movable ladder to the landing stage or platform, and watch for a new
stroke or step upon the ladder. To avoid accidents he must use great
caution, and no hesitation. The slightest embarrassment may cause
a very serious accident, and the sudden return motion may kill the
traveller on the spot.
From the bottom of the shaft of a mine the men scatter in various
directions to their work, or are distributed among the different
levels. A shaft is perpendicular, while the level is horizontal. The
dangers in the shaft have already been described. Strictly speaking,
no dangers of the same sort are liable to occur in the levels. True,
there may be falls of rock or coal, or whatever other substance forms
the roof of the mine; but they generally occur in consequence of the
carelessness of some person on the same level, and not above or below.
Levels are described by their names, though they are not always in
a strictly horizontal position. Sometimes they dip at considerable
angles, owing to the formation of the rock, or the position of the
substances to be mined. They are made of various heights, though
generally of not more than six feet. The materials used for lining the
shaft—that is, brick, timber, or stone—are likewise employed in the
levels, and the modes of strengthening in both cases are very nearly
the same. Where the work is intended to last more than six or eight
years, it is generally set up with stone, and not timbered. Where it
is intended to last a long time, and especially if the rock through
which it runs is of a yielding nature, it is strongly arched with
masonry.
Sometimes it is necessary to make an arch below as well as above,
for the reason that the flooring of the mine is apt to swell up in
consequence of the pressure from below. Masonry used in levels is very
much like ordinary masonry, and requires no especial description.
[Sidenote: TIMBERING LEVELS.]
For timbering levels there are three timbers-two uprights and a
head-piece. Sometimes there is a fourth piece, placed at the bottom,
known as the sleeper, or sill. This is used, however, only when the
flooring is soft, or consists of a substance that is apt to bulge up.
The pressure from above, as well as the lateral pressure, frequently
bends and breaks the timbers. This bending and breaking of the
timbers, occasioned by the settling of the earth, are rarely sudden in
their occurrence. At first there will be observed a slight bending of
the timbers; the next day the bending will be seen to be greater; and
sometimes a month, or even six months, may pass before the timbers are
sufficiently curved to break. Frequently levels that have been made
five or six feet in height will, in the course of a few months, be
reduced to a height of not more than three feet. The timbers will be
bent around in all directions, and it requires considerable nerve to
pass between them.
Where the mines are moist, the timbers soon become covered with
fungus, and a vegetable peculiar to the interior of the mine makes
its appearance. Sometimes it is not unlike light cottony material;
occasionally it is snow-white, and again like tanned leather, or of a
bright yellow color. The timber, when rotting, has an odor like that
of creosote, and is familiar to everybody who has passed any time in
deep mines.
Rats abound in mines, and are frequently very numerous. They make
themselves at home, and are as comfortable as possible. While the
miners are at their dinners, they frequently play around them, and
appear on friendly relations with them. Occasionally, they become so
hungry that whenever a candle is placed in the wall, and the miners
back is turned, the rats will rush forward and seize the prize at the
risk of being burned.
[Sidenote: ACCIDENT CAUSED BY RATS.]
Sometimes rats are the cause of accidents. Some years ago an explosion
occurred at a mine in Wales, when several men lost their lives. There
was one pit which was known to be full of explosive gas, and the men
were warned to be very careful of their movements with their lamps. A
lamp, in which the glass was surrounded with iron netting, was placed
on a shelf in the part of the mine where the men were at work. The
miners were a few yards away, when they noticed half a dozen rats
clambering about the lamp, and saw them tip it over. It fell from the
shelf and struck a lump of coal. A hole was made through the wire
gauze, the lamp was broken, and a terrible explosion of gas followed.
To the here-related accidents, we feel obliged to add a thrilling and
fatal adventure of two Pennsylvania miners, which occurred in the
vicinity of Scranton, Pa., on the 23d of April, 1877:—
In calculating the cost of coal, there is one important item which
is never taken into consideration by capitalist or consumer, and
that is the loss of life and limb incurred in the work of digging
“dusky diamonds” and preparing them for market. A glance at the list
of deaths and accidents published monthly in the local papers, is
sufficient to send a thrill of horror through the stoutest heart; but
familiarity soon makes us partially indifferent to such matters, and
it is only when some thrilling calamity occurs, such as the Avondale
or West Pittston disaster, that we are fairly aroused to the perils
incident to the work of mining.
We know but little of these things, unless we see an occasional
account of it in the newspapers, and even then we can but faintly
realize the mishaps that befal, from day to day, in the way of
fire-damp explosions, falling roofs, and the innumerable other
death-dealing agencies that lurk in the depths of the coal mine.
[Sidenote: FEARFUL FALL OF A ROOF.]
One of the most heart-rending accidents of this character which has
been recorded for some time, has just occurred at the Empire mine,
in this vicinity. Two men, named John Mooney and Patrick Quinn,
were employed in No. 4 slope, laying track, a distance of about two
miles from the opening, and a mile from the other workmen. When they
least dreamed of danger there was a sudden convulsion overhead,
and an instant later they were overwhelmed by a fearful fall of
roof. The terrible accident put out their lights, and they were in
utter darkness. Mooney, after considerable difficulty, succeeded in
extricating himself from among the massive bowlders which fell about
him, in such a way as to form a sort of cave, and, upon freeing
himself, his first thought was for his companion. He called aloud for
Quinn, but received no answer, only the echo of his own voice, beaten
back by the rocks. He felt himself growing faint, and realized that
he was very seriously injured, but was determined to ascertain the
condition of his fellow miner. After calling aloud in vain for some
time, he groped about in the dismal place among the rocks, hoping to
find Quinn, and fearing that he was dead. At length he touched him,
but the poor fellow was pinned fast by a big bowlder, which lay upon
one of his mangled legs. The other leg had been completely severed
from the body by the fall. To release him was a hard task, but Mooney,
forgetting his own injuries, set about the work with a will, and
succeeded in setting Quinn free.
How to carry him to the light of day was the next trial, but he was
determined to do it; and taking him upon his back, he began groping
his way through the pitchy darkness, in the direction of what he
considered was the foot of the slope. For two hours he wandered about
that living tomb, with his dying comrade on his back, moaning in the
most piteous manner. The situation was awful, and, after roaming thus
for a long time, poor Mooney was disheartened to find that he had
come back to the very point from which he had set out, and where the
accident occurred. He summoned up his fast-fading strength and made
another effort, still taking Quinn on his back; but, after proceeding
a short distance, he grew faint, and was unable to go farther with his
precious burden. Then, laying the dying man down in as comfortable a
position as he could, Mooney crawled on his hands and knees toward
what he thought was the slope. At half-past six o’clock a party of
miners, while proceeding down No. 5 slope, were startled by the
apparition which their lamps revealed. It was Mooney, crawling slowly
up the slope on his hands and knees, his face black and bloody, and
his whole body sore from contact with the jagged pieces of coal and
rock. His eyes were at first dazzled by the light, he had been in
darkness so long, and trying to see, and he was speechless with joy
for some seconds to find relief at last.
[Sidenote: HEROISM AND MORTAL AGONY.]
This was eight hours after the accident had happened, and they were
eight hours of awful mortal agony. As soon as Mooney found words to
speak, he related the story in brief, and begged the party to hasten
to the assistance of Quinn, who might yet be saved.
They hurried to the spot indicated, and found the unfortunate fellow
in the condition already described, with one leg severed from his
body, and the other crushed to pieces. He was still alive, and they
took him up in their arms to carry him to the slope, but he never
reached it alive. He died in the arms of his comrades. Mooney, who
is severely wounded, is expected to recover. He played the part of a
hero in the unselfish manner in which he risked his own life trying
to save his comrade. But such acts are not of rare occurrence among
the miners. They are a most unselfish, brave lot of fellows, and will
face death in the mine at any time to save one another. The men who
met Mooney crawling up the slope were moved to tears, by his haggard,
woe-begone, and saddened looks, and say they never saw such a pitiful
sight before.
V.
SILVER MINES AND MINING.
ANTIQUITY OF SILVER.—REAL ESTATE AND SLAVE PURCHASES IN
BIBLICAL TIMES.—SOLOMON AND HIS SILVER SPECULATIONS.—ABUNDANCE
OF SILVER AMONG THE ANCIENTS.—THE EARLIEST MINES.—ORIENTAL
EXAGGERATION.—SPANISH MINES AND THEIR HISTORY.—MEXICAN MINES.—A
NONDESCRIPT ANIMAL.—NOVEL WAY OF OBTAINING A PIGSKIN.—PERU AND
ITS SILVER.—A HIGH-TONED CITY.—ARIZONA.—BEAUTIES OF ARIZONA
CIVILIZATION.—MINES OF UTAH AND NEVADA.—SAD RESULTS OF A
SPECULATION.
One of the most important of the precious metals is that known as
silver. The ancients were familiar with it, and from very early
periods it has been a common medium of exchange, and is used as such
among all nations who recognize a metallic currency. It is one of the
metals mentioned in the Old Testament, reference being made to it as
constituting, among other things, the riches of Abraham. Abraham made
a real estate transaction by purchasing the field of Ephron for four
hundred shekels of silver. Twenty-nine pieces of silver were paid for
Joseph at the time his brothers disposed of him and gave a bill of
sale; and throughout the Scriptures there are many other references
made to the same metal.
[Illustration: DISCOVERY OF SILVER IN PERU, BY DIEGO HUALCA, IN 1545.]
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A SILVER MINE IN MEXICO.]
Those who have given attention to the subject think that gold was
first known and used as money, partly for the reason that it is more
frequently mentioned in the earlier histories, and also from the fact
that gold is obtained in a metallic state, while silver must generally
be separated from ores in which the metal is concealed. The Egyptians
and Hebrews were familiar with gold and silver, and employed them both
as a circulating medium, and for the manufacture of jewels, vases,
rings, and other articles for household or personal use. The oldest
known coins are of silver, though there are gold coins of nearly as
great antiquity.
It is a little curious that the ancients possessed silver in greater
abundance than people of the present day. It is possible that the
old historians drew the long bow a little in describing it, and
due allowance may be made for their statement. In the time of King
Solomon, silver is said to have been so abundant as to be considered
of very little account, and the king had made it to be as stones in
Jerusalem. Polybius says that it was largely employed, together with
gold, in the form of plates for covering the beams and pillars of the
temples, and the tiles upon the roofs were of solid silver. Other
historians, both sacred and profane, speak of its great abundance, and
some of them are so liberal in the use of adjectives, as to lead to
the suspicion that they were in no wise trammelled by existing facts.
Oriental exaggeration has no doubt something to do with their stories.
[Sidenote: ORIENTAL EXAGGERATIONS.]
At the present day, in certain parts of the East, a statement is
rarely made exactly as it should be, according to Western notions.
Thus a man, describing a fine house, would not convey a proper idea of
its character if he described it exactly as it is. If he should say
that the house covered a square mile in area, was half a mile high,
contained two thousand rooms, each of them so full of furniture that
nobody could get inside the door, and that the household consisted
of nine hundred servants, he would merely convey to his hearers the
impression that the house was somewhat above the common order of
houses, and nothing more.
Bayard Taylor, in one of his books, describes an interview with a
certain prince or titled individual from one of the interior kingdoms
of Africa. The prince, in describing the wealth and resources of
the kingdom of Dahomey, said that the king never walked out unless
accompanied by at least ten thousand attendants, and that when he
chose to ride, forty thousand horses were led to the door of his
palace, from which he could make his selection. He continued in the
same strain, and when he had finished his story, he asked a question
in regard to Mr. Taylor’s country. Mr. Taylor replied, that the United
States were so large that it took two years to travel from one end
of the country to the other; that it required six weeks of rapid
riding to go round the walls of the capital; and that our Sultan, who
was called the President, had a wardrobe of sixty thousand coats,
from which he made his selection to dress himself for breakfast. In
this manner each person conveyed to the other the proper idea of the
country, and nothing more. The prince substantially informed the
American that Dahomey was a rich country, and the king powerful; while
the American, on the other hand, informed the prince that America was
a very large country, and that the president’s wealth was personal,
rather than national.
But we are getting away from silver, a substance which it is not
desirable at any time to see far from us.
[Sidenote: ANCIENT SILVER MINES.]
The locality of the ancient silver mines is buried in obscurity;
but it is known that silver was obtained, together with gold, from
various parts of Africa, and also from Asia. The Spanish silver mines
were developed at a very early period, and were the basis of the
extensive commerce which Spain conducted for a long time with other
countries. Hannibal is said to have opened a mine which furnished
three hundred pounds of silver daily, and was worked by horizontal
tunnels extending a mile and a half into a mountain. During the middle
ages the production of silver fell off very greatly, and until the
fifteenth century comparatively little silver mining was carried on.
The production of Spanish mines was greatly decreased, and the wealth
of Spain fell off in a proportionate degree.
Rich mines of silver existed in the new world, particularly in Mexico
and Peru. The conquest of Mexico by Cortes in 1519 was speedily
followed by the development of the rich silver mines of that country.
From a very early period the Aztecs had been familiar with silver,
and wrought it into many ornamental and useful articles. The mines
were opened and extensively worked by the Peruvians in Guanajuato,
Zacatecas, and other districts, and their production was greatly
increased by the abundance of quicksilver, and its employment in the
reduction of ores. Quicksilver is used for this purpose to a greater
extent in Mexico and Peru than in other countries.
[Sidenote: GREAT MINES OF MEXICO.]
At the time of the visit of Humboldt in the early part of this
century, it was estimated that three thousand distinct mines were
in operation. The greatest of all the mines of Mexico are those of
Guanajuato and Zacatecas. They were opened in 1558, upon the great
vein known as Veta Madra. The great vein is chiefly in clay slate. It
is of wonderful thickness, sometimes more than one hundred and fifty
feet across, and is said to have been traced for about twelve miles.
The vein is made up of half a dozen substances, the most important
of which are native silver, sulphuret of silver, and red silver.
Near the surface they are partly decomposed, but in their unchanged
condition, farther down, they are known as “black ores.” The vein has
been penetrated downward more than two thousand feet, and is found
to be very rich at that depth. The mine of Valenciana, upon a rich
portion of this vein, has averaged at times a product of two million
dollars, or about one fifteenth part of the total product of all the
mines of Mexico. At the present time no work is carried on in these
mines. Operations were suspended some years ago by floods of water,
and the unsettled state of the country, added to other disadvantages,
prevented a renewal of work. Before any productive operations could
be prosecuted, it would be necessary to erect powerful machinery;
and to set it up and put it in operation would cost enormously; so
great, in fact, would be the cost, as to deter any body of men, or any
association of capitalists, from entering upon the enterprise.
Until the present century the ores of the silver mines of Mexico have
been worked by rude processes, very little in advance of those of the
native Indians. Little or no mining machinery was used. The ores had
to be transported out of the mines upon the backs of Indians, climbing
up a series of long steps over slippery rocks, and working in a nude
state. When the mines were troubled with water, rude pumps were set
up, and in many cases there were no pumps, but the water was carried
out on the backs of men.
[Sidenote: HOW TO SECURE A PIG SKIN.]
A traveller who visited one of these mines, where operations on a
small scale were going on, says the sight of the men carrying their
burdens, some laden with ore, and some with water, formed a curious
picture. The ore was carried in sacks or baskets slung across the
shoulders of the men, while the water was carried in pig-skins. These
skins were in the natural shape of the animal, and were supposed to
have been removed without cutting. When slung over the shoulders of
the men in the dim light of the mine, the man and the pig clinging
to his back appeared to form a single animal. An unsophisticated
traveller, who accompanied the narrator, was curious to ascertain how
the skins were obtained in that condition, as the ordinary mode of
skinning pigs, oxen, or any other beasts requires a liberal use of the
knife. He was informed that the animal was starved for several days,
so that his skin became quite loose. Then a stout cord was tied to his
tail, and by this mode he was securely fastened to a tree. A potato
or an ear of corn was then held a few feet in front of his nose, and
the pig was finally coaxed out of his skin, and induced to walk away
from it. The man seemed to have his doubts as to the truth of the
statement, but finally concluded to accept it as correct.
[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO A SILVER MINE OF CENTRAL AMERICA.]
[Illustration: INDIAN SILVER MINERS AT WORK.]
In 1821 the Mexican government offered facilities for foreigners to
become interested with the natives in the mines. Several English
companies were formed, and operations were undertaken upon a new
system, in order to work the mines with powerful machinery, and with
all the advantages of capital and mining skill. In nearly every
instance these operations were unsuccessful, partly owing to the
enormous expenses attending the management of a silver mine in Mexico,
and partly owing to the dishonesty of the natives in official and
private capacities. Whenever a mine yielded handsomely, the government
surrounded it with absurd restrictions, or old titles were discovered
to it, that made the claims of the new occupant valueless.
The English capitalists and gentlemen who went to Mexico were
worried and wearied out in a few years, and returned with unpleasant
recollections.
[Sidenote: INSECURITY OF PROPERTY IN MEXICO.]
At the present day nearly every foreigner who visits Mexico to engage
in a business enterprise has very nearly the same story to tell. The
instability of the government naturally leads to insecurity, both to
life and property; and where the property is that of a foreigner, it
is not very likely to be regarded with great respect.
From the opening of the Mexican mines, in the sixteenth century, their
production of silver has exceeded that of all other countries. From
the annual yield of two or three millions of dollars, it rose, in the
eighteenth century, to twenty millions, and continued so for about
ten years of the present century, when it was changed by the war of
independence. It remained at a low rate until 1850, when it again
increased, and in 1856 it was not far from forty millions.
Latterly, as already stated, the product has been greatly diminished,
and accurate statistics are very difficult to be obtained in regard to
it.
The total product of the Mexican mines from the time of the conquest
by Cortes up to the expulsion of the Spanish in 1827, is said,
according to official records, to have been considerably more than two
thousand millions of dollars. The silver mines of Northern Mexico,
near the boundary of the United States, are supposed to be very rich;
but the disturbed state of the country prevented their successful
exploitation.
Mining operations to some extent have been carried on in some of these
districts, and in Arizona, but under many disadvantages.
Arizona is a delightful country in every respect, except in climate,
soil, production, and inhabitants. The natives have a pleasant way of
slaughtering every stranger who attempts to stay there; and sometimes,
when they refrain from their amusement for a few months, the strangers
fall to killing each other.
Until very recently it was said that no white man had ever died in
Arizona with his boots off,—meaning that he had never died in bed. The
cemeteries at two or three settlements in Arizona are said to contain
no graves except those of persons who had died violent deaths at the
hands of either white men or Indians. The Indians make travelling very
insecure; and the Peons, or native Mexican laborers, in the mines
vary the monotony of their employment by an occasional massacre of
the superintendent and every other white man about the place. I was
at one time acquainted with a superintendent who had twice escaped
assassination by reason of accidental absence. He did not take warning
by his luck on these occasions, but continued on in his usual way till
on the occurrence of another conspiracy he was killed.
Closely rivalling the mines of Mexico are those of Peru. They are
scattered in various parts of the country, but the richest and most
famous are in Potosi, formerly belonging to Peru, but now a part of
Bolivia. The story is, that these mines were discovered in 1545, by an
Indian hunter, who accidentally exposed lumps of the precious metal in
the roots of a bush which he pulled from the ground. His discovery led
to careful and extensive explorations, and in a short time the city of
Potosi sprung up in a barren and almost inaccessible district.
Potosi is among mountains generally of volcanic formation, and more
than five thousand mines have been opened in its vicinity. The country
is barren, and much of it is more than ten thousand feet above the
level of the sea.
[Sidenote: THE HIGHEST CITY IN THE WORLD.]