Neaeram. ed. H. Wolf. Bâle 1572. fol., p. 519., where we read as
follows in the Latin translation: Iam peregrinam esse Neaeram, id
vobis ab ipso primordio demonstrabo. Septem puellas ab ipsa infantia
emit Nicareta, Charisii Elei liberta, Hippiae coqui eius uxor, gnara
et perita perspiciendae venustae parvulorum naturae et eos sollerter
educandi instituendique scia, ut quae artem eam exerceret, atque ex ea
re victum collegisset, filiarum autem eas nomine compellavit, ut quam
maximas ab iis, qui earum consuetudinem, tanquam ingenuarum appetebant,
mercedes exigeret, posteaquam autem florem aetatis earum magno cum
quaestu prostituit: uno, ut dicam, fasce, corpora etiam earum, cum
septem essent, vendidit: Antiae, Stratolae, Aristoclae, Metanirae,
Philae, Isthmiadis et Neaerae. Quam igitur unusquisque earum emerit,
et ut ab iis qui eos a Nicareta emerant, libertate donatae sint. (That
Neaera was a foreigner by birth, I will make it my first business to
prove. Seven girls were bought in earliest childhood by Nicareta,
freed-woman of Charisius of Elis, wife of his cook Nicias,—a knowing
woman, astute at noting the promise of beauty in children and skilful
in their clever upbringing and instruction, as might be expected of
one who practised that art as a profession and had made her living
thereby. Her daughters however she called them, that she might demand
the greater fees from such as sought to enjoy their favours, as being
free-born maidens. Then when they had reached the flower of their
age, she prostituted them with great profit to herself, selling their
persons, seven as they were, in one bundle, so to express it,—whose
names were Antia, Stratole, Aristoclea, Metanira, Phile, Isthmias, and
Neaera. Thus each of them found a purchaser, and on such conditions
that they were presented with their freedom by the lovers who had
bought them from Nicareta).
[152] Comp. the list, compiled chiefly from Athenaeus, of the most
renowned hetaerae in _Musonius Philosophus_, “De luxu Graecorum” ch.
XII. in _Gronovius’_ Thesaurus Antiq. Graecor. vol. VIII. pp. 2516 sqq.
[153] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos. bk. XIII. p. 577. μεταβάλλουσαι γὰρ
τοιαῦται εἰς τὸ σῶφρον, τῶν ἐπὶ τούτῳ σεμνυνομένων εἰσὶ βελτίους. (For
women of this class when they change and adopt an honest life, are of
better character than those who pride themselves on this account).
[154] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos. bk. XIII. p. 569., Καὶ Ἀσπασία δὲ ἡ
Σωκρατικὴ ἐνεπορεύετο πλήθη καλῶν γυναικῶν καὶ ἐπλήθυνεν ἀπὸ τῶν ταύτης
ἑταιρίδων ἡ Ἑλλὰς. (And Aspasia too, the preceptress of Socrates, used
to import multitudes of handsome women, and Greece was filled with her
hetaerae). Even the King of the Sidonians, _Strato_, had his wants
supplied from there. _Athenaeus_, bk. XII. P. 531.
[155] _Hesychius_, s. v. _πέζας μοίχους_· οὕτως ἐκάλουν τὰς
μισθαρνούσας ἑταίρας χωρὶς ὀργάνου. (under the expression πέζας
μοίχους,—common, prose fornicators: this was the name given to hetaerae
who were prostitutes without playing any instrument). Comp. _Photius_,
Lexicon, under same word.—_Procopius_ Anecdot. p. 41.—_Cuperi_ Observat.
I. 16. p. 116.—_Casaubon_, on Sueton. Nero. ch. 27.
[156] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XIII. p. 582.
[157] Chares took flute-players, singing-girls and πέζαι ἑταίραι with
him, according to _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 532.
[158] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XIII. p. 573. When Darius was marching
to take the field against Alexander, he had 350 παλλακὰς (concubines)
in his train (_Athenaeus_, XIII. p. 557.), of whom 329 understood
music. (ibid. p. 608).
[159] “Vermischte Schriften,” (Miscellaneous Writings), Vol. IV. pp.
311 sqq.
[160] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 533. Θεμιστοκλῆς δ’, οὔπω
Ἀθηναίων μεθυσκομένων, _οὐδ’ ἑταίραις χρωμένων_, ἐκφανῶς τέθριππον
ζεύξας ἑταιρίδων κ. τ. λ. (But Themistocles, at a period when Athenians
were not yet in the habit of getting drunk, _nor frequenting harlots_,
openly put in harness a four-horse team of hetaerae, etc.).
[161] _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XII. p. 532.
[162] Comp. Bernhardy, “Grundiss der Griechischen Literatur,” (First
Sketch of Greek Literature), Pt. I. p. 40.
[163] Hetaerae were bound by law to wear gay, party-coloured clothes,
_Suidas_, s. v. ἑταιρῶν ἄνθινον. Νόμος Ἀθήνησι, τὰς ἑταίρας ἄνθινα
φέρειν· (under the expression ἑταιρῶν ἄνθινον—flowered robe of
hetaerae: it was a law at Athens that the hetaerae must wear flowered
robes); at Locri Zaleucus prescribed the same costume, _Suidas_, s.
v. Ζάλευκος (under the word Zaleucus); it was also law among the
Syracusans, _Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XII. ch. 4. Comp. _Petit_,
“Legg. Attic.,” (Laws of Athens), p. 476. The same is stated of the
Lacedaemonians by _Clemens Alexandrinus_, Paedog., bk. II. ch. 10.
Comp. _Wesseling_, on Diodorus Sic., IV. 4.—_Sidon. Apoll._, Epist.,
XX. 3. _Iamblichus_, De Vita Pythagor., ch. 31.—_A. Borremans_. Var.
Lect., ch. 10. p. 94.—_Artemidorus_, Oneirocrit., bk. II. ch. 3.
[164] _Aulus Gellius_, Noct. Attic., bk. I. ch. 6.
[165] _Aulus Gellius_, Noct. Attic., bk. X. ch. 23.
[166] _Livy_, Hist. I. 4., II. 18.
[167] _Cicero_, Orat. pro Coelio, ch. 20., Si quis est, qui etiam
meretriciis amoribus interdictum iuventuti putet, est ille quidem valde
severus, negare non possum: sed _abhorret non modo ab huius seculi
licentia, verum etiam a maiorum consuetudine atque concessis. Quando
enim factum non est? quando reprehensum, quando non permissum?_ (If any
is found to think that young men should be forbidden to indulge simple
intrigues with harlots, I can only say he is an exceedingly stern
moralist, I cannot deny he is right in the abstract. _But his view is
opposed not merely to the free habits of the present age, but also to
the usage and permitted licence of our fathers? When, I ask, has this
not been done? when rebuked, when not allowed?_
_Horace_, Sat., bk. I. 2. vv. 31-35.,
Quidam notus homo, cum exiret fornice: Macte
Virtute esto, inquit sententia dia Catonis.
Nam simul ac venas inflavit tetra libido,
Huc iuvenes _aequum_ est descendere; non alienas
Permolere uxores.
(When a certain well-known citizen came out of a brothel, “Bravo! go
on and prosper!” was the word of Cato, great and wise. For when fierce
desire has swollen the veins, _right_ it is that young men should
resort hither, and not grind their neighbours’ wives),—a passage that
involuntarily reminds us of the fragment of _Philemon_ quoted above.
[168] They had indiscriminate intercourse with the women, who did not
hold it disgraceful to appear half-naked (γυμναὶ) and to practise both
among themselves and in common with the men gymnastic exercises, and
this in the presence of spectators, even in that of young men. These
were actually enjoined to practise copulation, and to have the whole
body polished and freed from hair by professional male artistes).
_Athenaeus_, Deipnos., bk. XII. pp. 517, 518.
[169] The law was in the first instance made only with a view to the
future, in order to ensure the state a sufficiently large number of
citizens; _Sozomenes_, Histor. Eccles., I. 9., Vetus lex fuit apud
Romanos, quae vetabat coelibes ab anno aetatis quinto et vigesimo
pari iure essent cum maritis.—Tulerant hanc legem veteres Romani, cum
sperarent, futurum hac ratione, ut urbs Roma et reliquae provinciae
imperii Romani hominum multitudine abundarent. (There was an old law
among the Romans, which forbad bachelors after the age of 25 to enjoy
equal political rights with married men.—The old Romans had passed this
law in the hopes that in this way the city of Rome, and the provinces
of the Roman empire as well, might be ensured an abundant population).
For the same reason _Caesar_, after the African War when the city was
much depopulated through the great number of the slain, established
prizes for such citizens as had the most children).—_Dio Cassius_,
Bk. XLIII. 226.—All this availed little. The Censors _Camillus_ and
_Posthumius_ were soon obliged to introduce a tax on celibacy,—the
“old-bachelors’ tax” (Aes uxorium).—_Festus_, p. 161., _L. Valerius
Maximus_, bk. II. ch. 9.—Augustus endeavoured in vain by the Lex
Julia de maritandis ordinibus (Julian Law concerning marriage in the
different classes) to counteract the tendency; till the Lex Papia
Poppaea originating with the Senate (B.C. 9.) was ratified; (_Tacitus_,
Annal. III. 25.—_Dio Cassius_, (LIV. 16., LVI. 10.), though even this
did not long remain in force. Comp. _Lipsius_, Excurs. ad Tacit. Annal.
III. 25.—_Heineccius_, Antiquit. Roman. Jurispr. (Antiquities of Roman
Law), I. 25. 6. p. 209.—_Hugo_, “Geschichte des römischen Rechts,”
(History of Roman Law), I. p. 237., II. p. 861.
[170] Instit Divin., I. 20. 6., Flora cum magnas opes ex arte
meretricia quaesivisset, populum scripsit haeredem, certamque pecuniam
reliquit, cuius ex annuo foenere suus natalis dies celebraretur
editione Ludorum, quos appelant Floralia. (Flora having acquired great
riches by the harlot’s calling made the people her heir, and left
a certain sum of money, the interest of which was to be applied to
celebrating her birth-day by the exhibition of the games which are
called Floralia.—I. 20. 10., Celebrantur cum omni lascivia. Nam praeter
verborum licentiam, quibus obscoenitas omnis effunditur, exuuntur etiam
vestibus populo flagitante meretrices, quae tunc mimarum funguntur
officio et in conspectu populi, usque ad satietatem impudicorum hominum
cum pudendis motibus detinentur. (They are solemnized with every form
of licentiousness. For over and above the looseness of speech that
pours forth every obscenity, harlots strip themselves of their clothing
at the importunities of the mob, and then act as mimes,—pantomimic
actors,—and in full view of the crowd indulge in indecent posturings,
till their shameless audience is satisfied). It may be noted that
scarcely 40 years after the introduction of the Floralia, P. Scipio
Africanus in his Speech in defence of Tib. Asellus could say: Si
nequitiam defendere vis, licet: sed tu in uno scorto maiorem pecuniam
absumsisti, quam quanti omne instrumentum fundi Sabini in censum
dedicavisti. Ni hoc ita est: qui spondet mille nummum? Sed tu plus
tertia parte pecuniae perdidisti atque absumsisti in flagitiis. (If you
choose to defend your profligacy, well and good! but as a matter of
fact you have wasted on one strumpet more money than the total value,
as you declared it to the Census commissioners, of all the plenishing
of your Sabine farm. If you deny my assertion, I ask who dare wager
a thousand sesterces on its untruth? You have squandered more than
a third of the property you inherited from your father, and thrown
it away in debauchery).—Gellius, Noct. Attic., VII. 11.—As not only
did hetaerae build a temple to Aphrodité, but a similar one was also
erected in their honour at Abydos (_Athenaeus_, XIII. p. 573.), and
Phryné wished to rebuild Thebes at her own cost, on the condition that
an inscription should be set up to the effect, “Alexander destroyed it;
Phryné the hetaera restored it”, there is not the slightest reason for
counting the above story as merely one of the ridiculous inventions
common in the Fathers.
[171] _Valerius Maximus_, II. 10. 8.—_Seneca_, Epist 97.—_Martial_,
Epigr. I. 1 and 36.
[172] Read the Speech of Cato in _Livy_, Hist., bk. XXXIV. 4., where
the following passage is found amongst others: Haec ego, quo melior
lactiorque in dies fortuna rei publicae est, imperiumque crescit, et
iam in Graeciam Asiamque transcendimus, omnibus libidinum illecebris
repletas, et regias etiam attrectamus gazas, eo plus horreo, ne illae
magis res nos ceperint, quam nos illas. (All these changes, as day by
day the fortune of the State is higher and more prosperous and her
Empire grows greater, and our conquests extend over Greece and Asia,
lands replete with every allurement of the senses, and we appropriate
treasures that may well be called royal,—all this I dread the more from
my fear that such high fortune may rather master us than we master it).
Scarcely 10 years later the same author says (bk. XXXIX. 6.): Luxuriae
enim peregrinae origo ab exercitu Asiatico invecta in urbem est. (For
the beginnings of foreign luxury were brought into the city by the
Asiatic army). _Juvenal_, Sat. VI. 299.:
Prima peregrinos obscoena pecunia mores
Intulit et turpi fregerunt secula luxu
Divitiae molles.
(Foul money it was that first brought in foreign manners; wealth
weakened and broke down the vigour of the age with base luxury). But
pre-eminently applicable are the following words (III. 60 sqq.) of the
same poet:
Non possum ferre, Quirites!
Graecam urbem, quamvis quota portio faecis Achaeae?
Iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes,
Et linguam et mores et cum tibicine chordas
Obliquas, nec non gentilia tympana secum
Vexit et ad Circum iustas prostare puellas.
(I cannot bear, Quirites, to see Rome a Greek city,—and yet how mere
a fraction of the whole corruption is found in these dregs of Achaea?
Long since has the Syrian Orontes flowed into the Tiber, and brought
along with it the Syrian tongue and manners and cross-stringed harp—and
harper, and exotic timbrels, and girls bidden stand for hire at the
Circus).
[173] The usual derivation of the word _lupanar_ (brothel) is from
Lupa, the wife of Faustulus (_Livy_, I. 4.); thus _Lactantius_, Divin.
Instit., bk. I. 20 sqq., says, fuit enim Faustuli uxor et, propter
vulgati corporis vilitatem, Lupa inter pastores, id est meretrix,
nuncupata est, unde etiam lupanar dicitur. (For she was the wife of
Faustulus, and because of the easy rate at which her person was held at
the disposal of all, was called among the shepherds Lupa, (she-wolf),
that is harlot, whence also Lupanar—a brothel—is so called). Comp.
_Isidore_, bk. XVIII. etymol. 42. _Jerome_, in Eusebius’ Chronicle.
However it is a fruitless effort to try and connect lupar and lupanar
with lupus, the wolf. If we are not mistaken, the root-word is the
Greek λῦμα, filth, and so, shameless person; from this comes _lupa_,
just as from λῦμαρ was formed _lupar_, the oldest form for lupanar,
which has maintained itself in the adjective _luparius_, and in
_lupariae_ in _Rufus_ and _A. Victor_ as synonyms of lupanar. Indeed
_Lactantius_ speaks of the hetaerae Leaena and Cedrenus as γυναῖκας
λυκαίνας.
[174] The common derivation of _fornix_ (brothel) is from _furnus_ or
fornax (an oven), or else makes it identical with fornix, an archway.
_Isidore_, bk. X. 110., writes: a _fornicatrix_ is one whose person is
public and common. These women used to lie under archways, and such
places are called _fornices_, whence also _fornicariae_ (whores).
Granted that the women used to resort in numbers to the arches in the
town-walls through which sorties were made (_Livy_, XXXVI. 23., XLIV.
11.), yet several passages in ancient authors prove clearly that the
_fornices_ were _houses_ (especially _Petronius_, Satir. 7., _Martial_
XI. 62.). The _ancient Glosses_ have:—“fornicaria”: πορνὴ ἀπὸ καμάρας ᾗ
ἵστανται, (a harlot, from the chamber where they take their stand). But
in all probability the brothels took their name from the circumstance
of their being situated in the neighbourhood of the town-wall and its
arches; for which reason the women were also called _Summoenianae_
(women of the Summoenium,—district under the walls). Martial, XI. 62.,
III. 82., I. 35., XII. 32. Or should we say that _fornix_ was formed
from πορνικὸν?
[175] _Adler_, “Beschreibung der Stadt Rom,” (Description of the City
of Rome), pp. 144 sqq.
[176] _Martial_, bk. VII. Epigr. 30., bk. X. Epigr. 94.
[177] _Martial_, bk. II. Epigr. 17.
[178] Hence Martial’s expression (XII. 18.), clamosa Subura (the
clamorous Subura).
[179] Horace, Satir. I. 2. 30., Contra alius nullam nisi olenti in
fornice stantem. (On the other hand another man cares for no woman but
such as stand in the foul-smelling brothel).—_Priapeia_,
Quilibet huc, licebit, intret
Nigra fornicis oblitus favilla.
(All that please, none will say nay, may enter here, smeared with the
black spot of the brothel).—_Prudentius_, Contra Symmachum, bk. II.,
spurcam redolente fornice cellam, (a filthy chamber in the stinking
brothel).—_Seneca_, Controv., I. 2., Redoles adhuc fuliginem fornicis.
(You reek still of the soot of the brothel).—_Juvenal_, Sat VI. 130.,
says of the Empress Messalina:
Obscurisque genis turpis, fumoque lucernae
Foeda lupanaris tulit ad pulvinar odorem.
(And disfigured and dim-eyed, fouled with the smoke of the lamp, she
bore back the stink of the brothel to the imperial couch).
[180] _Juvenal_, Sat. VI. 122., 127.—_Petronius_, Sat. 8.—_Lipsius_,
Saturn. I. 14. Hence Cella and Cellae (chambers) are constantly used in
the sense of lupanar (brothel).
[181] _Martial_, bk. XI. 46., Intrasti quoties inscripta limina
cellae, (As oft as you have crossed the thresholds of a “chamber”
with inscription over). _Seneca_, Controv., bk. I. 2., Deducta es
in lupanar, accepisti locum, pretium constitutum est, _titulus_
inscriptus est, (You were taken away to a brothel, you received your
stand, your price was fixed, _your name written up_).—Meretrix vocata
es, in communi loco stetisti, _superpositus est cellae tuae titulus_,
venientes recepisti, (You were called a harlot, you took your stand in
a public brothel, _your name-ticket was put up above your chamber_, you
received such as came).—Nomen tuum pedendit in fronte, pretia stupri
accepisti, et manus, quae diis datura erat sacra, capturas tulit,
(Your name hung on your door, you took the price of fornication, and
your hand, that was meant to offer sacred gifts to the gods, held the
fees). This last passage interpreters have wished to understand as if
the name-ticket were fastened on the woman’s forehead; but, not to
mention that in this case _tibi_ would have to be read for _tuum_,
it is a perfectly well known fact that _frons_ (front, forehead) was
used in Latin for the face of a door (_Ovid_, Fasti, I. 135., Omnis
habet geminas, hinc atque hinc, ianua frontes, (Every door has two
faces, inside and out). _Seneca_ says _pependit_ (it hung there), and
afterwards is promoted onto the list of the Leno (Brothel-keeper)!
[182] This is seen most clearly from the following passage in the “Vita
Apollonii Tyrii”, (Life of Apollonius of Tyre), p. 695., Puella ait,
prosternens se ad pedes eius: miserere, domine, virginitatis meae,
ne prostituas hoc corpus sub tam turpi titulo. Leno vocavit villicum
puellarum et ait, ancilla, quae praesens est et exornetur diligenter et
scribatur et titulus, quicunque Tarsiam deviolaverit, mediam liberam
dabit: postea ad singulos solidos populo patebit. (Says the girl,
throwing herself at his feet: “Sir! have pity on my maidenhood, and do
not prostitute this fair body under so ugly a name.” The Brothel-keeper
(Leno) called the Superintendent (villicus) of the girls and says,
“Let the maid here present be decked out with every care, and a
name-ticket written for her; the man that takes Tarsia’s virginity
shall pay half a “libera” (?), afterwards she shall be at the disposal
of all comers at a “solidus” or “aureus”, gold coin worth 25 denarii,
say 20 shillings—each). So we see even in the name there prevailed a
certain luxury; and a young girl of handsome person would fain have a
handsome-sounding name to match.
[183] _Petronius_ Satir. 20.—_Barth_, on Claudian, note
1173.—_Martial_, XIV. 148., 152.—_Juvenal_, VI. 194. From this the
women themselves were often called _lodices meretrices_ (blanket
harlots) in contradistinction to the Street-walkers.
[184] _Martial_, XIV. 39-42. XI. 105.—_Apuleius_, Metam., V.
p. 162.—_Horace_, Satir. II. 7. v. 48.—_Juvenal_, Sat. VI.
131.—Tertullian, Ad Uxor., II. 6., Dei ancilla in laribus alienis—et
procedet de ianua laureata et lucernata, ut de novo consistorio
libidinum publicarum, (The handmaid of God in strange dwellings,—and
she shall go forth from the door that is laurel-decked and lamp-lit, as
it were from a new assembly-hall of public lusts), where the expression
_consistorium libidinum_ (assembly-hall of lusts) for brothel is
noticeable.
[185] Petronius, Satir. 95., Vos me hercule ne mercedem cellae daretis,
(Ye would not, by heavens, give even the hire of the chamber). The
fee amounted usually to an As. _Petronius_, Satir. 8., Iam pro cella
meretrix assem exegerat, (Already had the harlot demanded the As for
the chamber). _Martial_, I. 104., Constat et asse Venus, (And an As
is the recognised price of Love). II. 53., Si plebeia Venus gemino
tibi vincitur asse, (If you win for yourself a base-born Love for a
couple of Asses). Comp. the inscription in _Gruter_, “Inscript. antiq.
totius orbis Romani”, (Ancient Inscriptions of the whole Roman world).
Amsterdam 1616., No. DCLII. 1.—_Heinsius_ on _Ovid_, Remedium Amoris
407.
[186] _Seneca_, Controv. I. 2., Nuda in litore stetit ad fastidium
emptoris, omnes partes corporis et inspectae et contrectatae sunt.
Vultis auctionis exitum audire? Vendit pirata, emit leno.—Ita
raptae pepercere piratae, ut lenoni venderetur: sic emit leno, ut
prostituerit. (Naked she stood on the shore at the pleasure of the
purchaser; every part of her body was examined and felt. Would you
hear the result of the sale? The pirate sold, the pandar bought.—For
this the pirates spared their captive, that she might be sold to a
pandar; for this the pandar bought her, that he might employ her as a
prostitute).—_Quintilian_, Declam. III., Leno etiam servis excipitur,
fortasse hac lege captivos vendes, (A pandar too is supplied with
slaves; perhaps in this way you will sell your captives).—Lex § 1. de
in ius vocando: Prostituta contra legem venditionis venditorem habet
patronum, si hac lege venierat, ut, si prostituta esset, fieret libera,
(Law § 1. Of the right of appeal: A female slave prostituted contrary
to the condition of sale has the seller for patron, if she was sold
on this condition, that, should she be prostituted, she should become
free). These sales took place in the Subura. _Martial_, VI. 66.
[187] _Seneca_, Controv., I. 2., Stetisti cum meretricibus, stetisti
sic ornata ut populo placere posses, _ea veste quam leno dederat_,
(You stood with the harlots, you stood decked out so as to please the
public, wearing the dress that the leno had given you). The dress of
the public women was always gay-coloured and very bold; they had to
wear the male toga (gown). _Cicero_, Philipp. II., Sompsisti virilem
togam, quam statim muliebrem reddidisti. Primo vulgare scortum:
certa flagitii merces, nec ea parva. (You assumed the man’s toga,
which straightway you made a woman’s. First a common strumpet; sure
was the profit of your shame, and not small either.)—_Tibullus_, IV.
10. _Martial_, II. 30. Hence public women were also called _togatae_
(wearing the toga or man’s gown). _Martial_, VI. 64. _Horace_, Sat I.
2. 63., Quid interest in matrona, ancilla, peccesque togata? (What
difference does it make whether it is with a married woman, or a
serving-maid, or a toga’d harlot (togata), that you offend?) Ibidem
80-83.,
Nec magis huic inter niveos viridesque lapillos
(_Sit licet hoc, Cerinthe, tuum_,) tenerum est femur aut crus
Rectius; atque etiam melius persaepe _togatae est_.
(Nor amidst all her showy gems and green jewels is her thigh more
soft (though it is your belief, Cerinthus, that it is) or her leg
straighter; nay! very often that of the toga’d harlot is the better
limb).