of opening the camera and removing the film from the gate, as in
the ordinary cinematograph camera, one has merely to slide a stop
projecting from the back of the camera to the length of its slot. By
so doing the whole of the internal mechanism is moved bodily to one
side to bring a small square of ground glass attached to the gate into
position before the lens-tube, when focussing can be carried out very
easily and readily.
As already pointed out, if celluloid films are employed with this
camera, they cannot be used for projection purposes, because positives
cannot be printed from them upon the standard perforated positive
film. Consequently, the amateur who wishes to take motion pictures for
projection on the screen will find the Kinora system valueless. It
was designed especially for the production of positive bromide prints
mounted upon a reel to be used with the special viewing machine.
The true future for this ingenious development of the art undoubtedly
lies in the possibility of purchasing at a reasonable price reels of
“star” events and subjects of general interest or picture plays, in the
same way that one can purchase talking-machine records. In this way
motion-photography can indeed be brought to the fireside.
How can the art of cinematography be brought within the reach of the
amateur? This is the absorbing question of the moment. Moving pictures
having become so popular, the traveller wishes to secure animated
records of the scenes which he has witnessed in foreign climes, to
reveal them to his friends, exactly as he saw them, within the home
circle. Unfortunately, such an achievement is impossible under existing
conditions. The apparatus, both recording and projecting, is expensive;
the film is costly; while the problem incidental to the illuminant is
not easily solved in the average home.
Obviously, in view of the fact that the film is so expensive, some
other system of recording and projecting animation must be employed. At
the same time, any invention of this character aspiring for commercial
success must be simple, inexpensive, immune from danger, and compact.
At first sight it seems an almost impossible quest to secure all these
essentials in a single stroke. But it has been accomplished, and what
is more, with absolute perfection. To-day the amateur can take moving
pictures and project them upon a screen at will, for the edification of
his friends, more easily and cheaply than he can “Kodak” and project
snap-shots by lantern-slides. Moreover, the results thus obtained
and shown are far superior to those obtainable with the methods and
apparatus now in vogue.
This revolutionary achievement has been attained through the efforts of
an indefatigable Italian worker, M. Gianni Bettini. This persevering
inventor recognised that a totally different system would have to
be evolved to meet the requirements of the millions. The celluloid
film was quite impracticable, so he reverted to the early days when
investigators strove, and in vain, to utilise glass for their purposes.
The early experimenters, as I have described already, followed the
principle of one plate one picture. The operation of changing the
standard-size plate in its holder, no matter how deftly accomplished,
occupied an appreciable interval of time, which disturbed the rhythmic
character of the action photographed. Monsieur Bettini recognised this
insurmountable drawback, so set to work to devise a means of taking
several successive images upon a single plate, and his success in this
direction constitutes one of the vital features of his invention.
The pictures are taken in a series of rows--sixteen to a row--and at
the rate of sixteen per second. But there is a radical departure from
prevalent practice. With the ordinary cinematograph apparatus the lens
is fixed and the film is moved intermittently. In the Bettini system
the sensitised surface is held rigidly, and it is the lens which
moves. Now, this raises an important and novel point. As the lens is
moved continually to and fro a matter of 4¾ inches--no two successive
pictures in a row, in fact, are taken at the same focus--one would
naturally expect that the pictures would vary in sharpness. But such is
not the case: the picture at the left-hand extremity of the row is as
sharp as that at the opposite end.
The whole principle of the Bettini _cinema-à-plaque_, as it is called,
is entirely new. The camera itself, a small contrivance, wrought
in aluminium, measuring some 8 inches in length by 4 inches wide
and 3½ inches high, is no larger or heavier than a Kodak snap-shot
camera. This box contains the actuating mechanism, which comprises a
longitudinal shaft, carrying a peculiar thread, on which is mounted,
and along which moves, the objective, motion being imparted thereto by
the revolution of the handle in the ordinary way. The sensitised plate,
instead of being slipped in position at the rear of the box and facing
the lens, is inserted at one side and at right-angles to the front
aperture. The objective is a combined lens and a prism mounted upon the
travelling part. The light, passing through the front aperture, enters
the prism and thus is bent at right-angles through the objective on to
the plate.
The plate itself measures 130 by 215 millimetres (5¼ by 8½ inches),
and is mounted in a toothed rod on one side. This rack is vertical and
is moved downwards, 6 millimetres (¼ inch) at a time, by the mechanism
on which the objective is mounted, when the latter has completed its
length of travel. The plate is held in its holder upon the left-hand
side, but the top and bottom edges of the respective first and last
rows of pictures are flush with the edge of the plate. The latter is
slipped into the camera and travels downwards intermittently. Instead
of a slide being used there are light-tight bags, both top and bottom,
forming the magazines. Directly the plate has passed through the camera
it falls into the lower bag, while simultaneously a second plate
follows in its train through the camera from the upper bag.
[Illustration: THE BETTINI GLASS PLATE CINEMATOGRAPH.
The camera is used for projection in conjunction with an ordinary
lantern. The glass plates are mounted in a rack, passed through the
projector and collected in a magazine bag beneath.]
[Illustration: A SECTION OF A BETTINI GLASS PLATE RECORD.
The plate measures 8½ inches long by 5¼ inches wide. There are sixteen
successive pictures, each measuring ¼ in. by 3/16 in., to a row and 36
rows, representing 576 images, on a plate.]
As mentioned previously, the depth of a row of pictures is one-quarter
of an inch, while the width of each image is three-tenths of an inch.
In commencing operations, we will suppose that the objective is at the
left-hand side of the plate, and the first row of pictures is to be
taken. The handle is revolved, and the lens moves across the sensitised
surface intermittently, until it reaches the right-hand edge. The
first row of pictures is completed. At this moment, while the shutter
is closed, the plate descends the depth of a picture--one-quarter of
an inch--thereby bringing another strip of unexposed surface before
the objective. The lens now travels in the reverse direction, _i.e._,
to the left-hand side of the plate, in a similar manner. When it
gains the limit of its travel, the plate again drops the depth of a
line of images, and the lens moves once more from left to right, this
see-sawing across the plate in parallel rows continuing until the
bottom edge of the plate is reached. As the toothed rack of the
exposed plate falls away the toothed holder of the succeeding plate
is taken up by the mechanism and the cycle of operations continued
until the incident is recorded. There is no break whatever between
two successive plates, as the feed is positive and accurate, while
similarly there is no interruption in the animation when the travelling
lens reaches the end of a line, because the movement of the plate takes
place during the fraction of a second when the lens is covered by the
opaque sector of the shutter.
[Illustration: THE BIRTH OF A FLOWER.
A wonderful Kinemacolor film. The pictures represent the
stages of growth on the second, fourth, sixth, and eighth days
respectively.--_See page 194._]
[Illustration:
[_Copyright, Kineto, Ltd._
WAGING A HEALTH CAMPAIGN BY MOVING PICTURES.
This film, representing flies upon putrid meat, was used in the United
States in the war against the house fly with conspicuous success.]
As each plate carries 36 rows of pictures, each line containing 16
images, it will be seen that no less than 576 images, each measuring
three-tenths of an inch in width by one-quarter of an inch in depth,
can be recorded upon a single plate. Although so small the pictures are
remarkably sharp, clear, distinct, and full of detail; indeed, they
rival the images upon the celluloid film in this respect.
Having obtained the negative, the positive is obtained by contact
printing upon another glass surface as with a lantern slide. Now, for
projection the operator uses the camera with which the pictures were
taken, in conjunction with an ordinary projecting, or magic, lantern,
and the movement of the apparatus is precisely the same as in taking
the photos. The positive plate in its toothed rack is slipped into the
camera and the handle revolved, thereby causing the lens to travel
across the plate intermittently. When it reaches the end of a row of
pictures, the plate is forced downwards, one-quarter of an inch at a
time, while another rack and positive plate are inserted when one plate
is exhausted.
The principle of projection is decidedly novel and may be understood
from the accompanying diagram, Fig. 22. The objective with its prism is
mounted on one side of the plate, while on the other side of the latter
is a second prism on the longitudinal axis of the lantern condenser.
The light from the lantern _B_ strikes the prism _C_ and there is bent
at right-angles towards the image on the plate _A_. Passing through the
plate, it enters the lens _D_, to which the prism _E_ is attached, and
once more the ray is deflected at right-angles to be thrown upon the
screen _F_. An ordinary magic lantern suffices for the purpose, and the
incandescent mantle and gas may be used as an illuminant--petrol gas
and acetylene are equally suitable--if electricity or the oxy-hydrogen
light is not available. The picture on the screen may be of any desired
dimensions, inasmuch as the small images, owing to their sharpness,
clearness, and striking wealth of detail, enable enlargement to be
carried to any degree, so long as the illuminant is sufficiently
powerful.
[Illustration: FIG. 22--THE OPTICAL PRINCIPLE OF PROJECTION WITH THE
BETTINI _cinema-à-plaque_.]
There is one point which must be explained. When the lens in the camera
is at the left-hand edge of the plate, owing to the greater distance
of the objective from the object photographed, everything will be of
smaller proportions than when the lens is at the right-hand edge, as
then it is brought 4¾ inches nearer the subject. In other words, as
the lens moves across the plate from left to right, the dimensions
increase; on the other hand, they diminish as the lens moves back
again. This might be considered to be an insurmountable obstacle, but
it is not, because when the positive is projected a different effect is
produced. The picture at the left-hand edge of the plate, which in the
camera was the smallest, owing to its greater distance from the object,
now becomes enlarged to a greater degree than that at the opposite end
of the row, since the former is 4¾ inches farther from the screen.
By this arrangement a correction takes place, the objects in all the
images in a row being brought to a uniform size.
Seeing that continuity of motion is governed purely by the feeding of
the plates, it will be seen that the whole of the longest incidents may
be photographed. A magazine can take twelve plates, or more, according
to desire. In the former instance a total of 6,912 pictures may be
obtained. Seeing that each row of pictures upon a plate is equivalent
to a foot of celluloid film, a single plate will carry the same number
of pictures as thirty-six feet of the latter. On this basis a dozen
plates will be equivalent to 432 feet, or more than two spools of
celluloid film, seeing that a spool as fed into the camera generally
represents a length of 200 feet.
The most influential factor, however, is that of running costs, if the
expense in regard to sensitised surface may be so termed. A strip of
film thirty-six feet in length, the equivalent of a Bettini plate, at
2½d., or 5 cents, per foot, would represent 7s. 6d., or approximately
$2. The glass plate costs two pence or four cents (both negative and
positive), so that with the Bettini glass plate system an incident
recorded in 6,912 pictures, and occupying about seven minutes to take
and project, would cost only 4s. ($1) for both negative and positive
plates, as compared with £4 10s., or $22.50, for positive and negative
film, to carry the same pictorial record.
The possibilities of the Bettini _cinema-à-plaque_ system, therefore,
are obvious. The invention brings the art of cinematography within
reach of the amateur; introduces moving pictures to the drawing-room as
completely and cheaply as the phonograph conveys sound to the fireside;
provides the photographer with a far more fascinating hobby; while its
professional applications are illimitable.
CHAPTER XXVIII
MOTION-PHOTOGRAPHY AS AN EDUCATIONAL FORCE
There remains no doubt whatever that the cinematograph has completely
won over the great public--the many millions who are constantly
seeking fresh fields of amusement and diversion. Of all the classes
that patronise the moving-picture entertainment, the children form the
one most open to its influence and most responsive to what it offers
them; and it is this well-known impressionableness of the young mind
that has set people thinking of the educational responsibility of the
moving-picture show. From this it is but a step to the question, May
not the cinematograph be brought into the schoolroom?
The subject has several aspects that are worth treating somewhat
at length. The firm of Pathé Frères has here, as in so many other
directions, been first in the field. Let us examine some of its
educational films.
The peculiar properties possessed by the magnet are profoundly
mysterious to the child. Text-books may be written in the simplest
language and freely illustrated with diagrams, but the points still
remain somewhat obscure. This French manufacturing company has prepared
a film, “The Magnet,” in which the well-known subject-matter of the
school book is illustrated, and the phenomena described therein are
demonstrated in a simple manner by visual records of the peculiar
properties possessed by the magnet.
The familiar experiments with the magnet and iron filings are treated
simply and with endless variety. If the pupils see the teacher
perform the manipulations with filings and magnet in the usual way,
the experiment conveys no tangible idea, and interest is not greatly
aroused. But when the same magnet is thrown upon the screen in
movement, and is ten feet or so in height, while the iron filings are
so magnified that they resemble not dust, but thorns or long pins, a
more convincing and indelible impression is conveyed.
One may have seen many diagrams showing the lines of force, as they are
called. But no diagram can produce the unforgettable impression gained
by the sight of the phenomenon itself occurring before the eyes. The
iron filings may be seen resolving themselves into the two distinct
groups about the poles, as if imbued with life, and the process may be
followed from beginning to end with perfect ease, owing to the size to
which the filings are magnified in projection.
The operation of natural laws is indelibly impressed upon the schoolboy
when he is shown some novel experiment in physics carried out upon the
screen. Physiology and anatomy can be taught by producing pictures
taken by X-ray photography.
History ought surely to be a successful field for the educational
cinematograph. The portrayal by Pathé Frères of episodes during the
Reign of Terror and the Napoleonic era; the representation of the
Normans landing in England, the discovery of America by Columbus--these
and similar pictures have already shown the wide possibilities of the
historical film. Of course, great care must be taken to adhere to
strict historical truth in fact and setting; when they will greatly
serve to fix in the pupil’s mind events and historical atmosphere, and
aid him in distinguishing various periods.
A film worthy of introduction into the class-room is that described in
Chapter XVII., showing the birth of a flower. The fact that this film
is produced in natural colours enhances its effect; a schoolboy would
be hard indeed to impress if he failed to appreciate the wonderful
significance of this evolution of the hyacinth from the bulb to the
flowering stage. Again, he is enabled to witness upon the screen the
birth of the common house-fly, and its entire span of existence. He can
see how ants work and live, and how the bee manufactures its honey.
As a corollary to the matter-of-fact and uninteresting text-book the
cinematograph film cannot be excelled. It presents in actual movement
what mere words, which have to be committed to memory, seek to convey
without any durable result. Indeed, there is not the slightest doubt
that a thousand pictures will impress themselves upon the schoolboy’s
mind, and impart to him more definite knowledge of their subject in
one minute than hours of hammering with the aid of text-book and
blackboard. Even actual ocular demonstration fails to be so convincing
as a projection upon a whitened sheet, where everything immediately
concerned is magnified to an extreme degree.
[Illustration: CINEMATOGRAPHING AFRICA FROM A LOCOMOTIVE.
In order to secure scenes along the Cape to Cairo Railway a special
platform was erected over the cow-catcher of a railway engine for the
convenience of Mr. Butcher and his cameras.--_See page 125._]
The inventor of the Kinetoscope, Mr. Thomas Alva Edison, is of
opinion that the cinematograph will displace all other methods in the
schoolroom for the teaching of geography. Both teachers and pupils
will be inclined to agree with this dictum. A teacher may talk for
hours about the tremendous height of the peaks in the Andes, the racial
characteristics of the natives of Abyssinia, or the manner in which
rivers are born on the flanks of mighty glaciers. But words sometimes
convey very little to the immature mind. Throw upon the screen a series
of pictures of an actual journey, and the youngster gleans the facts
without the slightest effort. He sees the towering, snow-capped rocks
with their precipitous flanks; the melting snow and ice flowing down
from the mighty glacier and forming a tempestuous, rushing river; he
sees in their natural surroundings the folk of a hundred strange and
distant tribes. Perhaps he is transported for the time to the deck of a
steamer driving its way up through the St. Lawrence River and the Great
Lakes. Books and pictures have given him but a faint idea of these
noble waters; but when he sees their beauty, and witnesses the enormous
traffic carried upon their broad bosoms, figures and facts take on new
significance, and are never forgotten. Whatever scene he sees, from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the Arctic to the Antarctic circle,
that scene becomes henceforth not a mere spot on the map, but a living
reality.
[Illustration: Looking into the Crater of the Volcano.]
[Illustration:
[_By permission of Jury’s Imperial Pictures, Ltd._
MOUNT ETNA IN ERUPTION.
The plumes of smoke as seen from the Observatory. One of the most
daring and striking cinematograph films ever taken.]
One of the most remarkable series of pictures worthy of inclusion
in this category is that obtained of Mount Etna in eruption. The
cinematograph operator displayed wonderful daring in venturing to the
verge of the crater of this vent to internal fires. The reward for his
intrepidity certainly conveys a more realistic and vivid impression of
a belching volcano than the most imaginative flights of description in
text-books.
The success of the educational campaign of the cinematograph depends
upon the suitability of the film. The cinematographer has roved
through all the fields of science securing interesting pictures in
metallurgy, natural history, manufacturing industries, electricity,
agriculture, horticulture, and so forth. The educational value of the
films now produced is beyond dispute; but it may be that they are
somewhat too old for children. The film manufacturers have, up to the
present, chiefly consulted the tastes of adults; and the films of a
distinctly educational character which they produce appeal to the
mature rather than to the child mind. On the other hand, it should
not be at all difficult to produce films which, like the one already
described, representing experiments with the magnet, would give regular
instead of incidental instruction upon subjects actually treated
in schools--animated text-books, in short. But as yet the picture
producer has not received sufficient encouragement from the educational
authorities to warrant him in preparing such films.
Unfortunately, the feeling against the moving picture has not
been entirely eliminated, despite its tremendous popularity.
Once an energetic Board of Education realises the possibilities
of cinematography as a supplement to the information conveyed by
text-books and manuals, the film manufacturers will hasten to supply
the demand thus created. The last obstacle will have been removed; for
the field presents no special mechanical difficulties, the only serious
one having been removed by the discovery of the non-inflammable film.
The perfecting of this film has obviated the necessity of confining the
installation within an iron box--a requirement which militated very
appreciably against the introduction of the cinematograph into schools.
A striking illustration of the educational value of moving pictures is
revealed in the beautiful series of “Empire” pictures which are being
secured by Messrs. William Butcher and Sons. They are completing what
may be described best as a cinematographic encyclopædia of Greater
Britain--its peoples, resources, industries, sports, and scenic
beauties. Every corner of the Empire is being searched for entrancing
pictorial contributions to this project.
As might have been expected, others beside educational institutions
have seen in the moving-picture show a powerful instrument of
propaganda. Political, charitable, municipal, and numerous other
organisations have pressed the celluloid ribbon into service to
aid them in their crusades. It has been of far-reaching utility
in preaching the gospel of sanitation and prosecuting the war
against disease, for the films convey their lessons in a terribly
realistic manner. The Americans have produced a striking film for
the dissemination of information as to how to combat advantageously
the ravages of the great “White Plague” of consumption. The various
American hygiene associations also have pressed home their campaign
against the common house-fly with commendable vigour by means of the
cinematograph. Other photographs of a similar character have been
produced in various places for the purpose of initiating the public
into the causes of certain diseases and maladies, and the best means of
prevention or treatment.
Medical science has profited materially from the perfection of the art
and its application to surgery. It is not always possible for students
to be present at a peculiarly delicate and abnormal operation. Although
the subject may be described at length in the technical papers, words
fail to be so emphatic as a pictorial reproduction of the feat. Not
only can the operation be followed closely when reproduced upon the
screen, but, if desired, any particular phase in the achievement can
be selected, and by enlargement upon photographic paper it can be
subjected to closer and more minute investigation at leisure.
Even the Government has not failed to recognise the power of the
cinematograph. Some years ago Mr. Robert Paul applied to the War Office
for permission to film scenes in a soldier’s life. The facilities were
granted, and some first-class pictures were obtained. They proved
immensely popular with the public, and were far more potent as a
means of inducing enlistment with the colours than the most glowing
word-pictures painted by glib, persuasive recruiting sergeants. This
idea has been copied by other nations, and to-day the cinematograph is
regarded as an indispensable weapon for attracting recruits to the land
and sea services.
Religious institutions have not been backward in realising the value
of animated pictures in preaching the gospel of faith. The producer,
by means of the stage and actors, can present any episode from the
Creation to the Resurrection. The world before the Deluge, the toil of
the Israelites in the land of the Pharaohs, the Sacrifice of Abraham,
the Passage of the Red Sea, with the destruction of the Egyptian
hosts, the story of Samson and Delilah, the Fall of Babylon, scenes
from the Life of Christ--all these and many others help to familiarise
both old and young with the Bible stories, and add wonderfully to
their convincingness, as the following episode shows:--A teacher was
describing the Passage of the Red Sea. The children followed his
words intently; and his peroration was accompanied by a piping voice
exclaiming:
“Yes, teacher, I know that is right!”
“Why?” asked the somewhat startled teacher.
“Because I saw it!”
The teacher was perhaps prepared to chide at this flight of
imagination; but the child soon explained that the previous evening she
had been to a picture theatre and had seen the Israelites crossing the
Red Sea.
Among the American preachers the significance of the cinematograph is
beginning to be recognised. Ministers see in the projector a valuable
adjunct to their teaching, and are disposed to introduce it into their
churches. I am at liberty to quote in this connection a letter from
one of the leading luminaries in American church circles, which was
received by Mr. Richard G. Hollaman. The divine wrote: “My opinion is
that the moving picture is the coming great educator. This I believe
to be true, not only in the education of the youth, but in the church.
I believe in a very few years every well-equipped church will have a
moving-picture apparatus, so that the minister will appeal to the eye
more than to the ear.”
CHAPTER XXIX
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS: THE GROWTH AND POPULARITY OF THE
CINEMATOGRAPH: SOME FACTS AND FIGURES: CONCLUSION
In the opening chapter of this book cinematography is described as an
_illusion_: that the eye believes it sees continuous animation in the
pictures thrown upon the screen in accordance with the law of visual
persistence. I referred also to the fact that an effort had been made
to remove this illusory effect, and to produce upon the white wall by
photographic agency results identical with those obtainable by the
aid of the _camera obscura_. The outcome of these investigations,
which have been pursued patiently for many years by one whose name
is associated inseparably with the art from its earliest days, W. F.
Greene, is a new type of camera and projector.
The camera is fitted with two lenses mounted side by side. It is as if
two cameras of the usual type were clamped together to form a single
instrument, the two film-moving mechanisms being driven by one handle,
and a single shutter, mounted centrally, serving to open and close each
lens in turn.
In this system two spools of film are required, one for each half
of the camera, and an image is recorded upon each sensitised band
alternately. The shutter with its opaque sector, being mounted between
the two lenses, eclipses one while the other is exposed. The result is
that two different cinematograph film records of the same subject are
obtained. The left-hand camera photographs those incidents which are
lost while the film is being moved in the right-hand camera during
the fraction of a second the lens of the latter is covered, and _vice
versâ_. If the camera is run at a speed of thirty-two pictures per
second, representing sixteen pictures for each lens, either of the
two films when run through the ordinary projector gives a faithful
representation of the event photographed. At the same time, however,
each film gives a different record, for the simple reason that one
film carries the moving incidents which the other has lost during the
regularly intermittent closing of the lens.
The projector works upon a similar principle. There are the two
objectives with attendant mechanisms driven by a single handle, mounted
side by side, and with a common shutter mounted centrally between.
Projection is identical with recording. The picture is thrown from the
right-hand objective, while the left lens is covered, and _vice versâ_.
At first sight the advantage of such a double system might seem
somewhat obscure, but a little explanation will demonstrate its
advantages. With the single camera and projector the pictures shown on
the screen are isolated incidents--some phase of motion must be lost
while the lens is closed to permit a further area of unexposed film
to be brought into position behind the lens, although the interval of
eclipse is very short indeed. With the double and alternating system
complete continuous motion is photographed and projected.
As a matter of fact, this double camera and projector actually records
and throws on the screen more than the eye sees. The human organ works
upon the same principle broadly as the single camera, because the
periodical eclipse of the eye by the lid, which is known as “blinking,”
interrupts continuous vision, in just the same manner as the shutter
of the lens in its eclipsing action. Although the lid falls and rises
very quickly so that the interruption of sight is exceedingly brief, a
certain phase of movement is lost. This is apparent when a very swiftly
moving object passes before the eyes. In order to lose no part of the
movement the eyes are strained, and the periodical action of the
eyelid is postponed so long as possible. With the double cinematograph,
therefore, as a section of sensitised surface always is exposed during
the running of the machine, either through the right or left-hand
lens, it follows that the whole of the movement must be photographed.
In fact, the action is exactly the same as if the eyelids closed and
opened alternately. It might be explained in connection with this
physical action that no apparent interruption in the sight is conveyed
to the brain, because the movement of the lids is very rapid, and owing
to the principles of the law of visual persistence.
The pictures thrown from this double projector produce an effect upon
the screen precisely similar to that of the _camera obscura_. There
is only one difficulty attending its use. Unless the instrument is
used in a large hall, and the picture is thrown from a great distance,
the images do not superimpose correctly. They are thrown upon the
sheet at converging angles to one another, and the rays of light
accordingly from each lens do not strike the sheet at right-angles to
the longitudinal axis of each objective. The result is that the picture
is narrower slightly at one end than the other, and the position of the
narrow end flits from one side of the sheet to the other, according
as to whether the picture is being thrown from the left or right-hand
lens. At short range and with a small picture this peculiarity is very
pronounced, but as the length of the throw--the distance of the lantern
from the sheet--is increased, it becomes less and less observable until
at last it escapes detection.
Although the mechanism requires two spools of film, the total length
needed to record faithfully a particular event is no greater than
with a single camera and projector. In the latter case a minimum
speed of about sixteen pictures per second is required. With the
double instrument a similar number of exposures suffices, for the
simple reason that each lens records one half the movement while the
other photographs the second moiety of the movement. This means eight
pictures per second for each lens, making sixteen pictures per second
for the two--the same as by the ordinary instrument. The disadvantage,
of course, is that two rolls of film are required to give a complete
picture, and care has to be displayed to keep the positive films in
pairs for the projector, while threading up the latter is a somewhat
longer process. Again, should one film break and it become necessary to
cut out a few pictures to obtain a perfect joint, it would be necessary
to remove the relative pictures to an equal extent upon the second
film. Under these circumstances, therefore, it would appear that the
di-optic projector would be reserved to the more delicate phases of
cinematography, such as scientific research.
The development of cinematography in the past has been attributable in
a very great degree to the enterprise of the French nation, and that
country still remains ahead of all others in this peculiar work. The
valuable investigations of Dr. Marey never have been forgotten, and the
work with which he was identified is continued still by enthusiastic
investigators in cinematographic science. The “Marey Institute” is
unique, in that it is the only establishment of its class devoted to
what might be termed the higher branches of the art in the world. It is
fitted with special and complete apparatuses for the prosecution of any
especial research in which an experimenter may be interested, so that
he can carry out his work under the most favourable conditions. The
foremost scientists of the world, who realise in moving pictures more
than a means of amusing the public, are members of the Institute, and
the results it has achieved are of far-reaching value.
A typical illustration of the work carried out at this institution is
described in Chapter XXIV. M. Lucien Bull, the assistant director, is
one of many indefatigable workers in the particular field of operations
with which the establishment is identified. Pioneer investigation is
fostered, and accordingly often follows highly interesting lines, not
only in regard to cinematography in its most popular form, but also in
its collaboration with science in one or other of its varied branches.
[Illustration: THE “CRADLE OF CINEMATOGRAPHY”:
THE MAREY INSTITUTE IN PARIS.]
[Illustration:
[_By permission of the Director of the Marey Institute._
THE LATEST MARVEL IN MOVING PICTURES.
Combining the X-rays with the cinematograph. One of Monsieur Carvallo’s
remarkable films.]
For instance, M. J. Carvallo embarked upon a series of investigations
to combine the Röntgen rays with the cinematograph so as to obtain an
absolutely reliable moving-picture record of what takes place in
the organs of the human body. It was a difficult undertaking, owing
to the peculiar problems associated with the task. Many experimenters
had endeavoured to work with the X-rays, but had failed. In the first
place, M. Carvallo had to evolve and construct a special type of
apparatus for his purpose. It is of a complicated character, more
especially as the exposures had to be made at a high speed per second.
Unlike M. Lucien Bull, whose apparatus I have described already, M.
Carvallo resorted to the familiar intermittent motion, and in such
a way that the number of exposures may be varied from every twenty
seconds to one per hour, according to the character of the subject
under investigation. The camera is driven by an electric motor, and the
arrangement is of such a nature that once set in operation it demands
no further attention, even if the experiment is prolonged over several
days.
[Illustration: A sensational incident. The heroine gashing her hand to
explain the presence of blood on her sleeve to the Austrian soldier.]
[Illustration: A mimic fight in the public street to produce a
realistic battle scene between the Italian and Austrian forces.
AFTER FIFTY YEARS.
This film won the first prize of 25,000 francs for the Ambrosio Company
at the recent Turin Exhibition.]
He found also that the standard cinematograph film, giving a picture
one inch wide by three-quarters of an inch deep, was not suited to his
purpose, so a special film was prepared to yield pictures of larger
dimensions, while the sensitiveness of the emulsion was also augmented
very appreciably. This was essential, inasmuch as the discharges in the
X-ray bulbs are of variable duration, ranging, in fact, from 1/1200th
to 1/1500th of a second.
By means of his apparatus he obtained some very interesting and
instructive pictures, such as showing the process of digestion in the
frog, mouse, chicken, etc. The subjects were fed with a peculiar paste,
or the usual food combined with basic bismuth nitrate. As a result of
these successful experiments a further application of moving pictures
has been revealed. In combination with the X-rays the apparatus should
prove highly useful for ascertaining what actually takes place under
certain conditions in the various organs of the human body.
The Marey Institute undoubtedly is the cradle of cinematography,
and similar institutions should be founded in every country for the
prosecution of scientific research. Moving pictures have long since
issued from the purely amusing stage, and although they will never
lose their popular appreciation, the sterner phases of work open to
this craft should not be neglected, for there is no science in which
cinematographic records of certain phenomena would not serve to widen
our knowledge, and at the same time offer conclusive evidence for the
refutation of many popular fallacies, or enlighten us regarding the
mysteries of others.
So far as the popular picture is concerned, every effort is being made
to elevate what may be termed the cinematograph drama. Sensationalism
is in keen demand, and is likely to maintain its measure of
appreciation so long as it is free from demoralisation. An interesting
illustration of the manner in which this movement may be fostered has
been offered this year in connection with the International Exhibition
at Turin. Prizes exceeding 40,000 francs were offered for the best
films in a cinematograph competition, the subjects to include popular
drama, science, and education. The Grand Prix of 25,000 francs was
awarded to the Ambrosio Film Company for the subject entitled “After
Fifty Years.” This concern has been responsible for many striking and
magnificent productions, which have compelled attention as much for
photographic quality, stage setting, and technical excellence as for
dramatic force. Indeed, Signor Ambrosio, who was formerly a well-known
Italian portrait photographic artist, and consequently was able to
bring valuable knowledge and technique into the Italian cinematographic
industry, forced his way into the closed American market by sheer
merit, and forcibly impressed upon the American picture palace public
the high standard of the films produced in his native land. “After
Fifty Years” is a film of powerful dramatic intensity, full of that
exciting incident, carefully blended with sentiment, which appeals so
strongly to the picture palace _clientèle_, especially the vivid scenes
of fighting in the streets between Austrian and Italian forces in the
troublous times of 1859.
The Ambrosio Company also carried off the first prize of 5,000 francs
for a popular science film dealing with “The Life of the Butterfly”
and “The Bee.” This is one of the best natural history films that has
been seen yet, for it illustrates the marvellous metamorphosis of the
caterpillar into the butterfly in an attractive manner. The first prize
of 5,000 francs for educational films was given to the Cines Company of
Rome for a film entitled “The Little Sardinian Drummer,” which company
also secured a prize of 4,000 francs for a dramatic subject, “St.
Francis of Assisi.” There is no doubt that the example of the Turin
Exhibition authorities will be followed in subsequent expositions of
such an international character, and this tendency should promote a
healthy competition and friendly rivalry between the various producers
of all countries to excel.
Although the picture palace, with its attractive façade and brilliantly
illuminated entrance, is a familiar building in our towns and cities,
few people can form any idea of the grip this form of amusement has
secured upon the public, of its commercial proportions, or of its rapid
expansion. Fifteen years ago there was not a single theatre providing a
complete entertainment with a programme of moving pictures purely and
simply.
The picture palace had its birth in France, and the Parisian public
extended such a warm greeting to the new diversion, which offered a
welcome and novel relief to the prevailing forms of amusement, that it
developed into a rage. In a short time the craze spread throughout the
world, and moving-picture theatres sprang up like mushrooms in every
civilised country between the two Poles.
At the present day there are some 4,000 picture palaces of all
descriptions scattered throughout the British Isles, and these are
patronised by the public in their tens of thousands daily. The
money expended upon this form of entertainment is incalculable, but
it rolls continually into the coffers of the theatres throughout
twelve or fourteen hours every day, the larger proportion of these
establishments offering a continuous show, with a programme lasting
1½ hours. The remaining theatres give two performances, afternoon and
evening respectively, providing about three solid hours of recreation
and education in each instance. The prices of admission for the most
part are very low, though in the better class theatres they approach
somewhat closely to those prevailing with the modern music-hall.
On the Continent the picture palaces aggregate several thousands, and
are supported by the public with equal enthusiasm. Curiously enough,
Germany has been the most lethargic nation. For many years an attitude
of complete indifference was maintained towards the cinematograph.
That country is now waking up, but so far as the manufacturing aspect
of the industry is concerned, it is far behind the more progressive
countries. The German picture palaces depend for their programme almost
exclusively upon foreign films. Strange to say, the English productions
appear to make the strongest appeal to Teutonic fancies, although the
French, American, and Italian producers are striving hard to capture
this highly promising and expanding market.
In the United States the development of the movement has been
phenomenal. I have described already the wondrous boom in “store
shows.” The greater majority of these “palaces” enjoyed a brief
meteoric career, as they became superseded by more pretentious
buildings with perfection in comfort and luxury. To-day there are
about 14,000 moving-picture theatres appealing for support between
the Atlantic and Pacific seaboards. It is computed that these
establishments are visited by nearly 5,000,000 men, women, and children
every day. Although low prices for admission rule, it is estimated that
about $130,000,000, or £26,000,000, are spent by the American public
upon this form of amusement in the course of twelve months.
The coming of the picture palace has created a new race of playgoers
who find infinite delight in the varied programme offered upon the
screen. At the same time, however, the legitimate and vaudeville
theatres have been deprived of much of their support. This effect is
reflected by the number of buildings originally built for dramatic
presentations which have had to close their doors for lack of
patronage. When converted and re-opened under the magic sway of
the projector, film, and sheet, however, they have embarked upon a
remarkably prosperous new lease of life.
The stage in Great Britain is threatened in a similar manner. A few
years ago, when the music-hall entertainment was overhauled and an
entirely new era was created, the legitimate theatre suffered severely.
Bitter antagonism developed and has prevailed between the two caterers
for public amusement. Now both are being threatened by a common enemy.
The picture palace, which has been despised for so long, is making its
influence felt. In London the competition is not experienced so keenly,
perhaps, as in the provinces, where many theatres have succumbed to the
attack of moving pictures.
There is no indication that the movement has gained the height of its
success. Moving picture palaces are being built and opened on all
sides every day. The irresistible force with which the cinematograph
is sweeping forward is proved by the enormous quantity of film which
is produced. Great Britain is an open market for producers throughout
the world, and at the present day something like 150,000 feet of
new subjects are offered to the picture palaces every week. If the
present demand is maintained together with the rate of production,
this volume will be doubled within the next five years. The output in
America likewise is enormous, although in that country it is confined
for the most part to the productions of home firms, the foreign film
being allowed to enter only in small quantities. The Motion Picture
Patents Company, composed of the largest members in the United States’
manufacturing industry, and swearing allegiance to the Edison patents,
has an aggregate output of about 1,500,000 feet per week, each producer
contributing from three to five new subjects to this total.
This community of interests, which was formed primarily to eliminate
the objectionable pictures which were being shown extensively
throughout the country, and which were responsible for considerable
obloquy being hurled against the cinematograph, arranged on its
formation to pay Mr. Edison a royalty of half-a-cent, or one farthing,
upon every foot of film which they printed in the United States. On the
above total output, therefore, it will be seen that the famous American
derives a revenue of $7,500, or £1,500, per week from the American
moving-picture loving public.
The financial investments in the industry in all its complex
branches--film manufacture, play producing, machine making, picture
palaces, etc.--represent several millions sterling, while tens of
thousands of men, women, and children find employment in different
capacities. Although it might appear that there are sufficient
producers in operation at present for the world’s needs, this is far
from being the case. New markets are being opened up constantly, while
others are in the early stages of development. When the industry in
these new centres commences to move forward in a manner characteristic
of the expansion in the older countries, the demand for film will
become twice or thrice what it is to-day. Consequently there is ample
room for doubling the existing manufacturing facilities. The promise
of the future is shown conclusively from the fact that the foremost
film-play manufacturers in France, Italy, and the United States are
extending and enlarging their plants to meet the increasing demands for
their particular products.
One might naturally ask: How is Great Britain benefiting from this
wonderful expansion? So far as film-play production is concerned, there
is every indication that this country will profit now that conservatism
is being abandoned. The fiscal position places the English manufacturer
somewhat at a disadvantage, but this handicap can be removed entirely
by the display of more financial confidence in the film-play producing
business, where the law of the “survival of the fittest” is waged
to its logical conclusion. A few years ago the British product was
distinctly inferior to the foreign films, whether considered from the
acting, dramatic, photographic, or any other point of view. Even to-day
the British films are not quite up to the technical standard of the
foreign manufacturers, while the histrionic quality is deficient. The
plays likewise lack that grip incidental to the foreign picture dramas,
and there should be excellent scope in this country for competent and
imaginative picture-playwrights.
The British producers have failed also to recognise the merit of
the stock company, on the plea that the public tires of seeing the
same faces time after time in successive plays. The fallacy of this
contention has been recognised at last, because the public now has its
film idols on the screen, in just the same way as it has its footlight
favourites on the stage. It is doubtful, however, whether the English
producers will ever rise to the same plane in this respect as their
contemporaries in the United States, who gamble practically for the
exclusive services of actors and actresses. Some of the American
cinematograph stars receive fabulous salaries, while even the smaller
and more obscure members of the companies receive wages far in advance
of what they would obtain for similar work on the legitimate stage.
The protected nature of the American industry, however, favours such
tactics, which probably will prevail only for a time.
There is every evidence that the British producers are making up
leeway. The Hepworth Manufacturing Company, for instance, which is
probably the foremost producing company in this country, recently
has produced several powerful and excellent film-plays. They have
extended the stock-company practice, and the increasing popularity
of the “Hepwix” films offers convincing testimony to the value of
this procedure. The Colonies have become satiated with the American
products, and turn with relief to the English films, but the supply is
not equal to the demand. Even the American public is nauseated with its
home productions, and as it appreciates the work of British dramatists,
so it approves of the British film play.
If England is behind her foreign rivals in the production of picture
plays, it cannot be denied that London is destined to become the
world’s clearing-house for films. Every large foreign manufacturer has
his representative in the British metropolis, where the transactions in
this article aggregate a large sum every week. The Colonial picture
palace proprietor, film renter, or middleman retains a purchasing agent
in London, who scans the new productions as they appear, to discover
their suitability for the particular corner of the world for which he
is acting. These agents are autocrats, and consequently the subjects
have to be brought direct to them for approval. The manufacturers
realise the situation, and as the Colonial market is highly promising,
spare no effort to secure its capture.
The suggestion has been made that records of the most important events
of to-day, such as the Coronation of King George V., the Unveiling of
the Victoria Memorial, the Durbar, and so forth, should be preserved
in a museum for the benefit of generations a century or more hence.
Impressions of the voices of our greatest singers are being preserved
for posterity, and the question has been asked why historical
cinematographic films should not be treated in the same manner. This
is by no means a new idea. Robert Paul advanced the same plea in the
early days of the art, but there were many objections against the
proposal which are just as acute to-day. The greatest is the perishable
character of the celluloid film, and also of the photographic image
upon the emulsion. Both would deteriorate, even if preserved in
hermetically sealed cases, with the flight of time, and the chances
are if a film were held for one hundred years that it would be found
useless when opened at the end of that period.
The question often arises: What becomes of the films? Bearing in mind
the thousands of feet of new subjects which are introduced to the
market every week, it is but natural to think that there must be an
immense accumulation of old subjects. When a new subject sees the light
it passes through its first “run” among the foremost picture palaces
of the country. Then it is returned to the renter, who dispatches it
upon a second journey among the smaller halls. Once more it comes home,
otherwise to the shelves of the renter, as a rule bearing sad evidences
of its service. If of sufficient interest, the film undergoes a third
run among the cheapest halls, and upon the completion of this round it
is either shipped abroad to the smaller colonies, or, scratched and
torn, it is offered for sale at a bargain price. The end is tragic: the
film slips from sight in flame and smoke.
INDEX
Abruzzi, Duke of, cinematography, 128
Acetylene, as illuminant, 98
Acres, experimenter, 16
Actors and Actresses, 149–151;
accidents, 156, 157, 173;
special companies, 151;
kinemacolor, 151
Advertisements, moving, 261, 262
“After Fifty Years” (film), 324
“Agrippina,” film, 175
Alhambra Theatre, London, 4;
Derby film, 116
Allefex, sound producer, 140;
special sounds, 141, 142
Amateur operators, 87;
Bettini glass plates, 306 foll.;
Blériot’s flight film, 301;
“Kinora” system, 302 foll.
Ambrosio Film Company, 324
American Biograph Company, 155
---- Kinetoscope Company, 35
---- Mutoscope Company, studio described, 105
Aniline dyes, 289
Animated advertisements, 261
“Animated” newspapers, 277 foll.;
circulation, 284;
compared with printed newspaper, 285;
effect on picture theatre, 284;
length of film, 282
Animated photography (_see_ Cinematography)
“Animated Putty” (film), 235
Animatograph, 33 foll.;
at Alhambra Theatre, 116
Announcement films, 262
Anschütz, Ottomar, 20
Anti-firing devices (_see under_ Fire)
“Antony and Cleopatra,” film, 178
Apparitions, 222–225
Armstrong, C., 259–260
Asquith, Right Hon. H. H. (film), 261
Austin-Edwards Co., 50
Automatic safety cut-off shutter, 95
“Automobile Accident” (film), 211
Auxetophone, 186
Back Cloth, in trick pictures, 241, 228
Ballistics, 276
Barker, William, 174
Base, definition, 25
Baucus (American agent), 35, 49
“Bee, The” (film), 324
“Best Cigarette, The” (film), 261
Bettini glass plate cinematograph, 306 foll.
“Big Picture Play,” 169, 175, 177–178
“Big Swallow A,” (film), 254
Biocolor, 298
“Black Maria” (studio), 105
Blackton, J. Stuart, 171;
trick pictures, 242
Blair, roller photography, 28
Blair Company, 29
Blériot’s Channel flight (film), 301
Blinking, compared with action of shutter, 320
Blockless Motiograph, 99
Blue-black light (in panchromatising), 294
Blue screen, 295;
compensation for absence, 296
Boys, Prof. Vernon, flight of projectiles, 274
Bull, Lucien, 264;
experiments, 265 foll.;
Marey Institute, 322
Bull Camera (illus.), 269–270
Butcher and Sons, 316
“Cain and Abel,” film, 177
Call-board, in theatre, 152
Camera, 65 foll., 107;
Bettini camera, 306 foll.;
double camera, 319;
electric spark apparatus, 265 foll.;
for explorers, 73;
preparation for exposure, 69, 70
---- obscura, 7, 321
Cannock, Frank, 49
Capus (picture playwriter), 160
Carvallo, M. J., 323
Celluloid film, 24 foll.;
accidental discovery, 28;
Blair’s experiments, 28;
development of industry, 51;
Eastman and Walker, 26 foll.;
effect of climate, 53;
inflammability, 54;
length, 55;
manufacture, 52;
manufacturers, 50;
non-inflammable, 55;
waste product, 56, 330
Cellulose-acetate, 55
“Cheese Mites, The” (film), 201
Chemist:
instantaneous photography, 2;
colour cinematography, 292
Chevreul’s black, 20
“Chronicle” (animated), 278
Chronophone, 185;
differential gear, 188;
Green’s apparatus, 107;
projector, 186
Chronophotography, 16;
development, 322 foll.
_Cinema-à-plaque_, Bettini, 306 foll.
Cinematograph (Cinematographe), 43–49
“Cinematograph fiend,” 11
Cinematograph plays, 146 foll.;
dress-rehearsal, 153;
production, 152;
realism, 155
---- Theatre, 130 foll.;
in remote districts, 132;
development, 133;
electrical equipment, 136
(_see also_ Picture Palace)
---- Trust (American), 110;
effect on British trade, 111
Cinematography (or Animated Photography):--
(1) _General_:
Amateurs, 301;
army recruiting, effect on, 317;
action of brain in connection with, 5;
educational value, 312 foll.;
effect on theatre, 174;
expansion of industry, 327;
litigation, 110;
optical principle explained, 90;
scientific value (_see_ Scientific Research);
various uses, 316–318;
waste in the industry, 86
(2) _History and Development_:
Instantaneous photography, 1–3;
early attempts, 10–22;
kinetoscope, 30–33;
animatography, 33 foll.;
cinematograph, 43–49;
micro-cinematography, 161 foll.;
in Italy, 174;
phono-cinematography, 180;
electric spark cinematography, 265 foll.;
natural colour cinematography, 287 foll.;
recent developments, 319 foll.;
growth and popularity, 323 foll.
Cinephone, 180
Cines Company (_see below_)
---- Societa Italiana, 175–177;
“Life of Christ” (film), 177;
toning, 300;
Turin Exhibition films, 325
“Clown and his Donkey” (film), 260
Collins, Esmé, 107
Collodion process, defects, 24
Colour pictures, 287;
“A Fire” film, 288;
aniline dyes, 289;
colour sensitiser, 293;
compared with monochrome, 299;
Coronation records, 297;
stencil process, 288
Colour-sensitising solution, 293
Comandon, Dr. J., 162;
investigations, 166
Commutator, 182
Composition of news film, 282
Continuous motion, 32;
for excessive speed, 265
Control board of chronophone, 187
“Coronation” film, kinemacolor, 297
Coronation films, competition for, 119
Cranz, Dr. C., 274
Daguerre, exposure experiment, 1
Daily cinematograph newspaper, prospects of, 286
Dancing furniture, 209
Daylight projection, 142
Demeny, Georges, 21
Derby film, 116, 117
Desvignes, 16
Detaillé, 15
Developing apparatus, 85, 86
---- solution, 79
Development of pictures, 76 foll.;
long films, 79, 80
Diaphragm, manipulation in trick pictures, 226
---- stop, in trick camera, 222
“Dime Show,” 131
Di-optic projector (_see_ Double Projector)
“Dissolution of the Government, The” (film), 257
Dog-movement, 93;
in Gaumont chrono, 100
Donisthorpe (experimenter), 16
Double camera, 219 foll.;
disadvantage of, 321
---- exposure process, 225
---- printing, 200
---- projector, 320 foll.
Drying operation, 79
Dumas, Alexandre, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 15
Du Mont (experimenter), 16
“Duped,” 206
Eastman and Walker, 26
Eastman Dry Plate Company, 26
---- Kodak Company, 26, 50
Ebonite disc in electric spark apparatus, 267
Eden Musée--“Passion Play,” 106
Edison, Thomas Alva, 29;
educational films, 314;
film production, 113;
the kinetoscope, 30;
litigation, 110;
projector, 100;
royalty on films, 328;
studios, 105, 112
Edison Company, 151;
riot scene, 157
_Edison’s First Kinetoscope_, 31
Edison standard gauge, 57;
drawbacks, 59
Educational film, 312 foll.
Election films, 257, 258
Electrical tachyscope, 20, 21
Electricity as illuminant, 98
Electric spark, 268
---- spark apparatus, 265;
copper strips, 268
---- spark cinematography, 265 foll.
Electrodes, magnesium, 268
_Empire Film Mender_, 138
_Empire Film Winder_, 137
“Empire” series of pictures, 316
_Empire Trick Camera_, 216
Essanay plant, 112
Ethyl-violet, 293
Exposure of film, 274
Eye, as camera, 4
Fairy, production of, 244
“Fall of Babylon” (film), 177
Faust, film of, 175;
on the Vivaphone, 184
Film, 23 foll.;
American, 171;
British, 328;
European, 171;
exposure, 274;
firing of, 95;
“Hepwix,” 329;
for kineto, 305;
length, 149;
manipulation in trick pictures, 220;
non-inflammable, 316;
repair, 137;
waste product, 56, 330;
weekly output, 327
---- gauge, 33, 57
---- punch, 72
---- tinting, 288, 289
Film-trap, 100
Film-winder, 137;
illus., 77
Financial investments, 328
Finsbury Technical College: Theatrograph, 39
Fire, protection against, 136;
anti-firing devices, 95, 96;
in Empire projector, 101
_First Moving Pictures_, 14
Fixing solution, 79
Flashing: in trick pictures, 249
Flicker, cause of, 7
Flight of projectiles, 274 foll.
“Fountain of Youth” (film), 214
Fox, William, 145
Free-lance producer, 160
Fringing, 298;
elimination, 299
Gaevert firm, 50
Gate, 38
Gaumont, Léon, 184 foll.
_Gaumont Chronophone_, 186
Gaumont chrono projector, 100
---- Company, 110;
“Automobile Accident,” 211;
chronophone, 185;
Coronation films, 119, 120;
Rob Roy, 158;
The Little Milliner’s Dream, 231;
The Magnetic Gentleman, 210;
The Siren, 227;
The Travelling Bed, 209
Gaumont Graphic, 279;
bi-weekly issue, 284;
branch offices, 280;
circulation, 282;
Coronation number, 283
“Gazette” (animated), 278
Geissler tube, in Anschütz tachyscope, 21
Gelatine, proposed use, 23
Gelatino-bromide process, 24
Gerome, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 15
Glass plates, Bettini system, 306 foll.
Goupil, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 15
Grand Central Palace, New York, roof stage, 106
Grand Prix film, 324
“Graphic” (animated), 278
Green screen, 291;
Smith’s experiments, 295
Greene, W. F., 17, 107;
biocolor, 298;
colour sensitiser, 293;
double camera, 319;
natural colour cinematography, 289;
three- and two-screen systems, 295
Greene and Evans, 22
Harris, Sir Augustus, and the Theatrograph, 40
Harris Safety Shutter, 96
“Haunted Curiosity Shop, The” (film), 203
“Haunted Hotel, The” (film), 242
Hazelton Picture Palace, 132, 133
“Hepwix” film, 329
Hepworth, T. C., 98
Hepworth Company, 151
---- Manufacturing Co., Ltd., 329;
Vivaphone, 182
Himalayas, scenic films, 128
Hollaman, Richard G., 47;
production of Passion Play, 106
Hove Camera Club, 107
Iceland spar, for condenser, 268
Illuminant, 98;
electric spark, 265
Imperator projector, 100
Independent or “free-lance” producers, 160
Insects, flight of, 270;
apparatus for photographing (illus.), 266, 272;
Coleoptera records, 273;
Hymenoptera records, 272;
scientific value, 274
Instantaneous photography, 2;
analysis of movement, 13
Intermittent motion, 32;
Lumière’s camera, 43;
Paul’s camera, 38, 92;
for excessive speed, 265
International Exhibition, Turin, film competition, 324
Interrupter, electric spark apparatus, 267
Inventor’s fiddle, 21
“Investiture of the Prince of Wales,” Kinemacolor, 297;
monochrome, 120–122
Ives, Frederick E., 287;
Ives’s system, 299
Jansen, Astronomer, 17
Kalem, manufacturing firm, 171
Kelvin, Lord, film perforation, 58
Kinemacolor, 295 foll.;
apparatus, 135;
Coronation films, 297;
“fringing,” 298;
limitations, 297;
picture plays, 298;
scenic films, 125;
stock company, 151;
studio-theatre, 108
“Kinemacolor Special,” 126
Kineograph, 302
Kineto, Ltd., 190
Kinetograph, 179
Kinetoscope, The, 30;
heat absorbent, 46;
Edison’s studio, 105
Kinora, 302 foll.
Kramm projector, 101
Lantern Room (_see_ Operating room)
Latham, apparatus, 47
Laurrilard, Mr., of Marble Arch Electric Theatre, and “Investiture of
the Prince of Wales” film, 120
Lee and Turner, natural colour process, 290
“Life in the Jungle” (film), 172–174
“Life of Christ” (film), 177
“Life of the Butterfly, The” (film), 324
Lilliputian figures, 231 foll.;
explanation, 202
“Little Milliner’s Dream, The” (film), 231–235
“Little Sardinian Drummer, The” (film), 325
Loew, Marcus, 144
Lubin, of Philadelphia, 158;
studio, 112
Lumière and Sons, 43 foll.;
manufacture of film, 50;
perforation of film, 44;
projector (illus.), 45;
“Macbeth,” picture play, 175
“Magic Banquet” (film), 239, 240
Magic pictures, 207 foll.;
explanation, 209 foll.
“Magic Sword, The” (film), 199–201
“Magnet, The” (film), 312
“Magnetic Gentleman” (film), 210
Maguire, American agent, 35, 49
Make-up of news films, 282
Mallez, Dr., 15
Maltese Cross movement, 92, 101
Marey, Dr. E. J., 17 foll., 322;
camera, 18, 19;
experiments, 18, 264
Marey Institute, 322, 264
_Marey’s Camera showing Shutter with Radial Slots_, 19
Mask, of printing apparatus, 81
Medical science and cinematography, 316;
micro-cinematography, 161
Meissonier, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 13, 15
Mélies, French conjurer, 197
Microbes, moving pictures of, 161 foll.
Micro-cinematography, 161 foll.;
Dr. J. Comandon, 162;
difficulties, 163;
experiments with blood, 166;
magnification, 168;
“phenomenon of agglutination,” 167;
popular science, 190;
shutter, 165;
sleeping sickness, 166
“Miracle (The),” film, 177
Mirror, in trick pictures, 244;
in electric spark apparatus, 267
Monochrome cinematography, 299
Moorhouse, A. H., 140
Motion, records of, animal motion, 13;
flight of insects, 273;
flight of projectiles, 274 foll.
---- Picture Patents Company, 327
“Motorist, The (?)” (film), 203–205
Moul, Mr. (of Alhambra Theatre), 41;
picture plays, 104
Mount: for projector, 99
---- for sensitised emulsion, 23, 24;
Eastman’s experiments, 27
“Mount Etna in Eruption” (film), 315
Movement, illusion explained, 6;
illustrated, 8
“Movement,” record of Marey’s experiments, 20
Movement and sound combined, Edison, 179;
Gaumont, 184;
Hepworth Company, 182
Moving picture circuits, 143
---- Pictures: (_see_ Cinematography)
Mutoscope Company, 105
Muybridge, 12–16;
demonstration in Paris, 15;
studio, 13
Natural colour cinematography, 287 foll.;
“Biocolor,” 298;
expense, 294;
Greene’s process, 289;
“Kinemacolor,” 296;
Lee and Turner, 290;
new process, 299;
three screens, 291;
two screens, 295
---- light, 290
New Guinea, films, 128
Newman and Sinclair Camera (illus.), 73
_Newman-Sinclair Printing Apparatus_, 81
_Newman-Sinclair Reflex Moving Picture Camera_, 74
Nickel show, 131
_N.S. Film Perforator_, 63
Olympia: First picture palace, 40
“One turn one picture” movement, 235–240;
by Americans, 238;
in silhouette trick films, 259
Operating room or lantern room, 136;
law relating to, 135
_Optical principle of the Cinematograph_, 90
_Optical principle of projection with the Bettini cinema-à-plaque_,
310
“Ora Pro Nobis” (film), 202
Oxy-hydrogen limelight as illuminant, 98
“Panchromatic” film, 293;
deterioration, 294
“Panchromatism,” 293;
process, 294
Paper, as base, 24, 303;
Eastman, 27
---- negative, 303
Parkes, A., 26
Parkesine, 26
Parsons, Hon. C. A., 186
Passion Play, 106
Pathé, Charles, 35
Pathé Frères, 109;
colour pictures, 288;
development of picture play, 169;
film, 312;
“The Magnet,” 312;
micro-cinematography, 163;
projector, 101;
village scene, 158
Paul, Robert W., 34;
camera, 37, 66–69;
colour pictures, 288;
intermittent gear, 92;
mount for lantern, 99;
“Ora Pro Nobis,” 202;
“Railway Collision,” 205;
“Scenes in Soldier’s Life,” 317;
“The Magic Sword,” 199;
“The Cheese Mites,” 201;
“The (?) Motorist,” 203;
topical films, 116 foll.;
trick pictures, 198
_Paul’s Improved “Cross” Driving Mechanism_, 94
Peep-hole machine, 33
“Penny gaff,” 131
Perforating machines:
“N-S” perforator, 63;
Rotary perforator, 61;
Urban-Joy, 64;
Williamson perforator, 62
Perforation gauge, 57;
Edison standard, 57;
Lumière’s, 59
---- of film, 33;
necessity for mathematical precision, 60;
Lord Kelvin’s suggestion, 58;
Lumière’s method, 44
Phenakistoscope, 11
Phono-cinematograph (_see below_)
Phonograph, with cinematograph, 180, 181, 189
Photographic gun, 17
---- revolver, 17
Picture House at Briggate, 134
---- Palace, 144;
effect on legitimate theatre, 326;
British Isles, 325;
France, 325;
Germany, 326;
U.S.A., 144, 326;
facts and figures, 325 foll.
---- plays, 103 foll.;
development, 109 foll.;
the “Big Picture Play,” 169 foll.;
educational service, 174;
financial risk, 177;
historical subjects, 170;
Kinemacolor, 298;
Pathé firm, 110;
playwright, 147;
plots, 159;
popular subjects, 176–177;
religious subjects, 177;
staging, 103 foll.;
studio (_see under_ Studio);
“After Fifty Years,” 324;
St. Francis of Assisi, 325;
The Passion Play, 106, 169;
“The Soldier’s Courtship,” 103
Pinachrome, 293
Pinacyanol, 293
Poch, Prosper, 142
Polar exploration films, 127
Political films, 257
Popular science, 190 foll.;
films, 324
Portraiture, cinematographic, 283
Praxinoscope, 11;
records, 12
Primary colours, 290
“Prince’s Derby,” 117
“Princess Nicotine,” 242–253;
illustration of staging, 245;
trick explained, 244
Printing, 80;
Newman-Sinclair apparatus, 81–82;
Williamson printer, 82–84
Projection:
kinetoscope, 8;
praxinoscope, 11;
rate of monochrome films, 6;
colour films, 292
Projector, 37, 88 foll.;
for amateurs, 309, 310;
double, 320, 135;
driving system, 99;
intermittent motion, 38;
rate of projection, 6, 292;
second lens, 99;
shutter, 94, 95;
“B Underwriter,” 100;
Gaumont Chrono, 100;
“Imperator,” 100;
Lumière, 45
Provincial Cinematograph Theatres, Ltd., 134
Prozynski, 306
“Pumpkin Race” (film), 217
Quentin, daylight projection, 142
Quo Vadis (film), 175–176
Racking bellows, 255
Rainbow screen, 142
Realism, in picture plays, 155 foll., 172
Red screen, 291;
failure, 292;
panchromatic film, 293;
Smith’s experiments, 295
Religious institutions and cinematography, 317
Renter, or middleman, 178
Reversal of action, 215
Reynaud’s praxinoscope, 11
Rheostat handle, 187
Rhumkoff coil, in Anschütz tachyscope, 21
Roller-photography, 26;
Blair, 28
Roosevelt, T., and cinematography, 128
Rostand, picture plays, 160
“Sacking of Rome” (film), 175
Safety shutter, 95–98
“St. Francis of Assisi” (film), 325
Sample prints, 176
“Samson and Delilah,” (film), 177
Scenery (_see_ Realism)
Scenic films, 125–129;
Polar exploration, 127;
Victoria Falls, 126
Scientific research, 161 foll.;
electric spark cinematography, 265 foll.;
explorations, 73, 127;
medical science, 316
Scott, Capt. R., 127
Screen, 138;
daylight projection, 142;
in natural colour photography, 291
Selig, William N., 172
Selig organisation, 112;
company, 151;
fire-rescue film, 155;
production of the jungle play, 172–174;
at Los Angeles, 112;
studio, 112;
wardrobe, 114
Sensitised emulsion, 2;
in colour photography, 292
Shackleton expedition, 127
Shadowgraph play, 259
Shutter, 94;
automatic safety, 95;
electric spark apparatus (illus.), 268, 269
Siemens and Halske, 47
Silent Knight, projector, 101
Silhouette trick films, 259;
advertisements, 261;
in America, 259, 263;
“The Clown and the Donkey,” 260
“Siren, The” (film), 227
“Ski-runner,” 240–241
Smith, Albert, 242;
Kinemacolor, 295 foll.
Smith, F. Percy, 190;
apparatus, 195;
experiments, 191–195;
magic film, 257
“Soldier’s Courtship, The” (film), 104
Soret, M. L., 20
Sound effects, 139;
production, 141
---- and movement combined, 179 foll.
South America, progress of cinematography, 145
Spool box, 91
Sprocket, use of, 33
Stage, 104 (_see also_ Studio)
Stage properties, 204, 208;
for “Princess Nicotine,” 246
Stanford, Governor, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 15
Steinheil, interest in Muybridge’s experiments, 15
Stencil, 289
Stereoscopic shutter (illus.), 269
---- system, in electric spark cinematography, 268
Stern, inventor, 22
Stock, 294
Stop, of lens, 199
---- and substitution action, 212–215
---- call, 215, 222
Stop-motion, 201;
method illustrated, 236
Stop-press news, 285
Studio for picture plays, 103 foll.;
American Mutoscope Co., 105;
Edison, 105, 112;
equipment, 113;
Kinemacolor, 108;
Lubin, 112;
Muybridge, 13;
Pathé Frères, 109;
Paul, 104;
Selig, 112;
Vitagraph Co., 112;
J. A. Williamson, 107
Submarine effects, 240
Superprinting, 240
Synchroniser, 182 foll.
Synchronism, 185
Tachyscope, electrical, 20, 21
“Tale of Two Cities, A” (film), 171
Talking machines, 180 foll.
“Theatrograph,” 39
“Three Musketeers” (film), 175
Three-roll film, 106
Three-screen cinematography (tricolour), 291;
cost, 294;
latest process, 299
Toning, 300
Topical pictures, 116 foll.;
dangers, 123;
competition, 118;
Coronation of King George V., 119;
East End battle with anarchists, 124;
Investiture of Prince of Wales, 120;
prize-fights, 122
Transformations, 225
“Travelling Bed, The” (film), 209
Travelling show, 130
Tree, Sir H. B., picture play, 174
Treuwé, Professor, 130
“Trial of Abraham’s Faith” (film), 177
“Trick” camera, 222
Trick pictures, 197 foll.;
manipulation of film and camera, 219;
M. Mélies, 197;
R. Paul, 198;
miscellaneous, 228–230, 237;
two stages, 246;
wires and threads, 238 foll.;
“Animated Putty,” 235;
“Automobile Accident,” 211;
“Boots,” 235;
“The Cheese Mites,” 201;
“The Dissolution of the Government,” 257;
“Fountain of Youth,” 214;
“The Haunted Curiosity Shop,” 203;
“The Haunted Hotel,” 242;
“The Little Milliner’s Dream,” 231;
“The Magic Carpenter’s Shop,” 238;
“Magic Knitting Needles,” 237;
“The Magic Sword,” 199;
“The Magnetic Gentleman,” 210;
“The (?) Motorist,” 203;
“The Mysterious Banquet,” 239;
“Princess Nicotine,” 243;
“Railway Collision,” 205;
“The Siren,” 227;
“Scene at Sea,” 207;
“The Travelling Bed,” 209;
“The Workman’s Paradise,” 217
Tricolour cinematography (_see_ Three-screen cinematography)
Tripod, for camera, 72, 73
“Triumphant Hero (The),” (film), 175
Tuning fork, in Bull camera, 270
Two-colour work (_see below_)
Two-screen cinematography, 295
Tyler-Ernemann “Imperator” projector, 100
“Uncle Tom’s Cabin” (film), 156
Union Square Theatre, New York, 144
Urban, Charles, 48, 49
Urban-Joy anti-firing device, 96
_Urban-Joy-Harris Anti-firing Device_, 97
Urban Trading Company, 125
Vincent, John, 106
Violet-rays, 268
Violet screen, 291
Visual persistence, 3;
“blinking,” 321;
in colour photography, 292;
in monochrome, 8
Vitagraph Company, 112;
“Leather Stocking” stories, 159;
“Tale of Two Cities,” 171
Vivaphone (illus.), 182–184
V-shaped stop, 199
War Office and cinematography, 317
Warwick Trading Company, 49
West, T. J., 130
Wheel, cylindrical, of electric spark apparatus, 265–267
“Wheel of Life,” 10
“White Plague” pictures, 316
Williamson, James A., 107 foll.;
colour picture, 288;
“A Big Swallow,” 254–257;
“The Workman’s Paradise,” 217
Williamson printer, 82
“Workman’s Paradise” (film), 217
Wright, Wilbur, flight film, 72
X-rays, and cinematography, 322
Zoetrope, 10
Zoopraxinoscope, 11
Zoopraxiscope, 15
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY R. CLAY AND SONS, LTD.,
BRUNSWICK ST., STAMFORD ST., S.E., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.
Transcriber’s Notes
Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in the original book; otherwise they
were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; unbalanced quotation
marks were remedied when the change was obvious, and otherwise left
unbalanced.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
and outside quotations. Some have been moved closer to the text that
references them. In versions of this eBook that support hyperlinks, the
page references in the List of Illustrations lead to the corresponding
illustrations.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
references.