DECISIVE VOYAGES IN HISTORY.—COLUMBUS. VASCO DA GAMA.
Columbus and his Enemies—Unsuitable Settlers—Outrageous Conduct of
the Colonists—The Second Expedition of Columbus—Discovery of
Jamaica—Dangerous Illness of Columbus—Return to Spain—The
Excitement over—Difficulty of starting a New Expedition—Third
Voyage—Columbus reaches the Mainland of America—Insurrection in
Hispaniola—Machinations at Home—Columbus brought to Spain in
Chains—Indignation in Spain—His Fourth Voyage—Ferdinand’s
Ingratitude—Death of the Great Navigator—Estimate of his
Character—Vasco da Gama—First Voyage—The Cape reached—First Sight
of India—At Calicut—Friendship of the King of Cananore—Great
Profits of the Expedition—Second Voyage—Vengeance on the Ruler of
Calicut—His Brutality—Subsequent History of Da Gama.
The first accounts transmitted to Spain from this grand expedition were of
the most sanguine description. But in less than two years from the
commencement of this second voyage very different stories reached the home
country. It was true that on the voyage Columbus had made further
discoveries of a grand nature—the islands of Jamaica, Guadaloupe, and the
Caribbee Islands. But rumours, and more than rumours, had reached the
Court of the most alarming discontent and disaffection in the colony of
Hispaniola, while the actual returns of a practical and commercial nature
were as yet exceedingly small. The real secret was, however, that mutiny,
jealousy, and distrust of Columbus as a foreigner, had sprung up among the
Spanish adventurers, most, or at least many, of whom were little fitted
for rough life in a new country. They were like the miscellaneous crowds
who in our own day have gravitated towards the gold and diamond fields, a
large number of whom expect to make gigantic fortunes without special
effort, and in a very short space of time. The hidalgoes and cavaliers, of
whom there was a too large proportion on the expedition, could not bend
themselves to obey Columbus, whom they deemed an upstart. Prescott, who
has collated more carefully than any other writer the many authorities on
the subject, shows that the Spaniards indulged in the most wanton licence
in regard to the unoffending natives, who in the simplicity of their
hearts had received the white men as messengers from heaven. A general
resistance had, however, soon followed, which led to a war of
extermination. In less than four years after the Spaniards had set foot on
San Domingo, one-third of its native population, amounting, according to
several authorities, to many hundred thousands, were sacrificed by war,
famine, and disease. These figures are undoubtedly exaggerations, but the
number was very large. It is due to Columbus, always a just and humane
man, to state that he did all in his power to prevent this sad state of
affairs, and was forced by his own people to war on the Indians; and
equally due to Isabella at home, to record that she was in no way a party
to it, but expressed the utmost horror.(50) These excesses, and a total
neglect of agriculture—for none would condescend to dig unless for
gold—nearly brought about a famine, and Columbus had to put them on very
short rations, and compel all to work, whether high or low bred. These
regulations led to further mutiny and discontent.
[Illustration: ANCIENT GOLD-WASHING AT ST. DOMINGO. (_After an Old
Engraving._)]
On the return of Columbus to Spain, he brought home, as before, some gold
and other samples of Nature’s productions in the islands. But other
voyagers returned, who loudly abused the new colony, and whose often wan
and sallow features provoked the satirical remarks of the people, that
they had come back with more gold in their features than in their pockets!
In short, the novelty of the excitement had passed, and like many really
valuable colonies of our own day which have been at first over-lauded and
over-estimated, Hispaniola fell utterly in public estimation. The Spanish
sovereigns, more especially Isabella, appear to have lent an unwilling ear
to the accusations of mal-administration by Columbus. Meantime the
treasury was drained by the expenses of an Italian war, and large expenses
had been incurred for the actual maintenance of the colony. But Isabella,
who really believed in Columbus, whose serious and yet enthusiastic
character resembled her own, at length found some means for a new
expedition, by sacrificing funds intended for another purpose. But now it
was found as difficult to induce men to join the new expedition as it had
been easy in the previous one. Even convicts were employed as sailors, and
this proved a ruinous expedient. All being at length ready, Columbus once
again embarked on May 30th, 1498, his little squadron consisting of six
vessels. On this voyage he discovered Trinidad, the mouth of the
Orinoco—which river he imagined to proceed from the tree of life in the
midst of Paradise—and the coasts of Paria, South America. This was really,
then his first visit to the _mainland_ of America. On August 14th he
sailed for Hispaniola once more, where he found that an insurrection had
been raised against his brother, Bartolomeo, whom he had left as his
deputy. At this juncture all the real interests of the colony were
neglected, and even the gold-mines, which were beginning to prove
remunerative, were unwrought. The convicts on the vessels helped to swell
the mass of general mutiny, and it took Columbus nearly a year before it
was in part quelled. Meantime discontented and worthless men kept
returning to Spain, where, encouraged by idle courtiers, they worried the
king daily with accounts of the unproductiveness of the colony. They even
surrounded him, as he rode out on horseback, clamouring loudly for the
arrears of which they said Columbus had defrauded them.
It is very difficult to exactly understand the course pursued at this
juncture by the king. The popular view, as adopted by most writers, is
that he regarded Columbus as having served his day: the ladder had
fulfilled its use, and might now be kicked down. It is, perhaps, more
reasonable to believe that Ferdinand hardly knew how to act, with his
queen still firmly believing in the great discoverer, and so much pressure
in other directions being brought to bear from the court and outside. It
was determined to send out a commissioner to investigate the affairs of
the colony, and the person chosen seems to have been a most unfit agent.
He was one Francisco de Bobadilla, a poor knight of Calatrava, who, puffed
up with arrogance at his sudden elevation, seems from the first to have
regarded Columbus in the light of a convicted criminal. On his arrival in
San Domingo he immediately commanded the admiral to appear before him, and
without even pretence of legal inquiry, put him in chains, and thrust him
into prison. His two brothers, Bartolomeo and Diego, suffered the same
indignities. Bobadilla gave orders that he should be kept strictly in
irons during the passage; “afraid,” says his son Ferdinand, satirically,
“that he might by any chance swim back again to the island.” It is
recorded that the officers who had him in charge would have removed them,
but Columbus proudly and bitterly told them, “I will wear them till the
king orders otherwise, and will preserve them as memorials of his
gratitude.” On arrival at Cadiz, it is not to be wondered that the popular
indignation burst forth like a torrent, and was re-echoed through Spain;
all seemed to feel it as a national dishonour that such indignities should
be heaped on the greatest discoverer of his day. Ferdinand understood the
weight of obloquy which, rightly or wrongly, would rest upon him, and sent
to Cadiz immediately to release him. The king disclaimed all share in the
shameful act; while the queen, who was at least honest in the matter, shed
tears when the old man came into her presence, and endeavoured to cheer
his wounded spirit. But Ferdinand had no intention of reinstating him in
his former power, and Columbus wasted nine months in vain solicitations
for redress. At the end of this time, another governor of Hispaniola was
appointed in his place. During this time Columbus was reduced to poverty,
and we have his own statement to the effect that “he had no place to
repair to except an inn, and very frequently had not wherewithal to pay
his reckoning.”
[Illustration: COLUMBUS UNDER ARREST.]
Later he was indeed employed on a fourth voyage, but with greatly
curtailed powers. He imagined that there might be a passage through the
Isthmus of Darien, which would shorten the passage to the East Indies. It
need not be stated that he did not find it, although a ship canal through
that neck of land has been and is now being mooted, and may some day
become an accomplished fact. He, however, discovered parts of the coasts
of Honduras, the Mosquito coast, and Costa Rica. Again we find him making
his way to Hispaniola, on this occasion with only two over-crowded
vessels, almost wrecks in fact, out of the four with which he had sailed
from Cadiz. Here he exhausted his funds in procuring necessaries and
comforts for his men, even for those who had on the voyage been the
ringleaders of vexatious and outrageous mutinies. At length he returned to
Spain, where he learned of the death of Queen Isabella, his warm patron.
Wearied with illness and disappointment, it was some months before he
could proceed on his journey to the court, then at Segovia. Columbus at
this period of his life—he was not far from seventy years of age—suffered
severely from gout. When he did meet Ferdinand, that monarch gave him fair
words, but those alone. Prescott has probably indicated the secret,
although he admits that “it was the grossest injustice to withhold from
him the revenues secured by the original contract with the crown.” Poor
Columbus was obliged to borrow money at this time for necessary expenses.
The truth was that the king, as the resources of the new countries began
to develop themselves, saw that he had promised a larger proportion of the
profits than he ever would have done to a subject and a foreigner could he
have foreseen the importance of the discoveries. He was so unjust as to at
last propose a compromise—that the admiral should relinquish his claims,
in consideration of other estates and dignities to be assigned him in
Castile. He regarded him in the unwelcome light of a creditor, whose
claims were too just to be disavowed, and too large to be satisfied. It is
very doubtful whether Columbus received any assistance from the crown at
this time, and wearied in spirit, with health broken by a life of great
hardship, he did not long survive. He expired on May 20th, 1506, and his
remains, first deposited at Valladolid, were, six years later, removed to
Seville, where a costly monument was raised over them by King Ferdinand,
with the following inscription:—
“A Castilla y á Leon
Nuevo mundo dió Colon”;
“Columbus has given a new world to Castile and Leon”—a very limited
estimate of what he had done. From Seville his remains were taken, in
1536, to San Domingo; and at length, on the cession of that island to the
French in 1795, were removed to Cuba, where they were finally allowed to
repose in peace in the cathedral church of Havana.
While the Spaniards were prosecuting enterprises of great importance in
and about the New World, the Portuguese were well employed in pushing
their way towards the Orient by a sea route. The aims of both were
practically the same. Each wished to find a shorter route to that fabled
Cathay, the land of gold, and pearls, and spice, and silk. The celebrated
voyages of Vasco da Gama deserve a full share of notice.
[Illustration: VASCO DA GAMA.]
The first expedition of Da Gama consisted of three moderate-sized vessels.
On the Sunday selected for offering prayers for the success of the
expedition, Dom John, with his nobles and court, assembled in the
beautiful cathedral, which is still so great an ornament to the banks of
the Tagus, and at the conclusion of mass the king stood before the curtain
where Vasco and Paulo da Gama placed themselves with the captains of their
expedition, on bended knees, and devoutly prayed that they might have
strength of mind and body to carry out the wishes of the king to increase
the power and greatness of his dominion, and be the means of spreading the
Christian religion. With these excellent professions, and amid very
general demonstrations of popular interest, Da Gama set sail on July 5th,
1497. Proceeding for the Cape of Good Hope, Da Gama ventured boldly from
the gulf of Guinea, and made a direct course to the Cape, and sailed for
three months—August, September, and October—without sighting land. At
last, on November 4th, they got sight of land in the forenoon, and were so
rejoiced, that the ships were decorated with flags, and the captains and
crews put on their best array, no doubt anxious to come to anchor
somewhere, and land. It was some days, however, before they could do so,
at a point believed to have been near the present St. Elena Bay. Da Gama
with the other captains went ashore to endeavour to learn from the natives
the distance to the Cape of Good Hope.
Leaving St. Elena they encountered heavy gales, during which Da Gama
proved the possession of great courage and resolution. The waves ran
mountains high, and the little vessels seemed in peril of being engulfed
every minute. The wind was piercingly cold, and so boisterous that the
commands of the pilot could seldom be heard amid the din of the elements.
The sailors exhausted by fatigue and abandoned to despair, surrounded Da
Gama, entreating him not to devote himself and them to inevitable
destruction. But he resolved to proceed; and, at length, on Wednesday, the
20th November, all the squadron safely passed round the Cape, and on the
25th had sighted land beyond the furthest point reached by Diaz.
At Mozambique, Vasco da Gama sent a Moor ashore with presents to the
Sheikh, who tried to act treacherously towards him, by stealing his
merchandise. Nor did he fare much better at Quiloa, where the king
endeavoured, by means of false pilots, to run Da Gama’s ships on the
shoals at the entrance of the port. But at Melinde they were received with
full honours, and large supplies of provisions were sent on board. The
king visited the ships, and was received with royal hospitality. The
expedition sailed on August 6th, the long delay being caused by the
monsoons. After a passage of about twenty days they first sighted the high
land of India off the coast of Cananore. The news of the arrival spread
with great rapidity, and the natives were alarmed, for had they not the
legend “that the whole of India would be taken and ruled over by a distant
king, who had white people, who would do great harm to those who were not
their friends?” The soothsayers, however, told them that the time had not
yet come for the fulfilment of this prophecy.
On the arrival of the expedition at Calicut(51) the Portuguese were well
received, for the king had discovered that the strangers had plenty of
merchandise with them. He immediately sent them presents, “of many pigs,
fowls, and cocoa-nuts fresh and dry,” and professed to a desire to enter
into friendly relations with the king of so great a people. When Da Gama
landed, he took with him twelve men of “good appearance,” and a large
number of presents and a display of cloths, crimson velvet and yellow
satin, gilt and chased basins, and ewers, knives of Flanders with ivory
handles and glittering blades, and so forth. But the Moorish traders,
fearing to lose their business, interfered, and the king eventually turned
round upon Gama, and endeavoured to capture his ships. Finding it unsafe
to remain, the half-laden vessels left Calicut, Da Gama threatening
revenge. In the King of Cananore they found a monarch well-disposed to
trade, and the Portuguese ships sailed thence very richly laden for the
homeward voyage.
Their arrival at Lisbon after two years and eight months’ absence was a
time of great rejoicing. The direct results of the expedition,
pecuniarily, were immense. In spite of the cost of the expedition and
presents made, the profit was “fully sixty-fold.” Rewards were bestowed on
all who had taken part in the expedition, and Da Gama himself received the
title of “Dom” with many grants and privileges. He was also created high
admiral of Spain.
The second expedition of Dom Gama had avowedly for its object the
punishment of the King of Calicut. Ten large ships, fitted with heavy guns
and all the munitions of war then known, with five lateen-rigged caravels,
formed the fleet. Arrived at Cananore, he related to the friendly king the
manner in which he intended to be revenged on the King of Calicut. The
former “swore upon his head, and his eyes, and by his mother’s womb that
had borne him, and by the prince, his heir,” that he would assist Da Gama
to his utmost, and they soon matured a system of trade. Gama then sailed
for Calicut, which he found deserted of its shipping, the news of his
previous doings having reached that port.
The King made one effort at conciliation by sending on board one of the
chief Brahmins of the place with a flag of truce, but Da Gama rejected
every overture, ordered the Indian boat back, and kept the ambassador on
board, while he bombarded the city. While this was going on there came in
from the offing two large ships and twenty-two sambachs and Malabar
vessels, which he plundered, with the exception of six of the smaller
vessels that belonged to Cananore, and barbarously put to death a large
number of the captives. The King of Calicut, surrounded with the wives and
relations of those who had been so shamefully massacred, bewailing in the
most heart-rending manner their loss, and beseeching protection, called a
council, and it was resolved to construct armed proas, large rowing barges
and sambachs, and as many vessels of war as could be mustered. Long before
they were ready, Dom Gama had sailed with his fleet for Cochym (Cochin
China) having on his way wreaked vengeance on as many of the Calicut
vessels as crossed his path. The king of Cochym had resolved from the
first to be friendly with the Portuguese, and Gama soon established an
important factory, from which the power of Portugal spread over India. In
1503 he returned to his own country, to be welcomed with fresh honours and
titles, but was not immediately reappointed to command in India. In 1524,
however, he was appointed viceroy of Portuguese India, and a year later
died in Cochin China. Thus ended the life of one of the most courageous
adventurers the world has seen, but a life stained by crimes of the most
brutal nature.
[Illustration: VIEW OF CALICUT IN THE 15TH CENTURY.]