by bony projections of ____, ____, and ____. =2.= The hairs of the
eyebrows lie inclined toward ____, in order to turn ____ from the
____. =3.= I find by trying it that I (can or cannot?) see the
position of a window with my eyes closed. =4.= The pupil appears to
be black, because no ____ is ____ from the interior wall of the eye.
I know that the iris is partly muscle, because it ____ the size of
the ____.
=Sound.=--Anything that is sending off sound does so by vibrating, or
shaking to and fro, very rapidly. For instance, a vibrating violin
string sets every particle of air near it swinging to and fro. The
nearest particles of air strike the next ones and bounce back, these
in turn strike against others, and thus vibrations called sound waves
are sent through space in all directions from the sounding body. We
feel these waves with the ear.
=The ear= consists of three portions: the _external_ ear, the _middle_
ear (or drum), and the _internal_ ear (or labyrinth, see Fig. 128).
The cranial nerve connecting the ear with the brain is called the
_auditory_ nerve. The outer and middle ear pass on the vibrations of
air to the ends of the fibers of the auditory nerve in the internal ear.
[Illustration: FIG. 128.--MIDDLE AND INTERNAL EAR (greatly enlarged).]
=The external ear= consists of a large wrinkled _cartilage_ on the
exterior of the head and a _canal_ leading from it, called the
_meatus_. This passage is closed at its inner end by the drum membrane
or _drum skin_. It is often called the drum, but this name is properly
applied to the whole middle ear. A trial will show that the drum skin
cannot be seen even with the aid of a bright light, for the passage
is slightly curved (see Fig. 128). Hence a missile or a flying insect
cannot go straight against the ear drum. The skin lining this passage
contains _wax glands_, which secrete a bitter sticky wax, which helps
to keep the passage flexible. This wax catches dust and usually stops
insects that may enter. If an insect enters the ear, it may often be
coaxed out by a bright light held close to the ear. The ear wax in
a healthy ear dries with dust and scales of epidermis and falls out
in flakes, thus cleansing the ear. It is unwise to probe into the
ear with a hard object or even with the corner of a towel. It is not
necessary to insert the finger in the meatus to cleanse it; it is
one inch long, but only about one fourth inch across. (How large is
the little finger?) The cartilaginous ears on the sides of the head
should be carefully washed because of their many crevices. If ear wax
is deposited too fast, it will cause temporary deafness and earache.
It may be syringed out with warm water. Earache is usually caused by
a small boil which requires time to relieve itself by bursting. Warm
water poured into the upturned ear, or hot flannels or compresses
applied to the side of the head will lessen the suffering. Each ear has
three muscles for moving it. Once they were doubtless useful to all,
but like the scalp muscle they have become so weakened by disuse as to
be useless to most people. They are vestigial organs.
=The middle ear=, or drum chamber, contains air (Fig. 128). It is
separated from the outer ear by the drum membrane. It contains three
bones which stretch across it and conduct the sound waves from the drum
membrane to the inner ear. State the order in which they are placed
(see Fig. 128). The middle ear is connected with the pharynx by a tube
(the _Eustachian tube_; pronounced yoo-stake´e-an, see Fig. 128). This
tube is opened every time we swallow. It allows the air from the throat
to enter the middle ear and keep the air pressure equal on each side
of the drum skin. This tube and the middle ear are lined with mucous
membrane.
A _cold in the head_ or a sore throat may extend through this tube to
the middle ear and affect the hearing. This occurs because the tube is
closed by congestion of its lining; the air of the middle ear may be
partly absorbed, and the pressure of the outside air may cause the drum
membrane to bulge inward, and to be stretched so tight that it cannot
vibrate freely.
=The inner ear= is called the _labyrinth_, because of its winding
passages. There is a spiral passage called the _snail shell_ and three
simpler passages called the _loops_ (Fig. 128). The inner ear is filled
with a limpid liquid which conveys the vibrations to the _ends of the
auditory nerve_ found in the snail shell. If the auditory nerve or
labyrinth becomes diseased, the deafness is probably incurable. Quinine
and other drugs may cause deafness.
=Sense of Equilibrium.=--Some fibers of the auditory nerve end in the
loops and are not believed to be used in hearing. It is believed that
each loop acts like a carpenter’s level, and the varying pressure of
the fluid upon the nerves in the loops tells us the position of the
body and constitutes the sense of equilibrium. There are how many of
these loops in each ear? (Fig. 128.)
CHAPTER X
BACTERIA AND SANITATION
_Experiment 1._ =Yeast Plants.=--With a microscope examine a drop
from a glass of water in which you have washed grapes or apples (Fig.
129).
_Experiment 2._ =Fermentation.=--Put a tablespoonful of sugar into
this water and set the glass in a warm place for a day or two. Do
you see any bubbles of gas? Have the odor and taste changed? Does
the microscope show that the yeast plants are now more abundant? By
fermentation, or the growth of yeast in sugar, sugar is changed into
carbon dioxid, a gas, and alcohol, a liquid.
_Experiment 3._ =A Sanitary Map.=--Construct a sanitary map of the
community. Indicate houses where consumption, typhoid fever, or other
transmissible diseases have occurred, with number of cases. Mark
location of stagnant waters where mosquitoes breed, mark garbage
dumps, unclean streets. Suggest where improvements may be made in
drainage, dust, noises, sunshine, shade, etc.
[Illustration: FIG. 129.--YEAST CELLS magnified 200 diameters, or
40,000 areas. Yeast plants multiply by budding. Notice small cells
growing on larger and older ones.]
=Bacteria=, or microbes, the smallest living things, are visible only
under a microscope of high power. (See “Plant Biology,” p. 182.) They
obtain food either from dead tissue or from degenerate tissue of living
plants and animals. The green plants and the animals now upon the earth
have proved their _fitness to survive_ by successfully resisting these
one-celled vegetable germs, or bacteria. Microbe diseases attack only
the weaker individuals of the human species, or those who have gone
to regions where there are microbes which their bodies have not yet
acquired the power of resisting.
=Usefulness of Bacteria.=--Their chief work is to destroy dead tissue
and return it to the soil and air for the use of green plants again,
otherwise the earth would be filled with carcasses, etc. They are
indispensable in soil formation. They give the agreeable flavors to
butter and cheese, and cause milk to sour. A rod-shaped bacterium is
called a _bacillus_ (Fig. 130); a spherical one is a _coccus_.
=Multiplication of Bacteria.=--This is by division or _fission_.
Sometimes, instead of dividing, a little rounded mass known as a
_spore_ appears. The spore breaks out and the bacterium itself
perishes. Species which do not produce spores are readily destroyed,
but spores have a hard, tough shell, and they may be dried or heated
even to boiling without being killed. Spores float through the air
and start new colonies. _Most common bacteria grow best between 70°
and 95° F._ They render it difficult to preserve foods, _especially
proteid foods_ (cheese, lean meat, eggs, etc.). Food decays slowly if
at all below 70° and above 125°. Direct sunlight, or the temperature
of boiling water (212° F.) kills bacteria but not spores. Pantries,
kitchen, and sickrooms should have bright walls and all the light
possible. Boiling water should be poured into the sink, and dish cloths
should be thoroughly washed in boiling water.
=Diseases due to Bacteria.=--A germ disease is usually due partly
or wholly to substances called toxins produced by the bacteria.
Most disease germs attack a single organ of the body. _Diphtheria_
is caused by a species (Fig. 130) that grows on the mucous membrane
of the throat; this germ produces a powerful toxin. The germs of
_typhoid fever_ (Fig. 131) and _Asiatic cholera_ multiply in the
small intestine. In both these diseases the source of infection is
the diarrhœal discharges from the alimentary canal. Flies may carry
the germs on their feet from the discharge to food. Sometimes typhoid
fever cases occur throughout a town because the water supply has
become contaminated by sewage. Cases may occur only in families that
buy milk from a certain dairy, because the milk cans have been washed
in contaminated water. In caring for a typhoid patient all suspicious
material should be disinfected or burned. Germs of _tuberculosis_
(called _consumption_ if the disease is in the lungs) may float through
the air. Recent investigations indicate, however, that infection
usually occurs through the alimentary canal, the germs being swallowed,
then absorbed and taken to the lungs in the blood or lymph. To prevent
a patient from reinfecting himself in new parts of the lungs or
elsewhere, he should carefully cleanse his teeth, mouth, and throat (by
gargling with formal or lysol) before eating.
[Illustration: FIG. 130.--BACILLUS OF DIPHTHERIA.]
[Illustration: FIG. 131.--BACILLUS OF TYPHOID FEVER.]
[Illustration: FIG. 132.--CULEX OR COMMON MOSQUITO, above (possibly
carries dengue fever). ANOPHELES OR MALARIAL MOSQUITO, below (not
always infected). Body of malarial mosquito is never held parallel to
the supporting surface (unless a leg is missing); it has five long
appendages to the head, the culex (above) has only three. (Draw.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 133.--PROTECTIVE WHITE CORPUSCLE (phagocyte)
digesting a microbe.]
=Mosquito Fevers.=--_Malaria_, _yellow fever_, and probably _dengue_
are transmitted each by a different genus of mosquito (Fig. 132). A
mosquito of the malarial genus may bite a patient and suck into its
body blood-corpuscles containing spores of the malarial parasite (a
protozoan animal, see “Animal Biology,” p. 7). Afterwards a spore
(in another stage) may be transmitted by this mosquito when it bites
another person. The germ enters a red corpuscle, grows, and finally
divides into many little spores. At this moment the corpuscle itself
breaks up, setting free in the blood the spores and toxin formed. This
causes the chill and fever. This development usually takes forty-eight
hours, hence the fever occurs every other day. These mosquitoes _begin
to fly at dusk_. How are they recognized? (Fig. 132.) They should be
kept out of houses by screens or from the beds by netting. Kerosene
should be poured on breeding places at the rate of one ounce for
fifteen square feet of standing water. This should be repeated twice
a month. Cactus macerated in water may be used, and forms a permanent
film on the water. Stagnant pools may be filled or drained (Exp.
4). _Malarial patients should themselves be screened, as the chief
source of danger to others_; for only mosquitoes who suck the blood
of malarial patients will transmit the disease. Even then it is only
transmitted to those whose white blood corpuscles are unable to protect
them (Fig. 133).
=Further Means of Protection against Disease Germs.=--The best
protection is physical vigor. There are certain substances called
_opsonins_ which exist in the plasma of the blood of disease-resisting
persons; these opsonins give the white corpuscles the power to devour
disease germs. The serum of the blood also develops antitoxins which
neutralize the toxins formed in disease. Not only can the white
corpuscles and serum kill bacteria, but most of the secretions
of the healthy body (gastric juice, nasal secretions, etc.) are
bacteria-killing as well. Persons in a low state of health most readily
succumb to disease. Excess in eating may lessen the germicidal power of
gastric juice and inactivity that of the lymph. The same germ disease
does not usually attack the same person twice, as the body becomes
immune; that is, an opsonin, or an antitoxin, is developed which cures
the first attack and remains to protect the body in future.
The periods of quarantine or isolation for several common germ diseases
are given in the following table:--
==============+=============+=======================================
|FROM EXPOSURE|
NAME OF | TILL FIRST | PATIENT IS INFECTIOUS
DISEASE | SYMPTOMS | TO OTHERS
--------------+-------------+---------------------------------------
Diphtheria |2 days |14 days after membrane disappears.
Mumps |10-22 days |14 days from commencement.
Scarlet fever |4 days |Until all scaling has ceased.
Smallpox |12-17 days |Until all scabs have fallen.
Measles |14 days |3 days before eruption till scaling and
| |cough cease.
Typhoid fever |11 days |Until diarrhœa ceases.
Whooping cough|14 days |3 weeks before until 3 weeks after
| |beginning to whoop.
==============+=============+=======================================
=Water Supply.=--Bacteria are more abundant in flowing streams than in
water standing in lakes or reservoirs (contrary to the usual belief).
They are most abundant in rivers that flow through populous regions.
They are comparatively scarce in dry, sandy soils, and very numerous
in moist, loamy soils. The water of cities should never be taken from
a stream or lake into which sewerage flows unless it is thoroughly
filtered. Filters are constructed thus: first a layer of small stones,
next a layer of coarse sand, lastly a layer of very fine sand on top,
the total thickness being four or five feet. Beneficial microbes
live upon the grains of sand and destroy all, or nearly all, of the
dangerous microbes as the water slowly soaks through. The construction
of such waterworks is left to sanitary engineers, of course, and the
average citizen does not need to know the details.
=The department of street cleaning= should receive the willing
coöperation of all citizens. Banana peelings, paper, etc., should
not be thrown upon the street or school grounds. Garbage, ashes, and
rubbish should be placed in separate cans, as the rules provide.
Garbage cans, if not thoroughly cleaned, acquire unpleasant odors and
breed flies and bacteria. They should be thoroughly washed with very
hot water and sal soda and scalded with boiling water and scrubbed with
an old broom.[11]
[11] The chief =Disinfectants= are: _fresh air_, _sunshine_, _heat_,
_formaldehyde_, etc. Airing and sunning will destroy some germs in
bedding and clothing as effectually as chemicals. Boiling and
steaming are the best ways of applying heat. _Formaldehyde_ is a
volatile liquid. After room is sealed and strips of paper pasted all
over cracks, a specially constructed generator is applied to
keyhole, and room kept closed for 12 hours. _Mercuric chloride_
(corrosive sublimate) is used 1 part to 1000 parts of water for
disinfecting soiled clothing, towels, utensils, surgeon’s
instruments, and wounds. In place of this, _carbolic acid_, 5 per
cent solution, may be used, but it is not so good a germicide.
=The chief duties of the Health Department= are: quarantine isolation
and disinfection, with the purpose of preventing or controlling
contagious and infectious diseases; inspection of dairies,
slaughterhouses, and other sanitary work; inspection of milk[12] and
other food stuffs; the department gathers vital statistics; it enforces
the rules for disinfection of public buildings.
[12] =Milk= may be sterilized by boiling, but boiled milk is not
digestible nor nutritious. Milk may be Pasteurized by immersing
bottles of milk in water which is kept nearly (but not quite) at
boiling point (160° F.) for five minutes. But this makes the milk
less valuable than fresh milk, and destroys beneficent microbes.
Buttermilk has many such microbes, which kill injurious microbes and
purify the stomach. Cleanliness, or an _aseptic_ condition, is far
preferable to _antiseptics_.
=Importance of Coöperation with the Health Department.=--Only an
ignorant and short-sighted person would fail to coöperate promptly and
cheerfully with local or state health officers. It is for the benefit
and protection of every one that the truth concerning contagious
diseases be reported promptly. Only in this way may outbreaks of
disease be prevented and many lives saved. He is a bad citizen and
a public enemy who will conceal a case of disease dangerous to the
community. Outbreaks of fatal diseases may be easily prevented or
stamped out if the health officer is sustained and his directions
carried out.
INDEX
I, V, X, etc. = Introduction: P = Plant Biology: A = Animal Biology: H
= Human Biology.
Aboral surface, A 35.
Aborted seeds, P 166.
Absorption, H 106.
Abutilon, P 156.
Accessory fruit, P 164, 169.
Accommodation in eye, H 143, 153.
Acephala, A 107.
Acid, ix.
Adaptation to environment, P 6, A 148, 185, 201, 205, 207, H 19, 108,
109, 110.
Adenoid growths, H 86.
Adipose tissue, H 12.
Adulteration of food, H 93.
Adventitious roots, P 36; buds, P 114.
Aerial roots, P 34.
Aggregate fruit, P 168.
Air cells, H 75.
Air plants, P 35.
Akenes, P 165.
Albinism, H 16, 18.
Albumen, H 92.
Albumin, H 92.
Alcohol and circulation, H 67; and fermentation, H 158; and food, H
113; and muscles, H 50; and nerves, H 135; and skin, H 20.
Algar, P 179, 183, 195.
Alkaline, ix.
Alternation of generation, P 179, A 30, 31.
Ambulacral, A 36.
Ameba, A 10.
Americans, H 1.
Anadon, A 98.
Anatomy, H 9.
Anemophilous, P 149.
Animal food, H 95, 110.
Annual plant, P 17.
Antelope, A 215.
Antennæ, A 68, 87.
Anther, P 135, 144, 180.
Antheridium, P 178, 186, 198, 200, 202, 203.
Ant-eater, giant, A 199; spiny, A 196.
Ant-lion, A 91.
Ape, A 220.
Apical dehiscence, P 166.
Appendicitis, H 106.
Appendix, vermiform, H 106.
Appetite, H 94, 110.
Aptera, A 82.
Apteryx, A 174.
Aquarium, A 17.
Archegonium, P 178, 198, 200, 202, 203.
Argonaut, paper, A 107.
Arm, H 33.
Armadillo, A 200.
Arrowhead, H 2.
Arteries, H 51, 53, 54, 61.
Arthropoda, A 9, 125.
Arum family, P 140.
Ash, P 92.
Asiatic cholera, H 160.
Assimilation, P 97, H 90.
Association fibers, H 123, 126.
Asthma, H 86.
Astigmatism, H 144.
Athletics, H 46, 47.
Atwater’s experiments, H 113.
Auricle, H 53.
Automatic action, H 123.
Axil, P 112.
Axis, plant, P 15.
Axon, H 119.
Bacillus, H 158, 159.
Bacteria, P 39, 109, 182, H 158, 159, 160, 161.
Bandage, H 62.
Barberry, P 157, 193.
Bark, P 54, 66, 67.
Bark-bound trees, P 54.
Bast, P 61, 66.
Bat, A 202.
Baths, H 23, 24.
Batrachia, A 126.
Bean, P 20, 28, 39, 194, H 95, 96, 112.
Beaver, A 204.
Bedbug, A 92, 93.
Bee, bumble, A 89; honey, A 88.
Beebe’s experiments, Dr., H 113.
Beef, H 111; tea, H 111.
Beetle, A 90, 91.
Berry, P 167.
Biennial plant, P 17.
Big-headed turtle, A 149.
Bilateral, A 34, 49, 98.
Bile, H 105.
Bill of bird, A 151.
Biology defined, A 1, H 9.
Birds, A 150.
Blind spot, H 151.
Blood, H 58; quantity of, H 55; of insects, A 78.
Blood vessels, H 52; control of, H 58.
Board of Health, H 163.
Boll weevil, A 95, 96.
Boll worm, A 95, 96.
Bones, H 29; composition of, H 31; growth of, H 14, 36; forms of, H
28, 29, 34; structure of, H 30.
Bony tissue, H 13.
Borax, H 93.
Brace cells, P 67.
Bracts, P 134.
Brain, H 122; coverings of, H 125; of fish, A 118.
Branch, P 111, A 9.
Breathing, forms of, H 80; of bird, A 161; of insect, A 76; through
mouth, H 85.
Breeding, plant, P 7, 8.
Bronchial tubes, H 75.
Bruises, H 62.
Bryophytes, P 181.
Bud propagation, P 121.
Budding, P 127, 128.
Buds, P 72, 82, 87, 111; flower, P 115; fruit, P 115.
Bureau of entomology, A 95.
Burns, H 24.
Burs, P 172, 174.
Bushes, P 191, A 171.
Butterfly, A 83.
Cabbage, P 113, H 95.
Cabbage butterfly, A 84, 86, 87.
Callus, P 56.
Calyx, P 133.
Cambium, P 63, 65.
Camel, A 214.
Candle, xv, A 5.
Cane sugar, H 92, 104.
Capillaries, H 52, 53, 56.
Capsule, P 165.
Carbohydrate, P 95, H 91, 95.
Carbon, vii, xviii, P 92.
Carbon, dioxid, A 24, P 22, 93, 106, H 60, 76, 81, 132; monoxid, H 85.
Carnivorous, P 99, H 111.
Carp, A 112, 117, 123.
Carpel, P 136.
Cartilage, H 13, 35.
Castor bean, P 24.
Cat, A 184.
Caterpillar, tent, A 84.
Catkin, P 158.
Caucasian, H 1, 2.
Caulicle, P 20, 22, 25.
Cedar apple, P 194.
Cell, P 42, 63, 145, 176, A 6, 7, H 5, 6.
Celom, A 46.
Cephalopod, A 106.
Cerebellum, H 122, 124.
Cerebro-spinal system, H 128, 129.
Cerebrum, H 122, 125, 126.
Chelonia, A 143.
Chemistry, xv.
Chemical symbols, xv.
Chest, H 32.
Chewing, H 90, 101.
Chimpanzee, A 219, 221.
Chirping, A 66.
Chitin, A 77.
Chlorophyll, P 86, 94, 101, 183, 186.
Cholera, H 160.
Choroid, H 150, 152.
Chyme, H 103.
Cigarettes, H 67, 86.
Cilia, A 14, 20, 101, 103, H 76.
Ciliated chamber, A 17.
Cion, P 125.
Circulation, H 51; and breathing, H 58; and exercise, H 67; hygiene
of, H 68; in ameba, A 12; in insect, A 77; in fish, A 117; portal, H
60, 105; pulmonary, H 60; renal, H 60.
City, H 4.
Cladophylla, P 100.
Clam, hardshell, A 104; softshell, A 104.
Class, A 9.
Classification, of animals, A 8, 125; of birds, A 177; insects, A 82;
mammals, A 193.
Cleft graft, P 126.
Cleft leaf, P 75.
Cleistogamous, P 151.
Click-beetle, A 91.
Climate, and clothing, H 25; and brain work, H 68; and early man, H 2.
Climbing plants, P 129.
Clitellum, A 43, 47.
Cloaca, A 18.
Clot, H 61.
Clothes moth, A 84, 92, 93.
Clothing, H 16, 25.
Clover, P 39.
Club mosses, P 203.
Cluster, flower, P 155, 159; centrifugal, P 156, 159; centripetal, P
156; indeterminate, P 156.
Coagulation, H 61.
Cockroach, A 71.
Cocoon, A 84.
Codling moth, A 84, 86, 87, 95.
Cœlenterata, A 28.
Colds, care of, H 69, 86.
Coleoptera, A 82.
Collecting insects, A 72.
Colon, H 106, 111.
Colonies, plant, P 11.
Colorado beetle, A 90, 91.
Coloration, warning, A 84, 146; protective, A 34, 37, 49.
Colors of flowers, A 85.
Comparative study, A 85, 108, 122, 223; moth and butterfly, A 85.
Composite flowers, P 140.
Compositions, subjects for, H 15, 50, 116, 141.
Compound substance, vii.
Congestion, H 68.
Conjugation, P 185.
Conjunctiva, H 150.
Connective tissue, H 11, 54, 120.
Consumption, H 159.
Convolution, H 126.
Cooking, H 114.
Coördination, H 124.
Copper head, A 145.
Coral, A 31.
Coralline, A 31.
Coral snake, A 145, 146.
Cork, P 66, 67.
Corn, P 3, 25, 26.
Cornea, H 150.
Corolla, P 133; funnel form, P 138; labiate, P 138; personate, P 139;
rotate, P 138; salver form, P 138.
Corpuscles, origin of, H 30; red, H 59; white, H 59, 60, 65, 68.
Corset, H 58, 80, 87.
Cortex, P 44.
Corymb, P 159.
Cotton plant, P 7, A 95.
Cotyledon, P 20.
Cricket, A 71.
Cross-fertilization, A 25.
Crowd poison, H 82.
Cryptogam, P 176, 180, 183-204.
Cuckoo, A 179.
Currant, P 157.
Cuttings, P 121, 123, 124.
Cuttlefish, A 107.
Cyme, P 159, 160.
Cypræa, A 104.
Cysts, A 13.
Cytoplasm, H 6.
Darwin, A 48, 148.
Debates, subjects for, H 141.
Deciduous, P 82.
Decumbent, P 50.
Degeneration, H 3, 4, 141.
Dehiscence, P 144, 164.
Deliquescent, P 51.
Dendron, H 119.
Dependent plants, P 106.
Dermis, H 17.
Devil’s horse, A 71.
De Vries, A 148, 224.
Dextrin, H 112.
Diaphragm, H 77, 78.
Dichogamy, P 144.
Dicotyledon, P 20.
Dicotyledonous stems, P 61.
Digestion, P 95, H 89, 96, 100.
Digitate, P 74.
Digits, A 222, H 111.
Dimorphous, P 144.
Diœcious, P 138, 170.
Diphtheria, H 160.
Diptera, A 82.
Disease, defined, H 5.
Disinfection, H 163.
Dispersal of seeds, P 172.
Dissection, P 30.
Division of labor, A 27, 29, H 8.
Dodder, P 35, 106.
Dog, A 224.
Dolphin, A 209.
Doodle bug, A 91.
Dorsal, A 43.
Dove, A 179.
Dragon fly, A 93.
Drainage, H 158, 161.
Dropsy, H 64.
Drugs, H 60, 130, 133.
Drupe, P 168.
Drupelet, P 168.
Duckbill, A 196.
Dust, H 82, 158.
Ear, of bird, A 151; of frog, A 131; of fish, A 112; of man, H 154.
Earthworm, A 42.
Echinoderms, A 9, 34, 125.
Ecology, P 14, H 9.
Economic importance of birds, A 167; insects, A 93; mollusks, A 105;
rodents, A 206.
Ectoderm, A 26, 87.
Ectoplasm, A 11, 14.
Egg, of insect, A 81; of hen, H 95, 96, 112.
Elaters, P 198.
Element, viii.
Embryo, P 26, 180.
Embryo sac, P 180.
Enamel, H 98.
Endoderm, A 26, 27, 37.
Endodermis, P 44.
Endoplasm, A 11, 14.
Endosperm, P 21, 24.
Energy, H 96, 140; in ameba, A 12; organic, A 2, 3; plant, A 2, 3, 5.
Entomophilous, P 148.
Environment, P 6, A 148, H 2, 3, 4, 48.
Enzyme, H 100.
Epicotyl, P 23, 25.
Epidermis, of leaf, P 86, 87; of man, H 17; of mussel, A 98.
Epigeal, P 23.
Epiphyte, P 35, 110.
Epithelial, H 12, 54.
Equisetums, P 201.
Erect posture, H 3.
Esophagus, H 74, 101.
Essays, subjects for, H 15, 25, 50, 116.
Essential organs, P 135.
Ethiopian, H 12, 18.
Evaporation, viii.
Excretion, A 12.
Excurrent, P 51.
Exercise, H 45, 48, 49, 57, 67.
Expiration, H 79.
Explosive seeds, P 172.
Eye, H 149; of bird, A 150; of frog, A 30; of grasshopper, A 67, 79;
of fish, A 111.
Fainting, H 57.
Family, A 8.
Fangs, venomous, A 145.
Farmers’ bulletins, A 95.
Fatigue, of muscles, H 45; of nerves, H 130, 131, 136.
Fats, test for, xi.
Fatty tissue, H 12, 103.
Feather, A 155.
Fehling’s solution, xi.
Ferment, H 100, 103, 104, 158.
Fermentation, P 190, H 158.
Fern, P 176.
Fertilization, P 144; cross, P 144, 146, A 85; self, P 145, 147, 188.
Fiber, H 2.
Fibrin, H 61.
Fibro-vascular bundles, P 61, 90.
Field study, P 3, 6, 8, 14, 19, 27, 46, 57, 71, 84, 91, 101, 110,
118, 128, 132, 143, 152, 162, 170, 174, 181, A 10, 22, 42, 71, 72,
97, 127, 165, 166, 167, 184.
Filament, P 135.
Filter, H 163.
Fins, A 110, 113.
Flagellum, A 21, 27.
Flatworm, A 49.
Flavors, H 142, 147.
Flea, A 92, 93.
Flight, of bird, A 157, 175; of moth, A 84.
Floral envelopes, P 133.
Florets, P 140.
Flower, P 133, 180, A 85; apetalous, P 136; clusters, P 155;
complete, P 136; diclinous, P 137; double, P 142; imperfect, P 137;
incomplete, P 136; lateral, P 136; naked, P 136; perfect, P 137;
pistillate, P 137; regular, P 138; staminate, P 137; sterile, P 137;
solitary, P 156; terminal, P 156.
Fly, horse, A 81; house, A 92, 93.
Foliage, P 16.
Follicle, P 165.
Food, H 88; defined, H 114; of birds, A 177.
Food stuffs, H 91.
Food tube, of bird, A 163; of fish, A 116; of insect, A 76; of man, H
97; of mussel, A 102.
Foot, H 29.
Foraminifera, A 15, 18.
Forestry, P 68.
Formaldehyde, H 163.
Formalin, H 93.
Framework of plant, P 15.
Frog, A 128.
Frond, P 176, 178, 181.
Fruit, P 163, H 95.
Fucus, P 186.
Funaria, P 201.
Function, A 1, H 9.
Fungi, P 187.
Fungus, P 107, 108, 184, 187, 195.
Gametophyte, P 179.
Gamopetalous, P 134.
Gamosepalous, P 134.
Ganglion, A 45, H 120.
Ganglionic system, H 127.
Garbage, H 163.
Gasteropod, A 108.
Gastric juice, H 103.
Gastrula, A 7.
General sensation, H 144, 145.
Generation of plants, P 16.
Genus, A 8.
Geographical barriers, A 148.
Geotropism, P 44, 47.
Germination, P 22, 23, 27.
Gila monster, A 147.
Gills, of mussel, A 100; of fish, A 115.
Glands, lymphatic, H 65.
Gland tissue, H 13.
Glomerule, P 160.
Gnawing mammals, A 203.
Gopher, pouched, A 204.
Gorilla, A 221.
Grafting, P 125.
Grain, H 95, 112.
Grantia, A 18.
Grape sugar, x, H 88, 92.
Grasshopper, A 70.
Grit cells, P 67.
Guard cells, P 88.
Gullet, H 74, 94, 101.
Gymnastics, H 47.
Gymnosperm, P 26, 170.
Gypsy moth, A 95.
Habit, H 131.
Hairs, P 87, H 19.
Hands, H 4; defined, A 220.
Headaches, H 132, 133.
Heart, human, H 51, 52; insect, A 77; sound of, H 60.
Heating, H 84.
Hemiptera, A 82.
Hemoglobin, H 59, 81.
Herb, P 17.
Heredity, A 147, 153, H 4.
Hessian fly, A 95.
Hill, Dr. L. H., quoted, H 140.
Hilum, P 21, 26.
Hip, H 4, P 168.
Hollyhock, P 147.
Homology, P 135.
Horned toad, A 140.
Host, P 107.
House fly, A 92, 93.
Houstonia, P 107.
Human species, H 1, A 220.
Hydra, A 22.
Hydranth, A 29.
Hydrochloric acid, H 103.
Hydroid, A 28, 29, 30.
Hygiene, H 49, 66, 80, 107, 129, 141.
Hymenoptera, A 82.
Hyphæ, P 107, 188.
Hypocotyl, P 22.
Hypogeal, P 23.
Hypostome, A 23.
Ichneumon fly, A 89.
Imago, A 81.
Immunity, H 158, 160.
Indehiscent, P 164.
Indian, H 2.
Indusium, P 177.
Inflammation, H 68, 86.
Inflorescence, P 155, 160.
Infusoria, A 16.
Inhibit, H 68.
Inorganic, A 1.
Insecticides, A 95.
Insects, A 73, 75; biting, A 82; classified, A 82; sucking, A 82.
Inspiration, H 77.
Instinct, A 80, 121, H 49.
Intercostal, H 77.
Internode, P 52.
Intestinal gland, H 104.
Intestine, H 98, 103, 106.
Involucre, P 34, 141, 163, 164.
Iodine test for starch, x.
Iris, H 143, 151.
Iron, vii, P 39.
Iron tonics, H 90.
Isoëtes, P 203.
Ivory, H 98.
Jacana, Mexican, A 178.
Jay, blue, A 181.
Jelly fish, A 29, 30.
Joints, H 29, 35, 36.
Kangaroo, A 198.
Key fruit, P 164.
Kidneys, of fish, A 117; of insects, A 76; of man, H 26, 27; of
mussel, A 102; of worm, A 45.
Kinetoscope, H 151.
Labial palpi, A 68, 74, 101.
Labium, A 68, 74.
Laboratory, P 3.
Labrum, A 68, 74.
Labyrinth, H 157.
Lacteal, H 64, 65, 104, 105.
Lady bug, A 91.
Lamellibranch, A 107.
Landscape, P 13.
Lark, meadow; A 182; sky, A 179.
Larkspur, P 148, 149.
Larva, A 81.
Larynx, H 72.
Lasso cell, A 34.
Lateral spinal curvature, H 37.
Latex tubes, P 67.
Leaf, apex of, P 80; base of, P 80; function of, P 92; margin of, P
80; structure, P 86.
Leaf scar, P 90.
Leaves, arrangement of, P 82; shapes of, P 78, 85.
Leg, of bird, A 152; of horse, A 210; of insect, A 74; of man, H 33.
Legume, P 165, H 95.
Legume family, P 35, 169.
Lemur, A 220.
Lenticel, P 89.
Lepidoptera, A 82, 87.
Lichens, P 195.
Ligneous, P 17.
Lime water, xx, H 70.
Liver, H 105.
Liverworts, P 196.
Lobes of leaf, P 75.
Lobule of lung, H 75.
Locule, P 136, 163, 166.
Loculicidal dehiscence, P 166.
Louse, A 92, 93.
Lumber, P 68.
Lungs, of bird, A 165; of man, H 76.
Lycopodium, P 204.
Lymph, H 52, 62, 63.
Lymphatics, H 62, 63.
Lymph spaces, H 63.
Macrospore, P 203, 204.
Madreporite, A 35.
Malaria, H 160.
Malay, H 1.
Mammal, A 184, H 111; classified, A 193; defined, A 189.
Manatee, A 209.
Mandibles, A 68, 74.
Mantis, praying, A 3.
Mantle, A 99.
Marchantia, P 196.
Maxillæ, A 68, 74.
Maxillary palpi, A 68, 74.
May beetle, A 90, 91.
May fly, A 83.
Measuring worm, A 81, 84.
Medulla, H 122, 123.
Medullary ray, P 64.
Medusa, A 31.
Mesoglea, A 26.
Mesophyll, P 86.
Metamorphosis of insect, A 80, 81, 82.
Metazoan, A 1.
Micropyle, P 21, 26.
Microscope, P 21, 26.
Microspore, P 203.
Midrib, P 77.
Migration of birds, A 171, 173.
Milk, H 91, 95, 96, 112.
Mimicry, A 146.
Mind and health, H 129.
Minerals, xiv, H 90, 91, 93, 95.
Mint family, P 139.
Mistletoe, P 109.
Moccasin, A 145.
Mold, P 188.
Mole, A 201.
Mollusk, A 9, 97, 125.
Molting, A 69, 174.
Mongolian, H 1.
Monkey, A 220.
Monocotyledons, P 20, 25, 63.
Monœcious, P 138, 150, 170.
Morphine, H 105.
Morula, A 7.
Mosquito, A 92, 93, 96, H 160, 161.
Mosses, P 199.
Moss, Spanish, P 110.
Moth, A 83.
Mother-of-pearl, A 99.
Motor, cell, H 120; fiber, H 120.
Mullein, P 87.
Municipal sanitation, H 162, 163.
Muscadine, P 36.
Muscles, H 39; arrangement of, H 41; control of, H 39, 44; function
of, H 39, 43; growth, H 42; kinds of, H 39; structure of, H 39.
Muscles and health, H 45.
Muscular sense, H 142, 146.
Muscular tissue, H 11.
Mushroom, P 107, 194.
Mussel, A 96, 103.
Mycelium, P 107, 108, 188.
Mychorrhiza, P 108.
Nails, H 19.
Narcotic, H 137, 148.
Nasal tone, H 144.
Natural selection, P 8, A 148.
Nautilus, chambered, A 107.
Nectar, A 8, P 148.
Nephridium, A 45.
Nerve, H 119; spinal, H 127; cranial, H 127.
Nerve cell, H 119; fatigue of, H 130.
Nerve center, H 117, 120.
Nerve fiber, H 119.
Nerve tissue, H 11.
Nerves, vaso-motor, H 23.
Nervous children, H 135.
Nervous system, of bee, A 78; of man, H 117; of mussel, A 102.
Nest building, A 166, 182.
Neuron, H 118.
Neuroptera, A 82.
Neutral substances, ix.
Nitella, P 187.
Nitric acid test for proteid, xi.
Nitrogen, viii, P 39, 40, H 81.
Nitrogenous compounds, xi.
Nodes, P 20, 52.
Nodules, P 39, 40.
Nose bleed, H 52.
Nostoc, P 184.
Nostril, of bird, A 151; of fish, A 112.
Notebooks, P 3.
Nucleolus, A 6, H 6.
Nucleoplasm, H 7.
Nucleus, P 144, 185, A 6, 11, 14, H 6, 18.
Nutrients, H 91.
Nuts, P 164, H 95.
Octopus, A 106.
Oil gland, H 20.
Oils, test for, xi.
Okapi, A 214.
Oleander, P 86.
Omnivorous, A 47, H 111.
One-celled animals, A 7.
Oögonia, P 186.
Opossum, A 197; H 4.
Opsonin, H 162.
Optic nerve, H 151, 152.
Oral surface, A 35.
Orang, A 222.
Orbit, H 149.
Orchid, P 35, 110.
Order, A 9.
Organ, A 1, H 9.
Organic, xiv, A 1.
Organism, A 1.
Orthoptera, A 82.
Oscillatoria, P 184.
Osculum, A 18.
Osier, Dr. William, quoted, H 133.
Osmosis, P 42, 48.
Outdoor life, H 5, 22.
Ovary, P 135, 144, 163, 170, A 25, 37, 117.
Overgrowth, P 12.
Oviduct, A 46.
Ovule, P 144, 186.
Oxidation, xii, A 3, 4, 5, H 14, 90, 91, 120.
Oxygen, viii, A 4, 5, H 4, 76, 81, 140.
Oyster, A 104.
Palisade cells, P 86.
Palmate, P 74.
Pancreas, H 104.
Panicle, P 158.
Papilla, H 17.
Pappus, P 141.
Paramecium, A 13.
Parasites, P 107, A 49, 93.
Parenchyma, P 60, 86.
Partridge, A 178.
Pearls, A 105.
Peccary, A 217.
Pedicel, P 162.
Peduncle, P 62.
Peltate, P 77.
Pelvis, H 33.
Pepsin, H 103.
Perch, A 109, 110, 123.
Perennial, P 17.
Pericarp, P 164, 165, 169.
Peristalsis, H 102, 106, 127.
Peritoneum, H 106.
Pests, insect, A 93.
Petals, P 134.
Petiole, P 76.
Phagocyte, H 161.
Pharynx, H 73, 85, 101.
Pheasant, A 174.
Phenogam, P 177, 180.
Phosphorus, vi.
Photo-synthesis, P 94, 101.
Phyllotaxy, P 84.
Physics, xiv.
Physiology, H 9.
Pigment, H 18.
Pine cone, P 27, 170.
Pinna, P 181.
Pinnate, P 74.
Pinnatifid, P 76.
Pistil, P 135.
Plantain, P 157.
Plant societies, P 9.
Plants, unlikeness of, P 9.
Plastron, A 141.
Pleura, H 76.
Plexus, H 128.
Plumule, P 20, 23, 25.
Plur-annual, P 18.
Pod, P 164.
Poison, H 137.
Pollen, P 135, 144, 180, A 85.
Pollen basket, A 88.
Pollination, P 144, 145; artificial, P 153.
Polyp, A 9, 22, 125.
Polypetalous, P 134.
Polysepalous, P 134.
Polytrichum, P 199.
Pome, P 169.
Portal vein, H 105.
Portuguese man-o’-war, A 28.
Posterior curvature of spine, H 37.
Potato, H 92, 95, 112; bug, A 90.
Practical questions, H 50, 69, 87, 112, 136.
Primates, A 220.
Primitive man, H 3.
Primrose, P 149.
Proboscis, of butterfly, A 83, 87; elephant, A 207.
Prolegs, A 84, 87.
Propagation by buds, P 121.
Prop-roots, P 36.
Protection of birds, A 171.
Protective resemblance, A 34, 146.
Proteid, xi, H 88, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 104.
Proterandrous, P 146.
Proterogynous, P 146.
Prothallus, P 178, 202.
Protoplasm, xiv, P 42, 94, 97, 185, A 6, 11, H 5, 6, 59, 106, 118.
Protozoa, A 7, 9, 11, 125.
Pruning, P 105.
Pseud-annual, P 17.
Pseudoneuroptera, A 82.
Pseudopod, A 11.
Pteridophytes, P 181, 201, 203.
Ptyalin, H 100.
Puffball, P 194.
Pulse, H 55.
Pure food law, H 93.
Pylorus, H 103.
Pyxis, P 166.
Quarantine, H 163.
Quarter-sawed, P 70.
Quill, A 156.
Rabbit, A 205, 223.
Radial symmetry, A 34, 125.
Ration, daily, H 94, 96.
Rattlesnake, A 145.
Reaction, H 151, 152.
Receptacle, P 134, 163.
Rectum, A 134, H 97.
Reflex action, H 121.
Regeneration of lost parts, A 37.
Rennin, H 103.
Reproduction, A 12, 15, 20, 25, 37, 46, 120.
Reptiles, A 139.
Respiration, cellular, H 81; human, H 70; hygiene of, H 80; in
plants, P 97, 103.
Resting spore, P 184, 185, 189, 191, 192.
Retina, H 151, 152.
Rhizome, P 52, 202.
Rhizopoda, A 16.
Road runner, A 169.
Robin, A 183.
Root cap, P 44.
Root climber, P 129.
Root hairs, P 41, 42, 46.
Rootlet, P 41.
Root pressure, P 99, 104.
Roots, and air, P 41; forms of, P 32; function, P 38; structure, P
38, 43; systems, P 32.
Rotifer, A 49.
Round worm, A 49.
Ruminant, A 213.
Rust, P 192.
Salamander, A 134, 138, 139.
Saliva, H 96, 100, 112.
Salt, x, H 93.
Samara, P 164.
Sand, xiii.
Sandworm, A 49.
Sanitary map, H 158.
San José scale, A 95.
Sap, P 67.
Saprophyte, P 107, 108.
Scab in sheep, A 95.
Scales, of bird, A 161; fish, A 110; moth, A 89.
Scallops, A 104.
Scape, P 161.
Scarab, A 90, 91.
School and health, H 135.
Sclerotic, H 150.
Scouring rush, P 203.
Scramblers, P 129.
Sea anemone, A 33.
Sea fan, A 32.
Sea horse, A 124.
Sea urchin, A 38.
Seed, P 20, 163, 180; coat, P 21.
Selaginella, P 204.
Selection, natural, P 8; artificial, P 8.
Sense, muscular, H 143; thermic, H 142.
Senses of insects, A 76.
Sensory, cell, H 120; fiber, H 120, 121.
Sepal, P 133, 169.
Septicidal capsule, P 166.
Serum, H 61.
Sessile, P 77.
Setæ, A 43, 48.
Sexual selection, A 174.
Shark, A 121.
Shelf fungus, P 194.
Shoes, H 48.
Shoulder, H 32.
Shrub, P 19.
Sick headache, H 133.
Sieve tubes, P 66.
Silicle, P 167.
Silique, P 167.
Silkworm, A 84, 86, 95.
Silver scale, A 83.
Siphon, A 101.
Siphonoptera, A 82.
Skeleton, of bird, A 152; cat, A 188; frog, A 131; of fish, A 113;
man, H 28; chart of, A 218.
Skin, H 16.
Skull, H 63; mammalian, A 194.
Sleep, H 130.
Slipper animalcule, A 13.
Sloth, A 199.
Slug, A 105.
Smell, H 147.
Snail, A 105.
Societies, P 9.
Soil, P 40, 47, A 48.
Soredia, P 196.
Sori, P 177, 192.
Souring of milk, H 158.
Spadix, P 140.
Sparrow, A 182; English, A 170.
Spathe, P 138, 140.
Specialization, A 20, 27, 66, 210, H 8.
Species, A 8.
Spermary, A 25, 27.
Spermatophytes, P 180.
Spicule, A 18.
Spider, A 94.
Spike, P 157.
Spinal cord, H 120, 121.
Spinal deformities, H 37.
Spine, H 31.
Spiracle, A 77, 87.
Spirogyra, P 184.
Sponges, A 17, 125; glass, A 19; horny, A 19; limy, A 19.
Spontaneous combustion, xiii.
Sporangium, P 177, 186, 188, 201, 203, 204.
Spore, P 176, 178, 181, 184, H 159.
Sporophyll, P 180, 201.
Sporophyte, P 177.
Sports, A 148, 224.
Sprain, H 38.
Squash bug, A 93, 95.
Squid, A 106.
Stamen, P 135.
Starch, x, P 95, 101, H 88, 91.
Starvation, H 138.
Stem, P 49; endogenous, P 59; exogenous, P 61; kinds of, P 49.
Sterilizing wounds, H 163.
Stickleback, A 119.
Stigma, P 135, 144, 145.
Stimulant defined, H 137.
Stipule, P 76, 84.
Stock, P 125.
Stomate, P 87.
Stone age, H 2.
Stone fruit, P 168.
Storage of food, P 99.
Street cleaning, H 163.
Struggle to live, P 4, 6, A 147, H 4.
Study, comparative, A 82, 149, 223.
Style, P 135, 163.
Sugar, H 91, 100.
Sulphur, vii.
Summer-spore, P 191.
Sun energy, P 95, A 2, H 91.
Sunlight, A 2, H18.
Survival of fittest, P 7, A 147, H 4, 141.
Sutures, H 35.
Swarm-spores, P 186.
Sweat gland, H 20.
Symbiosis, P 196.
Sympathetic system, H 127, 129.
Syngenesious, P 141.
Synovial fluid, H 36.
Tadpole, A 126, 134.
Tanner, Dr., H 138.
Tapeworm, A 49.
Tarantula, A 94.
Taste, H 110, 143, 146.
Tear gland, H 149.
Teeth, H 88, 98, 99, 111; of frog, A 130.
Teleutospores, P 192.
Temperature, H 21; nerves of, H 142, 146.
Tendon, H 41.
Tendril, P 101.
Terrapin, A 143, 144.
Thallophyte, P 181, 184.
Thallus, P 184, 197.
Thompson, Sir Henry, on smoking, H 87.
Thoracic duct, H 64, 65, 105.
Thorns, P 101.
Thought questions, H 20, 27, 79, 107, 109, 116.
Thyrse, P 160.
Thyroid gland, H 97.
Tillandsia, P 110.
Timber, decay of, P 195.
Tissue, H 7, 10, P 60, 62.
Toad, A 137.
Toadstool, P 194.
Tobacco, and heart, H 67; and lungs, H 86; and taste, H 148; when
enjoyable, H 87.
Tortoise, A 140, 143, 144.
Torus, P 134, 169.
Touch, H 145, A 119.
Toxin, H 160, 161.
Toyi Niku, Madame, quoted, H 141.
Trachea, H 74.
Tracheid, P 65.
Transpiration, P 98, 103.
Trap-door spider, A 94.
Tube feet, A 35.
Tuberculosis, H 5, 160.
Tumble bug, A 90, 91.
Turtle, A 140, 143, 144.
Twiners, P 129, 131.
Typhoid fever, H 159.
Umbel, P 159.
Umbo, A 98.
Undergrowth, P 12.
Ungulate, A 212.
Urea, H 94.
Uric acid, H 114.
Urinary tubule, H 27.
Vacuole, A 11, 12, 14.
Valve, P 164, H 51, 53, 57.
Vampire, A 203.
Variation, A 147, P 2.
Variety, A 8.
Vaso-motor nerves, H 23, 68.
Vaucheria, P 186.
Vegetables, H 95, 112.
Venomous snakes, A 143.
Vent, A 42.
Ventilation, H 71, 82, 83.
Ventral, A 43.
Ventricle, H 53.
Vermes, A 9, 125.
Vermiform appendix, H 4, 106.
Vertebra, H 71, 82, 83.
Vertebrates, A 9, 125.
Vertebrate skeletons, A 218.
Verticellate, P 84.
Vestigial organs, H 106.
Villi, H 104.
Vinegar, H 94.
Viscera, H 127; of bird, A 163.
Vitreous humor, H 152.
Voluntary act, H 122, 124.
Warning sound, A 147.
Wasps, digging, A 89.
Water-pore, P 88.
Waterworks, H 163.
Weevil, A 90, 91, 96.
Whale, A 208.
Wheat rust, P 192.
White corpuscles, H 59; origin of, H 61; work of, H 60, 161, 162.
White weed, or ox-eye daisy, P 155.
Whorled, P 84.
Willow mildew, P 190.
Wind travelers, P 173.
Wings, of grasshopper, A 67; of bird, A 153, 158.
Woodpecker, A 180.
Woody fiber, P 17.
Worms, A 42.
Wounds of plants, P 56.
Written exercises, H 15, 50, 116.
Yeast plants, P 190, H 158.
Yellow fever, H 160.
Yellow spot, H 151.
Zoology defined, A 1.
Zoophytes, A 33.
Zygnema, P 185.
Zygospore, P 185, 189, 190.
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The book is based upon the idea that the proper way to begin the
study of plants is by means of plants, instead of formal ideas or
definitions. Instead of a definition as a model telling the pupil what
he is to see, the plant shows him what there is to be seen, and the
definition follows. In this way the pupil soon begins to generalize,
and the conclusion reached is the true definition.
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Sixty-four and Sixty-six Fifth Avenue, New York
Transcriber’s Notes
Inconsistent and obsolete spelling, hyphenation, etc. have been
retained, except as listed below.
Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their
settings, not all elements may display as intended. Scales and
factors of enlargement or reduction as given in illustration captions
are not necessarily correct.
Page P 65, legend with Fig. 78: reference letter f does not appear in
the illustration.
Page P 107, (b, Fig 132): reference letter b does not appear in the
illustration.
Page P 111: the text refers to an apple bud in Fig. 137, the
illustration caption refers to an apricot bud.
Page A 16-A 17: there is no Fig. 20 in the source document.
Page A 96: there is no caption or other explanation with the third
illustration (hazelnut leaf, fruit and insect).
Page H 8, ... canals instead of railroads for their commerce (see
Fig. 84): it is not clear which illustration is referred to; Fig. 84
does not show this distinction.
Page H 11, ... called nerve fibers (Fig. 142): there is no Fig. 142,
nor is it clear to which figure showing nerve fibers this phrase
refers.
Page H 88, Practical Question 6: the reference to Chapter VI is
included in Chapter VI.
Page H 105, ... fresh milk is an emulsion of cream (Fig. 98): Fig. 98
shows something unrelated.
Page H 161, Page H 161: Stagnant pools may be filled or drained (Exp.
4): there are only three experiments with this chapter; Experiment 3
mentions stagnant water.
Changes made:
Footnotes, tables and illustrations have been moved out if text
paragraphs.
Some minor typographical errors and missing or extraneous punctuation
have been corrected silently; where relevant, illustration
captions have been standardised. Blanks to be filled out have been
standardised to a series of underscores.
The parts of the book have been included in the page numbering:
lower case Roman numerals for the index, prefixes I, P, A and H
for the Introduction and the parts on plants, animals, and humans
respectively.
Page I ix: page number P 1 inserted in Table of Contents for Part I
Chapter 1.
Page I xi: page number H 29 (section The Skeleton) changed to H 28.
Page I xvii: [See also experiments with candle and breath, in
Introduction to Human Biology.] and related hyperlinks changed to
[See also experiments with candle and breath, in The Principles of
Biology.] and relevant hyperlinks.
Page P31: Fig. B has been rotated 90°.
Page P 89: ... at their middles on either side the opening, ...
changed to ... at their middles on either side of the opening, ....
Page P 91: ... the table on page =88= ... changed to ... the table on
page 88 ....
Page A8: (Fig. 389.) changed to (Fig. 390.)
Page A 42: ... a test with live worm ... changed to ... a test with a
live worm ....
Page A 91: Parenthesis deleted from ... Where does a Scarab (or
sacred beetle ....
Page A93: Illustration caption Fig. 177 added.
Page A 94: parenthesis deleted from (Does the size of its nerve
ganglia ....
Page A 143, caption with Fig. 270: ... lr, liver ... changed to ...
le, liver ....
Page A 174: Describe the molting process (page 120) changed to
Describe the molting process (page 157).
Page A 177: D¹ Bill hooked, ... changed to D₂ Bill hooked, ....
Page A 193: C¹ Head large; ... changed to C₁ Head large; ...; C¹ Five
toes, ... changed to C₁ Five toes, ...; Dolphin (379, 397) changed to
Dolphin (Figs. 379, 397).
Page A 200: (See Fig. 347.) changed to (See Fig. 349.)
Page H 17: question mark deleted from ... a cotton cloth of same
weight and texture?
Page H 25: ... keeping the body cool during the exertion (Exp. o)
changed to ... keeping the body cool during the exertion (Exp. 5).
Pahe H 38: ... sit far back in the chair (Figs. 60, 61, 62) ...
changed to ... sit far back in the chair (Figs. 49, 50, 51) ....
Page H 54: ... blood vessels must have these three properties?
changed to ... blood vessels must have these three properties.
Page H 56: Fig. 57 rotated 180°.
Page H 70: (See Animal Biology, p. 14.) changed to (See Animal
Biology, p. 4.)
Page H 72: Make a model like sketch ... changed to Make a model-like
sketch ....
Page H 110, Fig. 101: individual elements rotated 90° clockwise.
Page H 140 (footnote): closing quote mark inserted after ... how to
harmonize color with herself.
Page H 158: parenthesis deleted after ... 200 diameters, or 40,000
areas).
Index: some page numbers corrected and book (I, P, A or H, see above)
letters added.