PICTURES THAT MOVE, TALK, AND SING
When Edison invented the “Kinetoscope,” his ambition was, not only to
produce movement by the aid of pictures, but sound by the aid of the
phonograph. But it proved a hopeless quest; and accordingly Edison
confined his efforts for the time being to the perfection of animated
photography.
In an earlier chapter I have described some devices for imitating
sound. In this chapter I am speaking, not of imitation, but of
reproduction. In order to secure perfect combination of movement and
sound, it is essential to secure absolute synchronism in the actuation
of the camera and that of the talking machine. This was Edison’s
insuperable difficulty. A single motor was utilised for both machines;
but the phonograph was easier to stop and to restart than the camera,
owing to the fact that the latter had to be driven at sufficient speed
to secure 46 pictures per second.
The moving and singing picture machine known as the “Kinetograph,”
which worked upon the automatic “nickel-in-the-slot” principle, had a
very brief existence. It was placed in cigar shops, railway stations,
and other convenient public places, but it failed to interest the
public, and was withdrawn in a short time.
Yet Edison did not relinquish his original plan. He cherished the
idea that combined pictorial and audible records were feasible, and
for nineteen years he devoted his energies to the consummation of the
task. It was only a short time ago that the great inventor announced
that he had succeeded at last. In the meantime, however, he had been
anticipated by industrious and energetic experimenters in Europe.
In 1908 an attempt to produce motion and sound was made commercially
with the “Cinephone.” The solution presented in this apparatus is
undoubtedly novel, but the results are very unsatisfactory, and its
success is dependent entirely upon the skill of the operator. The
“Cinephone” is designed to accompany the motions of acting with the
sounds pertaining thereto. The pictures are fitted to the talking
machine records--that is to say, the cinematographer merely takes a
gramophone record and produces a film suitable thereto. Edison’s plan
was far more comprehensive. His idea was to prepare the phonographic
record at the same time as the film pictures were made--for example,
while a football or baseball match was being cinematographed, the
phonograph was to record the applause, cheers, shouts--in short, make
as complete a record for the ear as the camera did for the eye.
The principle governing the operation of the Cinephone is extremely
simple. An ordinary talking machine is employed, without any
modification beyond the addition of a small box with a governing
dial, and a similar dial in the pictures upon the screen. The dial
in each instance is fitted with a revolving hand, similar to that of
a clock, and all that the operator is called upon to do is to keep
the respective hands in relative positions by the manipulation of the
projector.
The talking machine is mounted upon a baseboard, which is extended in
front a sufficient distance to carry a small box the front face of
which is fitted with the dial. The clock-like hand is transparent,
and when an electric lamp, or other suitable illuminant, is placed
within the box, it becomes illuminated, so that its rotation may be
followed easily. The circle described by the hand is indicated at its
four quarters by a small transparent point, through which passes the
light from within the box. These four spots of light can be eclipsed
and revealed by the movement of a shutter lever. When the lights appear
the operator knows that the talking machine is ready. The hand of
the rotating dial is actuated by mechanism driven by the motor of the
talking machine, through a horizontal spindle.
In the bottom left-hand corner of each picture thrown on the screen
is a duplicate of the talking machine dial. The position of the hand
on each successive picture varies correspondingly with that on the
gramophone, because in the preparation of the pictures the speaking or
singing characters have accompanied the gramophone with their acting.
When the picture is shown the speed of projection gives a steady
forward motion to the hand on the picture dial.
When the apparatus is brought into play in the moving picture theatre
the talking machine is placed on the stage in such a way that its
illuminated dial is visible to the cinematograph operator. The latter’s
duty is to run the film through the machine at such a speed that the
position of the hand on the picture dial keeps step with that of the
talking machine dial. If this is done with precision, the action in the
picture coincides with the sounds emitted from the talking machine.
This apparatus can be applied to any type of projector without any
preliminary preparations whatever, and the mechanism of the latter has
not to be modified or touched in any way. But, on the other hand, there
are grave defects. Synchrony between picture and talking machine is
dependent upon the operator, and until the latter has become accustomed
to the combination, the results are disconcerting. It is no simple
matter to keep the hands of the two dials rotating harmoniously. When
the film lags behind the talking machine, a pronounced speeding up is
requisite to bring the two hands into synchrony. The increased work
thrown upon the operator is also far from being a negligible quantity.
He has to watch the two dials intently, and cannot centre his mind upon
the projector, as he should be free to do. More than once I have seen a
film snap under the strain imposed in the effort to catch up with the
talking machine, or the light has demanded attention, and the result
has been far from pleasing. However, the appearance of the “Cinephone”
served to stimulate inventive effort in this particular field, and
proved to the public that the production of pictures that talked and
sang, as well as moved, was by no means so forlorn a possibility as had
been imagined generally.
The next attempt in the same direction met with better success--in the
“Vivaphone,” perfected by the Hepworth Manufacturing Company, Limited.
In this machine the two dials were eliminated in favour of a single
electric control or synchroniser.
In the projecting box by the operator’s side is a small, compact case.
This is the synchroniser, consisting primarily of a vertical needle,
which can move to the right or to the left. The movement or deflection
of this needle is effected by means of two electromagnets. One exerts a
pull upon the needle towards the right, while the other draws it in the
opposite direction. These two electromagnets are electrically connected
to the cinematograph and to the talking machine respectively.
[Illustration: FIG. 14.--THE ELECTRICAL SYNCHRONISING ATTACHMENT TO THE
TALKING MACHINE IN THE “VIVAPHONE.”]
The attachments to the projector and the gramophone are very simple.
The electrical contact device or commutator is attached to the handle
to establish connection between the two parts of the apparatus. On the
gramophone is another commutator (Fig. 14). It consists of an arm,
one edge of which rests on the case of the talking machine, while
the opposite end engages with the motor spindle of the gramophone
projecting vertically through the turn-table.
[Illustration: FIG. 15.--THE ELECTRICAL WIRING SYSTEM OF THE
“VIVAPHONE.”]
The installation of this apparatus (Fig. 15) is likewise simple.
The synchroniser _A_ is placed in a convenient position in the
operator’s box, while the gramophone _B_ is set upon the stage. From
the projecting handle commutator _C_ a pair of wires are run and
attached to the connections _K_ in the synchroniser, while similarly
a pair of wires are carried from the talking machine commutator to
the connections _G_ in the synchroniser. Two wires are led from the
terminals _B_ in the synchroniser to the battery _F_. Sufficient energy
for the electric current is furnished from a 4 or 6 volt accumulator,
such as is used in automobile practice, or from a dry storage battery.
Ordinary bell wire suffices for the purposes of the connections. If the
distance between the screen and the projecting box is very great it is
advisable to introduce an auxiliary cell _D_ in the gramophone circuit.
Behind the vertical needle of the synchroniser is a narrow transparent
slot, which, when the synchrony is perfect, is covered by the needle
itself. The upper end of the needle is fitted with two small glazed
apertures or spectacle glasses, one on either side, fitted with red
and green glass respectively. When the apparatus is in use the two
electromagnets controlled by the cinematograph and the gramophone
respectively exert a pull in opposite directions--the gramophone
endeavours to draw the needle one way, and the projector electromagnet
attempts to pull it in the other direction. If the projector is
lagging, the needle moves over, bringing the red spectacle before
the light aperture, and the red light thus shown warns the operator
to accelerate the projector. On the other hand, if the projector is
running too fast, the needle moves in the opposite direction and brings
the green light into prominence. The degree of the deflection of the
needle indicates how far the synchronisation is disturbed. When the
opposing forces of the electromagnets are exactly equal, the needle
maintains a vertical position, and shows absolute synchrony. It will
be seen that the signalling system is very sensitive and accurate, and
at the same time enables the operator to have complete control over
projection. In fact this is the most perfect system of synchronising
the pictures with the sounds emitted from the gramophone that has been
yet produced in the combination of sound and movement. Some excellent
subjects have been produced with this machine, one of the finest being
the sound and movement reproduction of “Faust.”
But, after all, these devices are far from representing the ideal
singing and talking cinematograph. The drawback is this: the conditions
prevent the pictures being secured at the same moment that the relative
sounds are being recorded by the gramophone.
While Edison was striving with the problem, French investigators
were active, and the first practical success in the field must be
credited to Monsieur Léon Gaumont, the head of the French cinematograph
establishment of that name. He succeeded where Edison failed; or
rather, he anticipated the famous American inventor by several years.
It was as far back as November 7th, 1902, that Monsieur Gaumont
introduced his achievement for the first time before the French
Photographic Society. The apparatus was not yet perfect, but it served
to demonstrate that the synchronous production of sound and movement
by the aid of the cinematograph and the talking machine was within
measurable distance of attainment. The demonstration was held primarily
to show how perfect a synchronising mechanism had been evolved. The
great difficulty encountered was in regard to the sensitive character
of the material required for taking the records of sounds from a
distance. The ordinary process then in vogue was far from being
suitable. By the aid of several interested friends and collaborators,
however, Monsieur Gaumont was able to conquer this obstacle, and on
December 27th, 1910, the “Chronophone,” as the new invention is called,
was submitted to the approval of the French Academy of Sciences and was
regarded as eminently successful by that distinguished learned body.
Synchronism--both in producing and reproducing--between the
cinematograph and the talking machine is secured by electrical
connections between motors which furnish the requisite power for
driving the two essential parts of the apparatus. In evolving such a
combination as this the inventor had to bear in mind that portability
and simplicity were two fundamental requisitions, so that resort to
heavy, bulky, and intricate mechanism was quite out of the question. In
comparison with the Cinephone and Vivaphone, the Chronophone appears
somewhat complicated. But this is only relative. The apparatus is
almost entirely automatic in its operation. Yet it can be operated by
hand if necessary. If the latter method is adopted, the energy required
to secure synchrony is derived from batteries or accumulators.
Synchrony is obtained by means of a patented system, which may be
briefly described. The two motors required for driving the talking
machine and the cinematograph respectively are of identical design,
of approximately the same power, and are operated by the same direct
current. The armatures of each motor are divided into sections, and the
corresponding sections of the two armatures are connected together.
By means of this arrangement the two armatures are rotated at the
same speed, notwithstanding the slight differences in the mechanical
resistance opposed to the machines.
The talking machine, driven by an electric motor, is of the disc
type, fitted with two horns, so as to diffuse the sounds through
the building. If the theatre is spacious the number of horns may
be increased, while the sound waves projected into the hall may
be intensified in volume by means of compressed air, as in the
Auxetophone devised by the Hon. C. A. Parsons, which is also capable
of considerable adjustment, so that the volume of sound may be
accommodated to the acoustic properties of the building.
[Illustration: FIG. 16.--THE GAUMONT “CHRONOPHONE.”]
In comparison with the ordinary bioscope mechanism the Chronophone
projector appears somewhat intricate, but here again everything has
been simplified to a remarkable degree, while all adjustments are
carried out automatically. The projector installation (Fig. 16), in
addition to the lantern _A_ and projecting mechanism _B_ employed in
the ordinary equipment, consists of a small motor _C_, which drives
the projector mechanism proper and a differential _D_, whereby error
between sound and movement is corrected, driven by a small motor _E_.
To start the apparatus, the first picture of the film, say that of the
title, is placed in the film gate before the exposure aperture, and the
needle of the talking machine sound box is placed on the first groove
of the disc record. The talking machine motor is started, and the table
carrying the record commences to revolve. Directly the needle reaches
the point in the disc groove where the first sound wave has been
recorded, an electrical contact is established, which is transmitted to
the projector, and sets the latter in motion. But it may be that the
speed is too much or not enough; the pictures move too slowly or too
quickly, and the tone of the sound emitted by the talking machine is
unnatural. In this case the operator moves the rheostat handle _F_ over
its contacts, this movement accelerating both the talking machine and
the projector until the correct natural speed has been secured.
Again it may be that the pictures are slightly in advance of the
phonograph, or _vice versâ_; the movements of the lips of the singer or
actions of the performer do not coincide with the emission of sound.
This error may be rectified instantly. There is a two-way commutator
on the control board, which the operator moves in one direction or the
other according to requirements. This instantly starts up the small
dynamo _E_, the power of which is transmitted through belt and pulley
to the differential gearing _D_, which works on the same shaft as that
driving the projector. If the projector is lagging it is speeded up, so
as to overtake the talking machine, or if the pictures are in advance
of the sound, it is retarded until synchronism is restored. This device
is particularly useful, inasmuch as the talking machine is somewhat
sensitive to outside disturbance; if the machine is not set quite
level, or receives a violent vibration, the needle jumps suddenly from
one groove into another. By accelerating the projector this lead can
soon be reduced without touching the talking machine in the slightest.
The operator need not follow the movement of the pictures upon the
screen, or listen to the talking machine in order to ascertain that
synchrony is perfect. He merely keeps his eye on an ingenious, simple
“control board,” which is set up in a convenient position beside the
projector operator. It includes a starting gear, whereby the talking
machine is set in motion, and which in turn actuates the cinematograph
by the disc electrical contact, an electric switch, a volt meter, which
acts as a speed indicator, its readings, in fact, having a constant
relation to the revolving speed of the talking machine turn-table; and
a two-way commutator, where the differential motor is started up.
The differential gearing is somewhat interesting. It belongs to the
four-wheel type. There are two driven cog wheels 1 and 2 keyed to the
ends of the interrupted shaft of the projector motor, and between these
two wheels, and set at right angles thereto, are two satellite wheels
3 and 4, which mesh with the former wheels. If the cinematograph and
the talking machine are moving in exact synchrony, the wheels 1 and 2
run at similar speed, but in opposite directions, and in harmony with
wheels 3 and 4. To the short end of the interrupted shaft a needle is
attached, and when synchrony is prevailing this needle maintains a
vertical position. Now, if the phonograph runs away from the projector,
this needle moves either to the right or to the left, and as it slides
over a graduated scale the operator can detect in an instant how
many pictures the projector is lagging behind the talking machine.
The cinematograph projector accordingly must be speeded up, and the
operator moves the commutator on his control board in the desired
direction. Then instead of the two satellite wheels meshing evenly with
the two wheels 1 and 2, they become displaced, with the result that the
shaft driving the projector is rotated more rapidly, and overtakes the
talking machine, the needle on the dial meanwhile moving towards zero,
until, when it reaches its vertical position, the differential gearing
and its motor are stopped. If the projector should have advanced
before the talking machine, it is retarded, the needle deflecting in
the opposite direction and requiring to be restored to zero. It will
be seen that the speed of the talking machine remains constant. Any
correction that has to be made is effected by means of accelerating or
retarding the speed of projection.
As, however, the records of movement and sound are made in synchrony,
and in view of the fact that both projector and talking machine run
at the same speed, if started simultaneously no displacement of one
in relation to the other should result. The differential, however,
provides a means of correcting any accidental displacement of the
phonograph needle when reproduction is carried out.
The Gaumont apparatus has proved highly successful, and has been
turned to useful account already; we have excerpts from operas,
ballets, recitations, and so forth recorded and projected with a
perfect relationship between sound and movement. Through the energy and
perseverance of Monsieur Gaumont the value of animated pictures has
received a decisive forward impetus.
Edison has devoted his energies in the solution of the problem to the
perfection of a more sensitive material than the wax hitherto employed.
Naturally he has confined his attention to adapting to this work the
phonograph or cylinder talking machine in preference to the disc
machine, the former being his own invention.
What is the future of the phono-cinematograph? In the first place,
until the peculiar nasal sound is eliminated from the talking machine
it will not prove popular. It is well-nigh impossible, unless a
speaker or singer has peculiar characteristics, to identify voices
on this instrument. Furthermore expression in tone is practically
non-existent. Though the cinematographic world be flooded with talking
and singing pictures, unless they are of some peculiar interest, the
majority of picture-theatre lovers, after the first wave of excitement
and curiosity, will patronise those establishments where they can see
movement alone.