THE STEM--ITS GENERAL STRUCTURE
There are two main types of stem structure in flowering plants, the
differences being based on the arrangement of bundles or strands of
tissue. These types are _endogenous_ and _exogenous_ (page 20). It will
require patient laboratory work to understand what these types and
structures are.
=Endogenous, or Monocotyledonous Stems.=--Examples of endogenous stems
are all the grasses, cane-brake, sugar-cane, smilax or green-brier,
palms, banana, canna, bamboo, lilies, yucca, asparagus, all the cereal
grains. For our study, a cornstalk may be used as a type.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.--CROSS-SECTION OF CORNSTALK, showing the
scattered fibro-vascular bundles. Slightly enlarged.]
A piece of _cornstalk_, either green or dead, should be in the hand of
each pupil while studying this lesson. Fig. 69 will also be of use.
Is there a swelling at the nodes? Which part of the internode comes
nearest to being perfectly round? There is a grooved channel running
along one side of the internode: how is it placed with reference to the
leaf? with reference to the groove in the internode below it? What do
you find in each groove at its lower end? (In a dried stalk only traces
of this are usually seen.) Does any bud on a cornstalk besides the one
at the top ever develop? Where do suckers come from? Where does the ear
grow?
Cut a cross-section of the stalk between the nodes (Fig. 69). Does it
have a distinct bark? The interior consists of soft “pith” and tough
woody parts. The wood is found in _strands_ or _fibers_. Which is more
abundant? Do the fibers have any definite arrangement? Which strands
are largest? Smallest? The firm smooth _rind_ (which cannot properly be
called a bark) consists of small wood strands packed closely together.
Grass stems are hollow cylinders; and the cornstalk, because of the
lightness of its contents, is also practically a cylinder. Stems of
this kind are admirably adapted for providing a strong support to
leaves and fruit. This is in accordance with the well-known law that
a hollow cylinder is much stronger than a solid cylinder of the same
weight of material. Cut a thin slice of the inner soft part and hold
it up to the light. Can you make out a number of tiny compartments or
cells? These cells consist of a tissue called _parenchyma_, the tissue
from which when young all the other tissues arise and differentiate
(Parenchyma = _parent_ + _chyma_, or tissue). The numerous walls of
these cells may serve to brace the outer wall of the cylinder; but
their chief function in the young stalk is to give origin to other
cells. When alive they are filled with cell sap and protoplasm.
[Illustration: FIG. 70.--DIAGRAM TO SHOW THE COURSE OF FIBRO-VASCULAR
BUNDLES IN MONOCOTYLEDONS.]
Trace the _woody strands_ through the nodes. Do they ascend vertically?
Do they curve toward the rind at certain places? Compare their course
with the strands shown in Fig. 70. _The woody strands consist chiefly
of tough fibrous cells that give rigidity and strength to the plant,
and of long tubular interrupted canals that serve to convey sap upward
from the root and to convey food downward from the leaves to the stem
and roots._
Monocotyledons, as shown by fossils, existed before dicotyledons
appeared, and it is thought that the latter were developed from
ancestors of the former. It will be interesting to trace the
relationship in stem structure. It will first be necessary to learn
something of the structure of the wood strand.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.--DIAGRAM OF WOOD STRANDS OR FIBRO-VASCULAR
BUNDLES IN A ROOT, showing the wood (_x_) and bast (_p_) separated.]
=Wood Strand in Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.=--Each wood strand (or
fibro-vascular bundle) consists of two parts--the bast and the wood
proper. The wood is on the side of the strand toward the center of the
stem and contains large tubular canals that take the watery sap upward
from the roots. The bast is on the side toward the bark and contains
fine tubes through which diffuses the dense sap containing digested
food from the leaves. In the root (Fig. 71) the bast and the wood are
separate, so that there are _two kinds of strands_.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.--PART OF CROSS-SECTION OF ROOTSTOCK OF
ASPARAGUS, showing a few fibro-vascular bundles. An endogenous stem.]
In monocotyledons, as already said, the strands (or bundles) _are
usually scattered in the stem with no definite arrangement_ (Figs. 72,
73). In dicotyledons the strands, or bundles, _are arranged in a ring_.
As the dicotyledonous seed germinates, five bundles are usually formed
in its hypocotyl (Fig. 74); soon five more are interposed between them,
and the multiplication continues, in tough plants, until the bundles
touch (Fig. 74, right). The inner parts thus form a ring of wood and
the outer parts form the inner bark or bast. A new ring of wood or bast
is formed on stems of dicotyledons each year and the age of a cut stem
is easily determined.
[Illustration: _a_
_b_
FIG. 73.--THE SCATTERED BUNDLES OR STRANDS, in monocotyledons at _a_,
and the bundles in a circle in dicotyledons at _b_.]
[Illustration: FIG. 74.--DICOTYLEDONOUS STEM OF ONE YEAR AT LEFT WITH
FIVE BUNDLES, and a Two-year Stem at Right.
_o_, the pith; _c_, the wood part; _b_, the bast part; _a_, one year’s
growth.]
[Illustration: FIG. 75.--FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLE OF INDIAN CORN, much
magnified.
_A_, annular vessel; _A′_, annular or spiral vessel; _TT′_,
thick-walled vessels; _W_, tracheids or woody tissue; _F_, sheath of
fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; _FT_, fundamental tissue or
pith; _S_, sieve tissue; _P_, sieve plate; _C_, companion cell; _l_,
intercellular space, formed by tearing down of adjacent cells; _W′_,
wood parenchyma.]
[Illustration: FIG. 76.--THE DICOTYLEDONOUS BUNDLE OR WOOD STRAND.
Upper figure is of moonseed:
_c_, cambium; _d_, ducts; 1, end of first year’s growth; 2, end of
second year’s growth; bast part at left and wood part at right. Lower
figure (from Wettstein) is sunflower; _h_, wood-cells; _g_, vessels;
_c_, cambium; _p_, fundamental tissue or parenchyma; _b_, bast; _bp_,
bast parenchyma; _s_, sieve-tubes.]
When cross-sections of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous bundles are
examined under the microscope, it is readily seen why dicotyledonous
bundles form rings of wood and monocotyledonous cannot (Figs. 75
and 76). The dicotyledonous bundle (Fig. 76) has, running across
it, a layer of brick-shaped cells called =cambium=, which cells are
a specialized form of the parenchyma cells and retain the power of
growing and multiplying. The bundles containing cambium are called
_open bundles_. There is no cambium in monocotyledonous bundles (Fig.
75) and the bundles are called _closed bundles_. Monocotyledonous stems
_soon cease to grow in diameter_. The stem of a palm tree is almost as
large at the top as at the base. As dicotyledonous plants grow, the
_stems become thicker each year_, for the delicate active cambium layer
forms new cells from early spring until midsummer or autumn, adding to
the wood within and to the bark without. As the growth in spring is
very rapid, the first wood-cells formed are much larger than the last
wood-cells formed by the slow growth of the late season, and the spring
wood is less dense and lighter colored than the summer wood; hence the
time between two years’ growth is readily made out (Figs. 77 and 78).
Because of the rapid growth of the cambium in spring and its consequent
soft walls and fluid contents, the bark of trees “peels” readily at
that season.
[Illustration: FIG. 77.--WHITE PINE STEM, 5 years old. The outermost
layer is bark.]
=Medullary Rays.=--The first year’s growth in dicotyledons forms a
woody ring which almost incloses the pith, and this is left as a small
cylinder which does not grow larger, even if the tree should live a
century. It is not quite inclosed, however, for the narrow layers
of soft cells separating the bundles remain between them (Fig. 78),
forming radiating lines called =medullary rays= or =pith rays=.
[Illustration: FIG. 78.--ARRANGEMENT OF TISSUES IN TWO-YEAR-OLD STEM OF
MOONSEED.
_p_, pith; _f_, parenchyma. The fibro-vascular bundles, or wood
strands, are very prominent, with thin medullary rays between.]
=The Several Plant Cells and their Functions.=--In the =wood= there are
some parenchyma cells that are still with thin walls, but have lost
the power of division. They are now _storage cells_. There are also
wood fibers which are thick-walled and rigid (_h_, Fig. 76), and serve
to _support_ the sap-canals or _wood vessels_ (or tracheids) that are
formed by the absorption of the end walls of upright rows of cells; the
canals pass from the roots to the twigs and even to ribs of the leaves
and serve to transport the root water. They are recognized (Fig. 79) by
the peculiar thickening of the wall on the inner surface of the tubes,
occurring in the form of spirals. Sometimes the whole wall is thickened
except in spots called _pits_ (_g_, Fig. 76). These thin spots (Fig.
80) allow the sap to pass to other cells or to neighboring vessels.
[Illustration: FIG. 79.--MARKINGS IN CELL WALLS OF WOOD FIBERS.
_sp_, spiral; _an_, annular; _sc_, scalariform.]
[Illustration: FIG. 80.--PITS IN THE CELL WALL.
Longitudinal section of wall at _b_, showing pit borders at _o_, _o_.]
=The cambium=, as we have seen, consists of cells whose function is
_growth_. These cells are thin-walled and filled with protoplasm.
During the growing season they are continually adding to the wood
within and the bark without; hence the layer moves outward as it
deposits the new woody layer within.
[Illustration: FIG. 81.--SIEVE-TUBES, _s_, _s_;
_p_ shows a top view of a sieve-plate, with a companion cell. _c_, at
the side; _o_ shows sieve-plates in the side of the cell. In _s_, _s_
the protoplasm is shrunken from the walls by reagents.]
[Illustration: FIG. 82.--THICK-WALLED BAST CELLS.]
=The bark= consists of inner or _fibrous bark_ or new bast (these
fibers in flax become linen), the _green or middle bark_ which
functions somewhat as the leaves, and the _corky or outer bark_. The
common word “bark” is seen therefore not to represent a homogeneous or
simple structure, but rather a collection of several kinds of tissue,
all separating from the wood beneath by means of cambium. The new
bast contains (1) the _sieve-tubes_ (Fig. 81) which transport the sap
containing organic substances, as sugar and proteids, from the leaves
to the parts needing it (_s_, Fig. 76). These tubes have been formed
like the wood vessels, but they have sieve-plates to allow the dense
organic-laden sap to pass with sufficient readiness for purposes of
rapid distribution. (2) There are also thick-walled _bast fibers_
(Fig. 82) in the bast that serve for _support_. (3) There is also
some parenchyma (parent tissue) in the new bast; it is now in part a
_storage_ tissue. Sometimes the walls of parenchyma cells in the cortex
thicken at the corners and form _brace cells_ (Fig. 83) (collenchyma)
for _support_; sometimes the whole wall is thickened, forming _grit
cells_ or _stone cells_ (Fig. 84; examples in tough parts of pear, or
in stone of fruits). Some parts serve for secretions (milk, rosin,
etc.) and are called _latex tubes_.
[Illustration: FIG. 83.--COLLENCHYMA IN WILD JEWELWEED OR TOUCH-ME-NOT
(IMPATIENS).]
[Illustration: FIG. 84.--GRIT CELLS.]
=The outer bark= of old shoots consists of _corky_ cells that _protect_
from mechanical injury, and that contain a fatty substance (suberin)
impermeable to water and of service to _keep in moisture_. There is
sometimes a cork cambium (or phellogen) in the bark that serves to
extend the bark and keep it from splitting, thus increasing its power
to protect.
=Transport of the “Sap.”=--We shall soon learn that the common word
“sap” does not represent a single or simple substance. We may roughly
distinguish two kinds of more or less fluid contents: (1) _the root
water_, sometimes called mineral sap, that is taken in by the root,
containing its freight of such inorganic substances as potassium,
calcium, iron, and the rest; this root water rises, we have found,
_in the wood vessels_,--that is, in the young or “sapwood” (p. 96);
(2) the _elaborated_ or _organized materials_ passing back and forth,
especially from the leaves, to build up tissues in all parts of the
plant, some of it going down to the roots and root-hairs; this organic
material is transported, as we have learned, _in the sieve-tubes of the
inner bast_,--that is, in the “inner bark.” Removing the bark from a
trunk in a girdle will not stop the upward rise of the root water so
long as the wood remains alive; but it will stop the passage of the
elaborated or food-stored materials to parts below and thus starve
those parts; and if the girdle does not heal over by the deposit of new
bark, the tree will in time _starve to death_. It will now be seen that
the common practice of placing wires or hoops about trees to hold them
in position or to prevent branches from falling is irrational, because
such wires interpose barriers over which the fluids cannot pass; in
time, as the trunk increases in diameter, the wire girdles the tree. It
is much better to bolt the parts together by rods extending through the
branches (Fig. 85). These bolts should fit very tight in their holes.
Why?
[Illustration: FIG. 85.--THE WRONG WAY TO BRACE A TREE. (See Fig. 118).]
=Wood.=--The main stem or trunk, and sometimes the larger branches,
are the sources of lumber and timber. Different kinds of wood have
value for their special qualities. The business of raising wood, for
all purposes, is known as _forestry_. The forest is to be considered
as a crop, and the crop must be harvested, as much as corn or rice is
harvested. Man is often able to grow a more productive forest than
nature does.
=Resistance to decay= gives value to wood used for shingles (_cypress_,
heart of _yellow pine_) and for fence posts (_mulberry_, _cedar_, _post
oak_, _bois d’arc_, _mesquite_).
=Hardness and strength= are qualities of great value in building. _Live
oak_ is used in ships. _Red oak_, _rock maple_, and _yellow pine_ are
used for floors. The best flooring is sawn with the straight edges
of the annual rings upward; tangential sawn flooring may splinter.
_Chestnut_ is common in some parts of the country, being used for
ceiling and inexpensive finishing and furniture. _Locust_ and _bois
d’arc_ (osage orange) are used for hubs of wheels; bois d’arc makes
a remarkably durable pavement for streets. _Ebony_ is a tropical
wood used for flutes, black piano keys, and fancy articles. _Ash_ is
straight and elastic; it is used for handles for light implements.
_Hickory_ is very strong as well as elastic, and is superior to ash for
handles, spokes, and other uses where strength is wanted. Hickory is
never sawn into lumber, but is split or turned. The “second growth,”
which sprouts from stumps, is most useful, as it splits readily.
Fast-growing hickory in rich land is most valuable. The supply of
useful hickory is being rapidly exhausted.
=Softness= _is often important_. _White pine_ and _sweet gum_ because
of their softness and lightness are useful in box-making. “_Georgia_”
or _southern pine_ is harder and stronger than white pine; it is much
used for floors, ceilings, and some kinds of cabinet work. _White
pine_ is used for window-sash, doors, and molding, and cheaper grades
for flooring. _Hemlock_ is the prevailing lumber in the east for
the framework and clapboarding of buildings. _Redwood_ and _Douglas
spruce_ are common building materials on the Pacific coast. _Cypress_
is soft and resists decay and is superior to white pine for sash,
doors, and posts on the outside of houses. _Cedar_ is readily carved
and has a unique use in the making of chests for clothes, as its odor
repels moths and other insects. _Willow_ is useful for baskets and
light furniture. _Basswood_ or _linden_ is used for light ceiling and
sometimes for cheap floors. _Whitewood_ (incorrectly called poplar)
is employed for wagon bodies and often for house finishing. It often
resembles curly maple.
=Beauty of grain and polish= gives wood value for furniture, pianos,
and the like. _Mahogany_ and _white oak_ are most beautiful, although
red oak is also used. Oak logs which are first quartered and then sawn
radially expose the beautiful silver grain (medullary rays). Fig. 86
shows one _mode of quartering_. The log is quartered on the lines
_a_, _a_, _b_, _b_; then succeeding boards are cut from each quarter
at 1, 2, 3, etc. The nearer the heart the better the “grain”: why?
Ordinary boards are sawn tangentially, as _c_, _c_. _Curly pine_,
_curly walnut_, and _bird’s-eye maple_ are woods that owe their beauty
of grain to wavy lines or buried knots. Merely a stump of curly walnut
is worth several hundred dollars. Such wood is sliced very thin for
veneering and glued over other woods in making pianos and other pieces.
If the cause of wavy grain could be found out and such wood grown at
will, the discovery would be very useful. _Maple_ is much used for
furniture. _Birch_ may be colored so as very closely to represent
mahogany, and it is useful for desks.
[Illustration: FIG. 86.--THE MAKING OF ORDINARY BOARDS, AND ONE WAY OF
MAKING “QUARTERED” BOARDS.]
=Special Products of Trees.=--Cork from the bark of the cork oak in
Spain, latex from the rubber and sap from the sugar maple trees,
turpentine from pine, tannin from oak bark, Peruvian bark from
cinchona, are all useful products.
SUGGESTIONS.--_Parts of a root and stem through which liquids rise._
=49.= Pull up a small plant with abundant leaves, cut off the root
so as to leave two inches or more on the plant (or cut a leafy shoot
of squash or other strong-growing coarse plant), and stand it in
a bottle with a little water in the bottom which has been colored
with red ink (eosin). After three hours examine the root; make
cross-sections at several places. Has the water colored the axis
cylinder? The cortex? What is your conclusion? Stand some cut flowers
or a leafy plant with cut stem in the same solution and examine as
before: conclusion? =50.= Girdle a twig of a rapidly growing bush (as
willow) in early spring when growth begins (_a_) by very carefully
removing only the bark, and (_b_) by cutting away also the sapwood.
Under which condition do the leaves wilt? Why? =51.= Stand twigs of
willow in water; after roots have formed under the water, girdle
the twig (in the two ways) above the roots. What happens to the
roots, and why? =52.= Observe the swellings on trees that have been
girdled or very badly injured by wires or otherwise: where are these
swellings, and why? =53.= _Kinds of wood._ Let each pupil determine
the kind of wood in the desk, the floor, the door and window casings,
the doors themselves, the sash, the shingles, the fence, and in the
small implements and furniture in the room; also what is the cheapest
and the most expensive lumber in the community. =54.= How many kinds
of wood does the pupil know, and what are their chief uses?
NOTE TO TEACHER.--The work in this chapter is intended to be
mainly descriptive, for the purpose of giving the pupil a rational
conception of the main vital processes associated with the stem, in
such a way that he may translate it into his daily thought. It is
not intended to give advice for the use of the compound microscope.
If the pupil is led to make a careful study of the text, drawings,
and photographs on the preceding and the following pages, he will
obtain some of the benefit of studying microscope sections without
being forced to spend time in mastering microscope technique. If
the school is equipped with compound microscopes, a teacher is
probably chosen who has the necessary skill to manipulate them and
the knowledge of anatomy and physiology that goes naturally with
such work; and it would be useless to give instruction in such
work in a text of this kind. The writer is of the opinion that the
introduction of the compound microscope into first courses in botany
has been productive of harm. Good and vital teaching demands first
that the pupil have a normal, direct, and natural relation to his
subject, as he commonly meets it, that the obvious and significant
features of the plant world be explained to him and be made a means
of training him. The beginning pupil cannot be expected to know
the fundamental physiological processes, nor is it necessary that
these processes should be known in order to have a point of view
and trained intelligence on the things that one customarily sees.
Many a pupil has had a so-called laboratory course in botany without
having arrived at any real conception of what plants mean, or without
having had his mind opened to any real sympathetic touch with his
environment. Even if one’s knowledge be not deep or extensive, it may
still be accurate as far as it goes, and his outlook on the subject
may be rational.
[Illustration: FIG. 87.--THE MANY-STEMMED THICKETS OF MANGROVE OF
SOUTHERNMOST SEACOASTS, many of the trunks being formed of aërial
roots.]