation of, 171;
supposed underground supply of, 235;
Nero’s expedition to the, 235;
transport of sediment by, 258.
Nonacris, 137. Town in Arcadia.
Notus (Wind), 209.
Nuceria, 221. Town in Campania.
Ocean, 6 (2), 112, 119, 135, 143, 153, 155, 231, 254 (2), 266.
^_a_ Oenopides (of Chios), 175. Mathematician and astronomer,
probably contemporary of Anaxagoras, fifth century B.C.
Olympic, 142 (2). Olympia was in Elis.
Olympus, 257. High mountain in Thessaly, Northern Greece.
Omens, arranged by Providence, 80;
from lightning, 82.
Organs (hydraulic), 56.
Ossa, 257. Mountain in Thessaly, Northern Greece.
Ostia, 41. Town at mouth of Tiber; port of Rome.
^_a_ Ovid, 114, 133, 148, 165, 168. Latin poet, 43 B.C.-18.
Parhelia, 35.
Pamphylia, 211. District on S. of Asia Minor.
^_a_ Panaetius, 304. Stoic philosopher of Rhodes, friend of Laelius
and the younger Scipio Africanus; died 111 B.C.
Paphos, 259. Town on W. of Cyprus.
Parium, 22. Town in Mysia on N.W. of Asia Minor.
Parthians, 5, 215.
Paterculus, 303. His consulship is said to have been in the year 60.
Patras, 257. Town at entrance of Gulf of Corinth.
Paulus, 9. L. Aemilius P., consul 181 and 168 B.C.
Peacock, analogy from colours of, 25.
Peloponnesian (War), 256, 258. Lasted 431–404 B.C. between Athens and
Sparta.
Peneüs, 138, 257. Great river draining the plain of Thessaly and
flowing through vale of Tempe between Olympus and Ossa; now
called Salambria.
Perseus, 9. Last king of Macedonia, 178–168 B.C.
Persia, 208, 215.
Persians, 254.
Pestilential vapours emitted from the ground, 260, 261.
Pharos, 258. Island off Alexandria with famous lighthouse, united to
mainland by Alexander the Great.
Phasis, 174. River of Colchis at E. of Black Sea.
Philae, 168 (3), 169. Island in the Nile, just below First Cataract.
Seneca seems to confuse it with the so-called island of Meroë, at
the junction of the Blue Nile and Atbara.
Philip, 110, 207 (2). Father of Alexander the Great; king of
Macedonia 359–336 B.C.
Philosophers, debt due to the early, 230;
credulous folk, 258;
severe criticisms of, 125, 175, 288, 289.
Philosophy, divisions of, 3;
pleasures of, 4, 5;
benefits conferred by, 97;
delivers its votaries from fear, 225;
rewards of, 229;
decadence of, 307, 308.
^_a_ Pindar, 258. Greek poet, 522–442 B.C.
Pithitae, or pithiae (meteors), 38, 40.
Plancus, 160. L. Munatius P., a prominent actor in the civil wars,
48–31 B.C.
Planets, colours of, 10;
enumerated, 275;
fixed number of, 284;
orbits of, 285;
motions of, 288;
possibly greater number of, 297;
conspicuous movements of, 298.
^_a_ Plato, 216.
Pollux, 11; _see_ Castor.
Pompeii, 221, 259 (2).
Pompey, 166 (3). Defeated by Caesar 48 B.C., and assassinated shortly
after.
Pontus (district in N.E. of Asia Minor), 141.
Pontus (Black Sea), 153, 176, 180 (?).
Portents from meteors, 9, 228, 259;
lightning, 79, 86, 93, 94, 95, 215;
eclipses, 228;
comets, 272, 290, 302.
^_a_ Posidonius, 26, 27, 73, 74, 98 (2), 177, 246, 252, 256, 292,
293. A very distinguished Stoic philosopher, president of that
school. Instructor for a time and friend of Cicero. Prosecuted
physical investigations with great success. Native of Syria.
Lived 135–51 B.C.
Posterity, great increase of knowledge to be attained by, 298.
Predestination, 85.
Prognostications; _see_ Portents.
Propontis (Sea of Marmora), 153, 176 (Lower Sea).
Providence, 92, 213.
Puteoli, 133. On coast of Campania.
Pylades, 307. A Cilician; a dancer like Bathyllus.
Pyrenees, 5.
^_a_ Pyrrho, 307. Founder of the sect of the Sceptics, native of
Elis; flourished about fourth century B.C.
^_a_ Pythagoras, 307. Flourished in second half of sixth century B.C.
Pyx, trial of, 180.
Rain, Seneca’s observation on descent of, into soil, 117;
share of, in final destruction of the world, 143, 144, 149;
seasonal variations of, 179;
supposed to be influenced by incantations, 182.
Rainbow, 16–33.
Rainless countries, 167, 173.
Red Sea, 112, 153, 168.
Regulus, 221. Consul 63.
Reverence, duty of, 304.
Rhaetian, 35. The reference is to wine grown in the N. of Italy
(Cisalpine Gaul).
Rhine, 146 (2), 173, 233.
Rhodians, 142. Island of Rhodes was at S.W. of Asia Minor.
Rhone, 146, 173.
Rivers as political boundaries, 5, 233;
sources of supply of, 116;
underground, 132, 141, 206, 207, 233, 235;
summer rise of, 141, 173.
Roman, 5, 12, 46, 110, 113, 166.
Rome, 110, 166, 182, 209, 307.
Roots, disruptive force of, 57.
Rulers, counsel to, 90.
Sacrifice cannot alter fate, 84;
to keep off hail, 181.
St. Elmo’s Fire, 11, 37.
^_a_ Sallust, 279. Roman historian, 86–34 B.C.
Sarmatian, 5, 233 (pl.). Roughly speaking, the S. part of Russia.
Saturn, the planet, 275 (2), 284, 303.
Scipio, 46 (2). The elder Sc. Africanus, victor of Hannibal at Zama,
202 B.C.
Scironian (Wind), 211.
Scylla, 153; _see_ Charybdis.
Scythia, 180, 208. Term used very loosely of region in Central and
Northern Asia, but at times extending to Europe, as far west as
the Danube. Sarmatia of one age was part of Scythia of another.
Sea, unity of the, 125;
coeval with the world, 135;
throws ashore ill-smelling deposits, 142;
share of, in final destruction of the earth, 143, 150;
current of, from Black Sea, 176;
subterranean, 234.
Sea and land breezes, 198.
Seafaring, condemned, 216.
Sea-water, purged of its salt within the earth, 116.
Sejanus, 9. Notorious instrument of Tiberius; put to death 31.
Sela (gleams in the sky), 39.
Self, bondage of slavery to, 113.
Septemtrio (Wind), 210.
^_a_ Sextii, 307. Father and son in the time of Augustus and Nero
respectively; taught a combination of Stoic and Pythagorean
doctrines.
Sheep, destruction of, during Campanian earthquake of A.D. 63, 259.
Sicily and Sicilian, 114, 138, 142 (2), 153, 159, 166 (2), 235, 262,
263.
Sidon, 256.
Snow, melting in Ethiopia erroneously supposed to be the cause of the
annual rise of the Nile, 173;
supplies some European rivers, 173;
on European mountains, 173;
origin of, 178, 179, 182, 186;
said to feel colder to the feet when dry and hard than when slushy
and half melted, 180;
artificial use of, 187.
^_a_ Sophocles, 172.
Soul, divine origin of, 6;
to be rescued from error and fear of death, 103.
Sound less rapid than light, 64.
Spain and Spanish, 6, 7, 110, 263.
Springs, 118, 121, 127, 136, 142.
Squalls, origin of, 204;
short duration of, 281.
Stabiae, 221. Small town on coast of Campania.
Stars, fed by emanations from the earth, 55, 198, 244;
influence of, in human affairs, 81;
nature of, 273;
transits of, 284;
supposed small size of, 288;
place of, in sky, 297;
varying colours of, 300.
Stars, falling, 10, 11, 37, 99, 296.
Statonia, 139. Town in Etruria, about 15 miles from the coast.
Stoics, 32, 40, 58, 66, 95, 119, 124, 135, 151, 180, 181 (2), 210,
251, 291, 292, 293, 295 (my school).
^_a_ Strato, 240. Succeeded Theophrastus as head of the Peripatetic
school in 288 B.C. Native of Lampsacus in Mysia on the Hellespont.
Streaks in the sky, 33.
Strymon, 5. River of Thrace and Macedonia (Struma). The text of the
passage is very doubtful.
Styx, 137. River in Arcadia.
Submergence of Helice and Buris, 254, 257, 259, 267, 276, 289;
of Atalanta, 256;
of Sidon, 256;
of other cities and nations, 267.
Subsolane (Wind), 209.
Sudd, 236 n.
Sulphur, baneful effects of, in water, 134;
supposed to warm water, 136;
exists in large quantity underground, 206.
“Sulphur smell” produced by lightning, 69, 97.
Sun, size of, 20, 288;
eclipse of, 35, 274, 284, 293;
draws his sustenance from the earth, 55, 198, 244;
movements of, 271;
among the constellations, 301.
Superstition, 271.
Surrentum, 221. Town on promontory in Campania.
Syracuse, 12, 142.
Syria, 138, 288.
Tempe, 137. Vale or gorge in Thessaly; _see_ Peneüs.
Temperature of atmosphere, 60, 183, 184;
of various waters, 136.
Tension, effects of, 56, 58.
Tentyra, 172. Island in the Nile (Denderah), not far from Thebes.
^_a_ Thales, 124, 125, 174, 233. Of Miletus; may be considered the
father of Greek philosophy, 636–546 B.C.
Thebes, 257. Capital of Boeotia. There was a more ancient city of
the same name in Upper Egypt on whose site are the modern Luxor,
Karnak, etc.
^_a_ Theophrastus 122 (3), 129, 138, 139, 141, 172, 240, 303. Of
Lesbos, favourite pupil and successor of Aristotle, head of
Peripatetic school, 322–287 B.C.
Therasia and There (Thera), 252. Small volcanic islands in the group
called Sporades, S. of Cyclades.
Thessaly, 137, 257.
Thrace and Thracians, 5, 161, 173, 254.
^_a_ Thucydides, 256, 258.
Thunderings, 62, 67;
different kinds of, 75;
causes of, 98.
Tiberius Caesar, 41.
Tigris, 142, 235.
Time, wasting influence of, 238, 253;
fleetingness of, 268.
Trade to Atlantic ports, 175.
Transmutation of the elements, 120, 121.
Troglodytes, 173. Cave-dwellers, specially applied to tribes on W. of
Red Sea.
Tuscans; _see_ Etruscans.
Tyre and Tyrian, 27, 224, 225.
Unity or continuity, defined, 53.
Universe, defined, 54;
impetuous whirl of, 273;
ceaseless revolution of, 281, 294, 299;
a harmony of discords, 301.
Vacuum, non-existent in nature, 128.
Vadimonian (Lake), 139. In Etruria, not far from the Tiber, the Lago
di Bassano, now dried up.
^_a_ Vagellius, 227. Name unknown, probably corrupt.
Valerius Asiaticus, 74. Consul, for the second time, in 46.
^_a_ Varro, 209 (2). Famous grammarian, antiquarian, etc., 116–28 B.C.
Venus, the planet, 284.
Vice, conquest of, leads to highest happiness, 5;
continued progress of, 46, 187, 306, 307.
^_a_ Virgil, 28, 35, 114, 142, 165, 209, 241, 253, 258.
Virginius, 221. Consul 63.
Vitellius, 160. Name doubtful; may refer to father of Emperor
Vitellius, who flourished under Caligula and Claudius, being
consul in 34.
Volcanic eruptions, 73, 74, 77, 252.
Vopiscus, 303. Consul 60.
Vultur, 209. Mountain on borders of Apulia.
Vulturnus (Wind), 209.
Wars, denunciation of, 213, 214.
Water, forms of, 114, 115, 233;
transformed into air, 120;
formed from earth, 120;
as one of the four elements, 124;
Thales’ opinions on, 124, 231;
underground sources of, 126, 233, 234, 235;
various tastes of, 133;
petrifying powers of, 133;
varying temperatures of, 136;
artificial heating of, 136;
baneful kinds of, 137;
dyeing properties of some kinds of, 137;
varying densities of, 138;
supposed physiological effects of some, 140;
in mines, 154;
produces animal and plant life, 197;
as the cause of earthquakes, 231, 233, 234.
Watergalls and sun-dogs, 33.
Weather indications, 11, 14, 15, 28, 37, 39, 75, 181, 275, 302, 303.
Wells and their water-supply, 118, 123, 128;
warm winter temperature of, 176, 241.
Whirlwinds, 204, 275, 276, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282.
Will, freedom of the, 85, 86.
Wind, definition of, 193;
Democritus’ view of origin of, 194;
origin of, 196, 200, 203, 204;
within the earth, 205, 206, 239, 243, 244;
number and names of the winds, 208–212;
teleological design of, 212, 216;
misuse of, by man, 216;
beneficial influences of, 216;
disruptive energy of, 252.
Winds, 208–211. The following are specified: Africus, Aquilo,
Argestes, Atabulus, Auster, Ἀφηλιώτης (= Subsolane), Boreas,
Cataegis, Circius, Corus, Etesian, Euronotus, Eurus, Favonius,
Iapygian, Καικίας, Libonotus, Libyan, Notus, Scironian,
Septemtrio, Subsolane, Thracias, Vulturnus, Zephyrus.
Wine, frozen by lightning, 79, 97.
World, revolution of, 20.
^_a_ Zeno, 291. Native of Cyprus, founder of the Stoic philosophy,
lived between middle of fourth and third centuries B.C.
Zephyrus (Wind), 208.
Zodiac, 285, 291, 296.
THE END
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