are in metallic connection with the track rails, it is evident that
if the conduits should fill with water to the depth of the wire _f_
the current would pass directly to the rails, and thus would avoid the
longer path through the motors. To prevent this occurrence, the sides
of the conduit are inclosed with the sheet-iron covers _c c_, which
nominally are in the position shown by the dotted lines _i i_. The
plow is also provided with the arms _b b_, upon the ends of which are
mounted small wheels _a a_, and these run upon tracks attached to the
covers _c c_. As is shown in the figure, the wheels _a a_, running upon
the tracks attached to the covers _c c_, cause the latter to spread
out to the position in which they are shown. This spreading, as can be
readily understood, only takes place for a short distance ahead and
behind the plow, but at all other parts of the conduit the sides assume
the position _i i_, and thus close the conduit and exclude the water.
It can be easily seen that some difficulty would be encountered in
making a tight joint at _h h_, and also that the opening and closing of
the sides might not operate as perfectly in practice as upon paper, but
it does not follow from these facts that the design is not practical;
it simply illustrates that there are many minor difficulties to be
overcome in order that complete success may be attained. Many designs
operating upon this principle have been patented, and in some of them a
great amount of ingenuity is displayed.
[Illustration: FIG. 26.--UNDERGROUND CONDUIT WITH INCLOSED CONDUCTOR.]
Fig. 26 illustrates another type of inclosed conductor which at a first
glance appears to be far superior to that just described, but upon
closer investigation it is found to be not wholly free from objections
that are difficult to overcome. The yoke _F F_, as in the design just
described, is made wide enough to support upon its outer ends the track
rails _R R_, and is cut away in the middle to an outline conforming
with the shape of the conduit. The conductor that carries the current
is located at _d_, being supported by the stands _e_. An elastic tube
_f_ is provided, which is water-tight and thus excludes moisture from
its interior, within which the conductor _d_ is located. On the top of
tube _f_ a flexible rail _b_ is secured, and this connects with studs
_c_, which are within the tube, as clearly shown in the drawing, and so
situated that they may be forced down into contact with _d_. Normally
these studs are separated from _d_, but when the car comes along, the
wheel _a_, mounted upon the end of plow _P_, flattens the tube _f_ and
thus forces one or more of the studs _c_ into contact with _d_. The
distance between the studs _c_ is such that at least two will always be
in contact with _d_, thus insuring a continuous electrical connection
with the motors so long as the plow is depressed.
The first impression upon looking at this design would be that it is
entirely free from objections; for if we assume that the tube _f_ is
made of rubber, we can see it in our mind's eye springing up after
the plow passes by and thus separating the contacts _c_ from _d_, and
at the same time yielding freely to the pressure of the wheel _a_.
All of this is true, but rubber is not very durable when under such
exposed conditions, and to maintain a length of several miles of it in
a perfect state for even two or three years could not reasonably be
expected; and if it became necessary to renew the tube oftener than
this the cost of maintenance would be entirely too great. There is
another objection, however, which is more serious, and that is that the
conduit will gradually fill up with dirt, and this pressing against the
rubber tube would force it out of shape, and thus cause the contacts
_c_ to bear permanently upon _d_, or else to become so far displaced
that they would not touch it when depressed by the plow.
As the rubber tube can not be depended upon, inventors have sought
to improve the construction by using sheet steel and making the
tube flatter and much wider, so that a section of it would present
an outline much resembling an elliptic carriage spring. Such a
construction will meet the requirements as to strength and the
retention of the contacts _c_ in their proper position; but steel
expands when warm and contracts when cooled, therefore a long tube
would be stretched so much in winter that it might pull apart, while in
summer it would be compressed and tend to buckle up and thus be forced
out of place. These difficulties can be overcome by providing expansion
joints at suitable intervals, so that they are not necessarily proof
of the impracticability of devices based upon the principles involved
in this design; they simply serve to forcibly bring to mind the fact
that the path of the inventor of underground systems is not strewn with
roses, no matter in what direction he may turn to find a solution of
the problem.
[Illustration: FIG. 27.--UNDERGROUND CONDUIT WITH EXPOSED CONDUCTORS.]
The object in the designs Figs. 25 and 26 is to shield the conductor
so that it will remain dry should the conduit be filled or partially
filled with water. If water could be excluded from the conduit, the
casing _j c c_, in the first figure, and the tube _f_, in the second
one, would not be required, for there is no difficulty in providing an
insulating support that will hold the conductor firmly in place and
at the same time prevent the escape of the current; but as soon as
moisture collects upon the surfaces of the insulating supports it acts
as a conductor, and thus renders the insulation of little value. If
water runs into the conduit in such quantities as to come in contact
with the conductor, then the effect of the insulation is entirely
destroyed; the aim of the inventors, therefore, is to provide means for
preventing the accumulation of water or moisture around the conducting
wire. It can be readily seen that the shorter the conductor the easier
it is to protect it, and this fact has given rise to the development of
a great number of designs classified as sectional conductors. In these,
two conductors are used, one of which is continuous and so situated
and insulated that it can not under any conditions be reached by either
moisture or water. The other conductor is made in lengths that vary
all the way from fifteen to two or three hundred feet. Normally, these
short sections are not connected with the circuit--they are dead, as
it is called--but when the car comes along, the plow, by acting upon
suitable mechanism, establishes a connection between the continuous
conductor and the portion of the sectional conductor that is directly
under it, and in this way the current passes to the car. As soon
as the car passes beyond a section of the sectional conductor, the
connection between it and the continuous wire is broken automatically.
Some of these arrangements depend upon mechanical devices, such as
levers that are struck by the plow and thereby move a switch that
closes a connection between the section and the continuous conductor,
but in most instances the switch is operated by a magnet, which may
be carried by the car or may be arranged so as to be energized as the
car approaches it. Designs of this last type come under the head of
electrically operated sectional conductor systems. There are other
arrangements in which a magnet carried by the car attracts iron levers
suitably disposed along the conduit, and these levers close switches
that connect the section of conductor under the car with the continuous
one. As the levers are actuated by the magnet, they only hold the
switch closed while the latter passes over them; thus the electrical
connection is made and broken as the car moves along.
[Illustration: FIG. 28.--VIEW OF STREET RAILWAY LINES IN WASHINGTON
OPERATED BY UNDERGROUND CONDUCTOR OF TYPE SHOWN IN FIG. 27.]
Most of the designs in which sectional conductors are used can be
placed much nearer to the surface of the street than the types
illustrated in Figs. 25 and 26, and this is a decided advantage, as it
greatly reduces the cost of construction. Any system that requires an
underground conduit, with the yokes _F F_ to support the track, can
only be used by roads upon which the traffic is very great, for the
cost of construction would be such as to prohibit its use under any
other conditions, no matter how successful its operation might be. For
small roads with moderate traffic the question of first cost is of
paramount importance, and the only system that can offer a satisfactory
solution of the problem for these is one that does not require an
underground conduit.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.--CROSS-SECTION OF RAILWAY TRACK PROVIDED WITH
THIRD-RAIL CONDUCTOR.]
Although many patents have been taken out for systems similar to
those described in the foregoing, nothing has been done practically
with any of them except in an experimental way. Some are in operation
on small roads in out-of-the-way places, being intended principally
to illustrate the practicability of the system and thus assist in
promoting its introduction elsewhere, but the system that has been
adopted in a commercial way is one in which no attempt is made to
shield the conductor from moisture and water, and for its successful
operation dependence is placed entirely upon the proper drainage of
the conduit. This system is well illustrated in Fig. 27. The plow _P_
carries upon its end two brushes, _b b_, which are insulated from each
other. These brushes rub against the conductors _a a_, which are made
of bars of channel iron and are well insulated from the yokes _F F_ and
the conduit casing to which they are attached by means of the supports
_c c_. In the construction shown in the figure the current comes
from the generator through one of the _a_ bars and returns through
the other, but both bars can be used to conduct the current from the
generator, in which case the return can be effected through the track
rails, just as in the designs already considered. If both the bars _a
a_ are used to convey the current from the power house the insulation
between the brushes _b b_ is not required. To avoid the accumulation
of water in the conduit the drain _G_ is provided with outlets _d_,
located at suitable points.
Although this system is the simplest that can be devised for use in
streets or public highways its construction is very costly, so much so
that it can only be used in cities where the traffic is so great as to
require the running of cars on short headway; and, furthermore, it can
not be operated with any degree of success except in municipalities
where there is a good sewage system. During the summer months it is
liable to be more or less impaired by heavy showers, but the trouble in
such cases is only temporary. In winter time snowstorms are liable to
affect it in the same way, especially if, after a heavy fall, a warm
wave comes along and produces a rapid thaw.
From the fact that no attempt whatever is made to protect the
conductors, one would naturally suppose that every time there is a rain
the road would be compelled to shut down; for, as the slot through
which the plow travels is open, water can enter the conduit with the
greatest freedom, and, in trickling down the sides, would be caught
to some extent upon the brackets _c c_, and thus make its way over to
the channel bars _a a_, and thereby destroy the insulation. Practice,
however, shows that this action does not take place, at least not so
often as to produce any serious trouble. The roads that are operated
by electricity in New York, and also the lines of the Capital Traction
Company, of Washington, D. C., employ this system, and they have been
in operation a sufficient length of time to fully demonstrate that
the difficulties actually developed by the action of the elements are
not of a formidable character. On one occasion the Sixth Avenue road,
in New York, was compelled to stop its cars for a short time just
after a severe snowstorm, but the failure was not due to impairment of
the insulation, according to the statements of the officials of the
company, but to the fact that the melted snow froze upon the track and
caused the wheels to slip around without sending the car ahead. The
fact that other roads in New York, belonging to the same company, are
being equipped with the system, is proof that, upon the whole, its
practical operation is regarded as satisfactory; but it is very evident
that it is not the final solution of the problem. A system to be a
decided success must cost very little more than the ordinary overhead
trolley, and its construction must be such that it will not easily get
out of order. If it is not inexpensive it will not come into use except
in places where the authorities will not permit the overhead wires.
A surface or underground system ought to be more durable than the
overhead, as the wires are not liable to be injured by high winds or
the accumulation of ice and snow; and, furthermore, as the conductors
are below the ground the danger of burning out motors and generators
by lightning would be eliminated, and this is a serious matter with
all trolley roads, especially in cities. Country roads do not suffer
so much from lightning, because when there is a heavy thunderstorm
the generators are stopped and the trolley poles are pulled away from
the wire, the cars remaining stalled on the track until the storm
passes over. This course can not be pursued by city roads, for the
passengers feel that, lightning or no lightning, they must reach their
destination, therefore the cars must continue to run and take their
chances. Lightning, however, does not strike trolley lines as often in
cities as in the open country, owing to the fact that there are so many
iron buildings and roofs to attract it in other directions.
[Illustration: FIG. 30.--VIEW OF A SECTION OF THE NEW YORK, NEW HAVEN
AND HARTFORD RAILROAD, EQUIPPED WITH THE THIRD-RAIL SYSTEM.]
Fig. 28 shows the appearance of the street surface when an underground
system such as is illustrated in Fig. 27 is used. This figure is a
photograph of the Capital Traction Company's lines in Washington.
After looking at this picture one can not deny that the appearance
of the streets of a city is greatly improved when the overhead wires
are removed, but underground systems which require a plow to run in a
groove are not without objection, for the groove forms a dangerous trap
into which the narrow-tired wheels of light wagons can readily drop,
and the toes and heels of horseshoes can be caught. Thus, unless the
slot can be dispensed with the greater beauty overhead is obtained at
the expense of increased danger on the street surface. There are quite
a number of underground conductor systems in which the slot is not
used, the current being conveyed to the car by contact made with plates
set at suitable intervals between or along the sides of the tracks, and
on a level with the street surface. Many of these arrangements appear
to be quite practical, but none of them can attract the attention of
railroad managers unless it can be constructed at a reasonable cost.
[Illustration: FIG. 31.--CROSS-SECTION OF RAILWAY TRACK, SHOWING A
MODIFICATION OF THE THIRD-RAIL SYSTEM.]
About two years ago the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad
published a report of the performance of a branch line that was
equipped with electric motors, the current being conveyed to them by
means of a third rail. Some of the sensational dailies at once took
the matter up and heralded the third rail to the public as something
entirely new and sure to supersede the trolley. Now, as a matter of
fact, the third rail is one of the oldest arrangements that have been
used, and was in daily operation in Baltimore in 1886. It is a very
cheap system and well adapted to roads owning the right of way or
running upon elevated tracks, but could not be used on public highways
or streets. The third-rail system in its simplest form is shown in
Fig. 29, which represents a section through the roadbed. The log _A_
represents a tie or sleeper, and _c c_ are the track rails, while _b_
is the third rail through which the current passes to the motors.
Between the rail _b_ and the tie _A_ is placed a piece of insulating
material, _a_, of such dimensions as may be necessary. If the track is
high above the surrounding ground, so as to not be submerged when there
is a heavy fall of rain, _a_ may be thin, but otherwise it must be of
sufficient thickness to raise the rail above the high-water mark. The
car is provided with a wheel or brush to bear upon the rail _b_.
This is the construction used upon the New York, New Haven, and
Hartford Railroad, as can be seen from Fig. 30, which is a photograph
of a section of the road. The third rail, it will be seen, is raised
but slightly from the ties, just about as shown in Fig. 29. One
objection to this construction is that persons and animals can receive
shocks by touching the center rail and one of the side ones at the same
time, as, for example, by standing with one foot on each. Such shocks
would not prove fatal to men, as the currents used for railway work
are not of a sufficiently high electro-motive force to produce death,
but the shock is nevertheless very severe. Horses and cattle would be
killed outright, as these animals are not able to withstand as strong
a shock as human beings. To render the third-rail system safer, and
also to improve the insulation of the conducting rail, the construction
illustrated in Fig. 31 has been devised. The only difference between
it and Fig. 29 is that the rail _b_, instead of resting upon the ties
between the tracks, is carried upon a side support _c c_ and is housed
in with boards _a a_. To take the current from it a wheel is mounted
upon a shaft projecting from the side of the car truck.
[Illustration: FIG. 32--ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE ON THE BUFFALO AND LOCKPORT
RAILWAY.]
From the foregoing brief description of the essential features of the
several systems devised for conveying current to the moving car by
means of conductors placed underground or upon the surface, it can
be seen that while the result can be accomplished in many ways, and
is actually accomplished in a number of instances, nothing has been
brought forward so far that is as free from objection as the simple
trolley, if we disregard the unsightliness of the latter. It is this
unsightliness that has created a demand for something else, but the
substitutes, while capable of doing the work, are far more costly and
can not be said to be as reliable under all conditions of weather.
The sphere of action of the electric-railway motor is not confined to
street railways or suburban transit, but extends to the legitimate
domain of the steam locomotive. In many places electric locomotives are
used to move freight trains made up of cars of the largest capacity,
this same work having been done formerly by steam locomotives. In
the city of Baltimore, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad uses electric
locomotives, of greater capacity than any steam locomotives so far
made, to draw trains through the tunnel that passes under the city. The
general appearance of an electric locomotive can be judged from Fig.
32, which shows an engine of average size at the head of a long freight
train.
MM. Bertaux and G. Yver are quoted, in _La Nature_, as relating in
their travels in Italy that between Benevento and Foggia, where the
railway passes through a tract of wheat fields, a falcon was observed
closely accompanying the train. He would graze the windows, fly over
the roofs of the cars and turn, and keep constantly dashing down to
the ground by the side of the track. A habitual traveler on the road
remarked that he had observed this habit of the bird several times a
week. The crafty hawk had observed that the eddy made by the train as
it rushed through the air overcame the small birds and made them an
easy prey, and it had learned to take advantage of the fact. It was
also remarked that this particular train, which was the "fast train,"
was the only one the bird thus pursued.
A SURVIVAL OF MEDIÆVAL CREDULITY.
BY PROFESSOR E. P. EVANS.
One of the crassest and most impudent and yet most successful frauds of
modern times is that recently practiced by Leo Taxil and his associates
on the papal hierarchy in their pretended exposures of the Freemasons
and the Satanic rites performed by this secret fraternity. On April
20, 1884, Leo XIII issued an encyclical letter in which he divides the
human race "into two diverse and adverse classes" (_in partes duas
diversas adversasque_): "the kingdom of God on earth--namely, the
true Church of Jesus Christ"--and "the realm of Satan." All who are
not members of the former belong to the latter, so that there is no
alternative between being a good Catholic or a worshiper of the devil.
His Holiness then proceeds to show that the headquarters of Satanism
are the lodges of the Freemasons, a fact, he adds, fully recognized
by his predecessors, who have never ceased to expose and denounce the
diabolical character and flagitious aims of these archenemies of the
Christian faith. The detailed description of the organization of this
order, its devilish purposes, and the horrible crimes committed in
order to accomplish them are very queer reading in an official document
emanating from an infallible ecclesiastical authority at the close of
the nineteenth century. On August 20, 1894, Leo XIII published a decree
of the Inquisition putting under ban "Odd Fellows, Sons of Temperance,
and Knights of Pythias" as "synagogues of Satan," and excluding them
from the sacraments of the Church.
It is no wonder that such an exhibition of credulity, which excited
the astonishment of many a Romanist and made all intelligent and
unprejudiced persons smile and shrug their shoulders, should have
suggested to an arrant wag and incorrigible player of practical jokes
like Leo Taxil (pseudonym of Gabriel Jogand) the idea of appealing to
this peculiar passion on a grand scale and seeing to what extent the
"mother Church" could be led into fraud, as Milton says, like "Eve,
our credulous mother." In tracing the development of this audacious
plot through all its stages and perceiving by what silly tales and
transparent deceptions the Holy Father permitted himself to be duped,
one can hardly refrain from exclaiming, in the words of Ben Jonson:
"Had you no quirk
To avoid gullage, sir, by such a creature?"