II.

I shall now give in chronological order the description of the Essenes

found in the writings of Philo, Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, Porphyry,

Eusebius and Epiphanius, and subjoin such notes as will explain the

difficulties, and show the historical value of the respective

documents.

As Philo is the oldest in point of time, we will begin with him. The

exact date of the birth of this celebrated Jewish-Alexandrian

philosopher is not known. It is, however, generally agreed that he was

born in Alexandria between the years 20 and 1 B.C., and died about 60

A.D. Having resided all his lifetime in Alexandria, his information

about the Essenes, who lived in Palestine, was derived from hearsay.

This will account for some of the inaccuracies in his description of

this remarkable brotherhood. He has given us two accounts of them, one

in his treatise, entitled Every Virtuous Man is Free, and the other in

his treatise, called Apology for the Jews. The latter is no longer

extant, but Eusebius has preserved the fragments which speak of the

Essenes in his work, entitled Præparatio Evangelica viii. 11. The

description of the so-called contemplative Essenes, or Therapeutæ,

which is generally appealed to as illustrating the doctrines and

practices of the brotherhood in question, has nothing whatever to do

with the real Palestinian Essenes; and it is almost certain that it is

one of the many apocryphal productions fathered upon Philo, as may be

seen from Graetz’s elaborate and masterly analysis of it. [19] Philo’s

first account is contained in his treatise entitled Every Virtuous Man

is Free, and is as follows: [20]

“Palestine, and Syria too, which are inhabited by no slight portion of

the numerous population of the Jews, are not barren of virtue. There

are some among them called Essenes (Ἐσσαῖοι),—in number more than four

thousand,—from, as I think, an incorrect derivation from the Greek

homonym hosiotes, holiness (παρώνυμοι ὁσιότητος), because they are

above all others worshippers of God (θεραπευταὶ θεοῦ). They do not

sacrifice any animate, but rather endeavour to make their own minds fit

for holy offering (ἱεροπρεπεῖς διανοίας). [21] They, in the first

place, live in villages, avoiding cities on account of the habitual

wickedness of the citizens, being sensible that as disease is

contracted from breathing an impure atmosphere, so an incurable

impression is made on the soul in such evil company. [22] Some of them

cultivate the earth, others are engaged in those diverse arts which

promote peace, thus benefiting themselves and their neighbours. They do

not lay up treasures of gold or silver, [23] nor do they acquire large

portions of land out of a desire for revenues, but provide themselves

only with the absolute necessities of life. Although they are almost

the only persons of all mankind who are without wealth and

possessions—and this by their own choice rather than want of

success—yet they regard themselves as the richest, because they hold

that the supply of our wants, and contentment of mind, are riches, as

in truth they are. [24]

“No maker of arrows, darts, spears, swords, helmets, breastplates, or

shields—no manufacturer of arms or engines of war, nor any man whatever

who makes things belonging to war, or even such things as might lead to

wickedness in times of peace, is to be found among them. [25] Traffic,

innkeeping, or navigation, they never so much as dream of, because they

repudiate every inducement to covetousness. There is not a single slave

to be found among them, for all are free, and mutually serve each

other. They condemn owners of slaves, not only as unjust, inasmuch as

they corrupt the principle of equality, but also as impious, because

they destroy the law of nature, which like a mother brought forth and

nourished all alike, and made them all legitimate brethren, not only in

word but in deed; but this relationship, treacherous covetousness,

rendered overbearing by success, has destroyed by engendering enmity

instead of cordiality, and hatred instead of love.

“They leave the logical part of philosophy, as in no respect necessary

for the acquisition of virtue, to the word catchers; and the natural

part, as being too difficult for human nature, to the astrological

babblers, excepting that part of it which treats upon the existence of

God and the origin of the universe; [26] but the ethical part they

thoroughly work out themselves, using as their guides the laws which

their fathers inherited, and which it would have been impossible for

the human mind to devise without divine inspiration. Herein they

instruct themselves at all times, but more especially on the seventh

day. For the seventh day is held holy, on which they abstain from all

other work, and go to the sacred places called synagogues, sit

according to order, the younger below the elder, and listen with

becoming attention. Then one takes the Bible and reads it, and another

of those who have most experience comes forward and expounds it,

passing over that which is not generally known, for they philosophise

on most things in symbols according to the ancient zeal.

“They are instructed in piety, holiness, righteousness, economy,

politics, in knowledge of what is truly good, bad and indifferent, to

choose things that are necessary, and to avoid the contrary. They use

therein a threefold rule and definition, viz.: love of God, love of

virtue, and love of mankind. [27] Of their love to God, they give

innumerable demonstrations—e.g. their constant and unalterable holiness

(ἁγνεία) throughout the whole of their life; their avoidance of oaths

[28] and falsehoods, and their firm belief that God is the source of

all good, but of nothing evil. Of their love of virtue they give proofs

in their contempt for money, fame, and pleasures, their continence,

endurance, in their satisfying their wants easily, simplicity,

cheerfulness of temper, modesty, order, firmness, and every thing of

the kind. As instances of their love to man, are to be mentioned, their

benevolence, equality, and their having all things in common, which is

beyond all description, and about which it will not be out of place to

speak here a little.

“First then, no one has his own house, so that it also belongs to all.

For, besides that, they all live together in sodalities; it is also

open to those of the brotherhood who come from other places. Moreover,

they have all one common treasury and store of provisions, common

garments, and common food for all who eat together. Such a mode of

sleeping together, living together, and eating together, could not be

so easily established in fact among any other people; and indeed it

would be impossible. For whatever they receive daily, if they work for

wages, they do not retain it as their own, but give it to the common

stock, and let every one that likes make common use of it. [29] Those

that are sick are not neglected because they can earn nothing, but have

what is necessary for their aid from the common stock, so that they

ever fare richly without wanting anything. They manifest respect,

reverence and care for the aged, just as children do for their parents,

administering to them a thousand times with all plentifulness both with

their hands and their counsels in their old age.

“Such champions of virtue does a philosophy produce which is free from

the subtlety of Greek word-splitting, and which deals with subjects

tending to the exercise of praiseworthy actions, and giving rise to

invincible freedom. This was seen in the fact that many tyrants have

arisen from time to time in that country, differing in character and

conduct. Some of them endeavoured to surpass in ferocity wild beasts;

they omitted no manner of barbarity, they sacrificed the vanquished in

whole troops, or, like butchers, cut off pieces and limbs of those that

were still living, and did not leave off till retributive justice,

which governs the affairs of man, plunged them into similar miseries.

Others, again, converted their frenzy and madness into a different kind

of wickedness. They adopted an inexpressible bitterness, spake gently,

and betrayed a ferocious temper under the mask of gentle language; [30]

they fawned like poisonous dogs, and brought about irremediable

miseries, leaving behind them in the cities, as monuments of their

impiety and hatred of mankind, the never to be forgotten miseries. But

neither the cruel tyrant nor the wily hypocrite could get any advantage

over the said brotherhood of Essenes or holy ones (Ἐσσαίων ἢ ὁσίων),

but disarmed by the virtues of these men, all recognised them as

independent and free by nature, praised their common meals and their

community of goods, which surpasses all description, and is an evident

proof of a perfect and very happy life.”

Philo’s second account, which has been preserved by Eusebius in his

Praep. Evàng., viii, 11, from the lost treatise entitled Apology for

the Jews, is as follows:— [31]

“Our lawgiver, Moses, formed innumerable (μυρίους) disciples into a

fellowship called Essenes, [32] who, as it appears, obtained this

appellation by virtue of their holiness (παρὰ τὴν ὁσιότητα). They dwell

in many cities of Judea, and in villages, and in large and populous

communities. Their order is not founded upon natural descent, but upon

admiration for virtue and sincere love for man. Hence there are

properly speaking no newly born ones among the Essenes, no children, no

youths, as the dispositions of these are unstable and liable to change

from the imperfections incident to their age; [33] but they are all

full grown men who are already approaching old age; and are no longer

carried away by the impetuosity of their bodily passions, but possess

the genuine and the only true and real liberty. A proof of their

freedom is to be found in their life. None of them strives to acquire

any private property, house, slave, farm, flocks, herds, or anything

which might be regarded as a source of riches, but they all give

everything to the common stock from which the common wants of all are

alike supplied.

“They all dwell together in the same place, form themselves into

companies, societies, combinations and unions, [34] and work together

all their life for the common good of the brotherhood. The different

members of the order are engaged in different employment; they work

cheerfully and industriously, and never try to leave their employment

on account of cold, heat, or any change of weather. They go to their

daily work before the sun rises, and do not leave off till some time

after it has set, when they return home rejoicing no less than those

who have been exercising themselves in gymnastic contests. [35] They

believe that their employment is a sort of gymnastic exercise of more

benefit to life, greater pleasure both to soul and body, and of a more

enduring advantage than any mere athletic labours, because they can

cheerfully continue in their work as a recreation even when youth and

bodily strength are gone. Those who are acquainted with the cultivation

of the land are engaged in agriculture; others, again, who understand

the management of animals, attend to the flocks; some are skillful in

the management of bees; and others again, are artizans and

manufacturers, thus guarding against the want of anything. They do not

omit anything which is requisite to supply the absolute necessities of

life.

“The appointed steward and general manager receives the wages which the

different people get for their respective employments, and forthwith

buys plenty of food and other necessaries of life. They eat at the same

table, and have every day the same food, being lovers of frugality and

moderation, and averse to luxury and extravagance as a disease of both

mind and body. Not only is their table in common, but their dress too

is in common. They have a store of rough cloaks in the winter, and in

the summer cheap garments without sleeves, to which every one can go

and freely take whichever kind he wants, for whatever belongs to one

belongs to all, and whatever belongs to all belongs to each individual.

“If one of them is sick, he is cured from the common resources, and is

attended to by the general care and anxiety of the whole body. The old

men, even if they happen to be childless, [36] end their lives in a

most happy, prosperous and tenderly cared for old age, as if they were

not only the fathers of many children, but were even also particularly

happy in an affectionate offspring. They are looked upon by such a

number of people as worthy of so much honour and provident regard, that

they think themselves bound to care for them even more from inclination

than from any tie of natural affection.

“Perceiving, with more than ordinary acuteness and accuracy, what is

alone, or at least above all other things, calculated to dissolve such

connections, they repudiate marriage; and at the same time practice

continence in an eminent degree. For no one of the Essenes marries a

wife, because woman is a selfish and excessively jealous creature, and

has great power to destroy the morals of man, and to mislead with

continual tricks; for she is always devising flattering speeches and

other kinds of hypocrisy as on a stage; bewitching the eyes and the

ears; and when they are subjugated like things stultified, she proceeds

to undermine the ruling intellect. [37]

“But when she has children, the woman becomes full of pride and

arrogance, audaciously speaks out that which she previously merely

indicated in treacherous disguise, and without any shame compels one to

do whatever is hostile to the brotherhood; for he who is chained by the

charms of a woman or cares for children by necessity of nature, is no

longer the same person to others, but is entirely changed, having

unawares become a slave instead of a free man.

“Such is the enviable system of life of the Essenes, so that not only

private individuals but even mighty kings have admired them, venerated

their brotherhood, and rendered their dignity and nobleness still

higher by the praise and honours which they lavished upon them.”

Next, in point of time, is Caius Plinius Secundus, called Major, or the

elder, the celebrated author of the Historia Naturalis, who was born in

A.D. 23, and died A.D. 79. Pliny’s notice of the Essenes, which is to

be found in his Natural History, book v., chap, xvii., is as follows:

“Towards the west [of the sea] and sufficiently distant from it, so as

to escape its noxious exhalations (ab occidente litora Esseni fugiunt,

usque qua nocent), are the Essenes. They are a hermitical society,

marvellous beyond all others throughout the whole earth. They live

without any women, without gratifying sensual desires, without money,

and in the company of palm trees. Their ranks are daily made up by

multitudes of new comers who resort to them; and who being weary of

life, and driven by the surges of ill-fortune, adopt their manner of

life. Thus it is that, through thousands of ages (per saeculorum

millia), [38] incredible to relate, this people prolongs its existence

without any one being born among them: so fruitful to them are the

weary lives of others.”

Next in point of time is Josephus, or Joseph ben Matthias, better known

by the name Flavius Josephus, who was born in Jerusalem about 37, A.D.

The description which this learned Jewish warrior and historian gives

us of the Essenes, although somewhat marred by being made to harmonise

with the systems of Greek philosophy, is very important, inasmuch as

Josephus was not only a Palestinian Jew, but at one period of his life

had actually joined the brotherhood. He tells us in his autobiography,

that when sixteen years old he determined to examine for himself the

respective merits of the three predominant sects, viz., of the

Pharisees, Sadducees and Essenes, with the view of making a selection

from among them. His accounts of the Essenes are dispersed through his

works. The following is the first description contained in his Jewish

War, book ii, chap. viii, sec. 2–13.

Ҥ 2. There are three sects of philosophers among the Jews. The

followers of the first are called Pharisees, of the second Sadducees,

and of the third, who really seem to practise holiness, Essenes. [39]

Jews by birth, they love each other more than the others. [40] They

reject pleasure as an evil, and regard continence and not yielding to

passions as virtues. They despise marriage, and adopt the children of

others while still tender and susceptible of instruction, [41] and

regard them as their own relations, and train them in their practices.

They do not, however, repudiate marriage, and its consequent,

succession of the race in themselves; but they are afraid of the

lasciviousness of women, and are persuaded that none of them preserve

their fidelity to one man. [42]

Ҥ 3. They despise riches, have all things in common in a very

admirable manner, and there is not one to be found among them who is

richer than another; for it is a law that those who enter the sect must

give up their possessions to the society as common property, [43] so

that there is not to be seen among them all, either the abjectness of

poverty or the distinction of riches; but as every man’s goods are cast

into a common treasury, they all, like brothers, have one patrimony.

They regard ointment as defiling; and if one happens to be anointed

against his will, he immediately wipes it off his body. [44] To be

unadorned but dressed in white they regard as commendable. They have

stewards of their common property, appointed by general election, and

every one without distinction is proposed for all the offices.

Ҥ 4. They have no separate city, but some of them live anywhere; and

if any of the society come from other places, whatever they have lies

open for them, just as if it were their own; and they go to those whom

they have never seen before as if they had been most intimate. Hence

they take nothing with them when they go on a journey, [45] but arms

for defence against robbers. A steward is appointed in every city of

this order to provide strangers with clothes and other necessaries.

[46] The keeping and appearance of their body are such as of children

brought up in fear; they change neither garments nor shoes till they

are worn out or made unfit by time. [47] They neither sell nor buy

anything among themselves, but everyone gives of that which he has to

him that wants, and gets from him that which he needs; and even without

requital they can freely take whatever they want.

Ҥ 5. Their piety towards God is extraordinary, for they never speak

about worldly matters before the sun rises, but offer up, with their

faces towards it, some of the prayers transmitted by their forefathers,

as if they supplicated it to rise. [48] Hereupon, they are all sent by

the overseers, every one to work in the department in which he is

skilled; and, having diligently laboured till the fifth hour, assemble

again together in one place, girt round with their linen apron, and

have a baptism with cold water. [49] After this lustration they resort

to a special house, in which no one of another faith is admitted, and

go to the refectory purified as into a holy temple. [50] Having quietly

taken their seats the baker gives every one a loaf of bread according

to order, and the cook places before each one a dish with one sort of

food. The priest commences with prayer, and no one is allowed to taste

his food before grace is said. He also returns thanks after the meal;

for both at the commencement and at the conclusion they praise God as

the giver of their food. [51] Whereupon they put off their white

garments as if they were sacred, and betake themselves again to their

work till evening. On returning again they take their supper together,

at which strangers, who happen to be in the place, are allowed to sit

down with them. No noise or tumult ever desecrates their house, but

they let every one take part in the conversation in turn; and the

silence of those who are within appears to those that are without as

some awful mystery. The cause of this is the uninterrupted sobriety, as

well as the fact that their eating and drinking are so measured out as

just to suffice the cravings of nature.

Ҥ 6. Whilst they do nothing without the injunctions of their

overseers, yet there are two things in which they have free action,

viz., helping the needy, and shewing mercy; to help the deserving when

they are in want, and to give food to the hungry, they have perfect

liberty; but to give anything to their relations they are not allowed

without the permission of the overseers. They are just dispensers of

their anger, curbers of their passions, representatives of fidelity,

ministers of peace; and every word with them is of more force than an

oath. They avoid taking an oath, and regard it as worse than perjury;

for they say that he who is not believed without calling on God to

witness is already condemned of falsehood. [52] They take

extraordinarily great pains in studying the writings of the ancients,

and select that especially which is beneficial both for the soul and

body; hence they investigate medical roots and the property of minerals

for the cure of distempers. [53]

Ҥ 7. When any one desires to enter the sect, he is not immediately

admitted, but although he has to remain a whole year without, yet he is

obliged to observe their ascetic rules of living, and they give him an

axe, an apron as mentioned above, and a white garment. [54] If he has

given proof of continence during this time, he approaches nearer to

their life and partakes of the holier water of purification; but is

still not as yet admitted to their common table. Having thus given

proof of his perseverance, his conduct is tested two more years, and,

if found worthy, he is admitted into the society. But before he touches

the common meal, he swears, by most awful oaths, [55] first to fear

God, and next to exercise justice towards all men—neither to wrong any

one of his own accord nor by the command of others; always to detest

the wicked and side with the righteous; ever to keep faith inviolable

with all men, especially with those in authority, for no one comes to

office without the will of God; [56] not to be proud of his power nor

to outshine his subordinates, either in his garments or greater finery,

if he himself should attain to office; always to love truth and strive

to reclaim all liars; to keep his hands clear from stealing, and his

mind from unholy gain; not to conceal anything from the brotherhood,

nor disclose anything belonging to them to those without, though it

were at the hazard of his life. He has, moreover, to swear not to

communicate to any one their doctrines in any other way than he has

received them; [57] to abstain from robbing the commonwealth; and

equally to preserve the writings of the society and the names of the

angels. [58] By such oaths they bind those who enter the brotherhood.

Ҥ 8. Such as are caught in heinous sins are excommunicated from the

society; and the excommunicated frequently die a miserable death. For,

being bound by oaths and customs, they cannot receive food from any out

of the society, so that they are forced to eat herbs till, their bodies

being famished with hunger, they perish. [59] Hence they

compassionately receive many of them again when they are at their last

gasp, thinking that suffering, approaching unto death, is sufficient

for their sins.

Ҥ 9. In their verdicts they are most exact and just, and never give

sentence if there are less than a hundred of the brotherhood present:

but what is then decreed is irrevocable. Next to God they have the

highest veneration for the name of the lawgiver, Moses, and punish with

death any one who blasphemes it. To submit to the elders and to the

majority they regard as a duty: hence, when ten of them sit together,

no one will speak if the other nine do not agree to it. They avoid

spitting before the face, or to the right hand, [60] and are also

stricter than all other Jews not to touch any labour on the Sabbath

day—for they not only prepare their Sabbath-day’s food the day before,

that they may not kindle a fire on that day, but they will not move a

vessel out of its place [61] nor go to ease nature. On all other days

they dig a pit of a foot deep with the spade (such an one being given

to the novice), and having covered it all round with a cover, that it

may not offend the Divine rays, they set themselves over it, and then

put the earth, that was dug out again into the pit; and do this, after

having chosen the most lonely places. And although the voiding of

bodily excrements is natural, yet it is their custom to bathe after it,

as if they had been defiled. [62]

Ҥ 10. They are divided, according to the time of leading this mode of

life, into four different classes, and the juniors are so much inferior

to the seniors, that the latter must wash themselves when they happen

to touch the former, as if they had been defiled by a stranger. [63]

They live to a great age, so that many of them live to above a hundred

years—arising from the simplicity of their diet, as it appears to me,

and from their order. They despise suffering, and overcome pain by

fortitude. Death, if connected with honour, they look upon as better

than long life. Of the firmness of their minds in all cases the war

with the Romans has given ample proof; in which, though they were

tortured, racked, burned, squeezed, and subjected to all the

instruments of torment, that they might be forced to blaspheme the

lawgiver or eat what was forbidden, yet they could not be made to do

either of them; nor would they even once flatter their tormentors or

shed a tear, but, smiling through their torments and mocking their

tormentors, they cheerfully yielded up their souls, as those who would

soon receive them back again. [64]

Ҥ 11. For they firmly believe that the bodies perish and their

substance is not enduring, but that the souls are immortal—continue for

ever and come out of the most subtile ether—are enveloped by their

bodies, to which they are attracted through a natural inclination, as

if by hedges—and that when freed from the bonds of the body, they, as

if released from a long servitude, rejoice and mount upwards. In

harmony with the opinion of the Greeks, [65] they say that for the good

souls there is a life beyond the ocean, and a region which is never

molested either with showers or snow or intense heat—is always

refreshed with the gentle gales of wind constantly breathing from the

ocean; whilst to the wicked souls they assign a dark and cold corner,

full of never-ceasing punishments. And it seems to be according to the

same opinion that the Greeks assigned to their valiant men, whom they

called heroes and demigods, the Island of the Blessed, but to the souls

of the wicked the regions of the impious in Hades; as also their fables

speak of several there punished, as Sisyphus and Tantalus and Ixion and

Tityus. This they teach, partly because they believe that the souls are

immortal, and partly for the encouragement of virtue and the

discouragement of vice. For good men are made better in their lives by

the hope of reward after their death, whilst the passions of the wicked

are restrained by the fear they are in that, although they should be

concealed in this life, after death they must suffer everlasting

punishment. This is the doctrine of the Essenes about the

soul—possessing thereby an irresistible bait for those who have once

tasted their philosophy.

Ҥ 12. There are also some among them who undertake to foretell future

events, having been brought up from their youth in the study of the

sacred Scripture, in divers purifications, and in the sayings of the

prophets; and it is very seldom that they fail in their predictions.

Ҥ 13. There is also another order of Essenes who, in their way of

living, customs, and laws exactly agree with the others, excepting only

that they differ from them about marriage. For they believe that those

who do not marry cut off the principal part of human life—that is,

succession—especially that, if all were of the same opinion, the whole

race would soon be extinguished. They, however, try their spouses for

three years, and after giving evidence, by three natural purgations,

that they are fit to bear children, they marry them. They have no

connubial intercourse with them when with child, to show that they do

not marry to gratify lust, but only to have children. The women, too,

have their garments on when they have baths, just as the men have on

their aprons. Such are the customs of this brotherhood.”

The next mention which Josephus makes of them is in his Antiq. Book

xiii. chap. v. § 9, and is as follows:—

“§ 9. At this time [166 B.C.] there were three sects (αἱρέσεις) among

the Jews, differing in their opinion about human affairs. The first was

called the sect of the Pharisees, the second the sect of the Sadducees,

and the third the sect of the Essenes. The Pharisees affirm that some

things only, but not all, are the work of fate (τῆς εἱμαρμένης), and

some are in our own power, whether they should take place or whether

they should not occur; the sect of the Essenes maintain that fate

governs all things, [66] and that nothing can befal man contrary to its

determination and will (ψῆφος); whilst the Sadducees reject fate,

saying that there is no such thing, and that human events do not

proceed from it, and ascribe all to ourselves, so that we ourselves are

the cause of our fortunes, and receive what is evil from our own

inconsiderateness. However, I have given a more minute description of

this in the second book of the Jewish War.”

He speaks of them again in Antiq. Book xv. chap. x. § 4, towards the

end, and § 5, as follows:—

Ҥ 4. The Essenes, as we call them, were also exempted from this

necessity [of taking an oath of allegiance to Herod]. These men live

the same kind of life which among the Greeks has been ordered by

Pythagoras. [67] I have discoursed more fully about them elsewhere. The

reason, however, why Herod had the Essenes in such honour, and thought

more highly of them than of mortal nature, is worthy of record. For

this account, too, is not unsuitable for this history, inasmuch as it

shows the people’s opinion about the Essenes.

“§ 5. There was a certain Essene, named Menahem (Μενάημος = ‏מנחם‎) who

was celebrated not only for the uprightness of his conduct, but also

for the fore-knowledge of the future proceeding from God. When he once

saw Herod, as a boy going to school, he addressed him by the name of

‘King of the Jews.’ [68] Herod thought that he did not know him or that

he jested, and reminded him that he was of common origin. But Menahem

smiled on him most friendly, clapped him on the back with his hand, and

said—‘Thou wilt, nevertheless, be king, and wilt begin thy reign

happily, for God has found thee worthy of it. And remember the blows

that Menahem has given thee, as being the symbol of the change of thy

fortune. For this assurance will be salutary for thee when thou wilt

love justice and piety towards God and equity towards thy citizens.

However, I know that thou wilt not be such a one, for I can perceive it

all. Thou wilt, indeed, excel more than any one in happiness, and

obtain an everlasting reputation, but thou wilt forget piety and

justice. This will not be concealed from God, for he will visit thee

with his wrath for it, towards the end of thy life.’ Herod paid very

little attention to it at that time, as he had no hope of it. But as he

soon afterwards advanced to the dignity of king and was happy, he

ordered Menahem to come to him in the height of his dominion, and asked

him how long he should reign; but Menahem did not tell him. Seeing that

he was silent, he asked again whether he should reign ten years.

Whereupon he replied, ‘Yes; twenty, nay, thirty years;’ but did not

determine the exact limit of his reign. Herod, rejoicing on it, gave

Menahem his hand and dismissed him, and from that time continued to

honour the Essenes. I thought of relating this to the readers (though

to some it may seem incredible), and of making it known, as it concerns

us, because many of the Essenes are highly esteemed for their virtuous

conduct and knowledge of Divine things.”

Josephus also relates instances in which Essenes foretold future

events, in Antiq., book xviii., chap, ii., § 2; book xviii., chap.

xiii. § 3; and Jewish War, book 1, chap. iii., § 5.

The last account which Josephus gives us is to be found in his Antiq.,

book xviii., chap, i., § 2 and 5.

Ҥ 2. There have been three philosophies among the Jews ever since the

ancient time of the fathers (ἐκ τοῦ πάνυ ἀρχαίου τῶν πατρίων), that of

the Essenes, and that of the Sadducees, and a third which the so-called

Pharisees followed. Although I have already spoken of them in the

second book of the Jewish War, yet will I mention here also something

about them.

“§ 5. The doctrine of the Essenes delights in leaving all to God (Θεῷ

καταλιπεῖν φιλεῖ τὰ πάντα). They regard the soul as immortal, and say

that the attainment to virtue must be fought for with all our might.

Although they send consecrated gifts to the Temple, yet they never

bring any sacrifice on account of the different rules of purity which

they observe; hence, being excluded from the common sanctuary, they

offer sacrifices in themselves (spiritually). Otherwise, they are in

their manner of life the best of men, and employ themselves wholly in

the labour of agriculture. Their uprightness is to be admired above all

others who endeavour to practice virtue; such uprightness, which is by

no means to be found among the Greeks and foreigners, is not of recent

date, but has existed among them from times of yore (ἐκ παλαιοῦ),

striving most scrupulously not to disturb the community of goods, and

that the rich should not enjoy more of the common property than the

poor. This is the conduct of this people who are more than four

thousand in number. They never marry wives, nor endeavour after the

possession of property; for they believe that the latter leads to

injustice, and the former yields opportunities for domestic discord.

Living by themselves they serve each other. They choose good men, who

are also priests, to be the stewards of their incomes and the produce

of the fields, as well as to procure the corn and food. They do not

differ at all in their living, but are more like those whom the Dacae

call Polistae.”

We notice next the account of Caius Julius Solinus, the author of the

Geographical compendium called Polyhistor, who flourished about 238

A.D. His accounts, which are to be found in chap. xxxv. § 7–10 of his

work, are evidently derived from Pliny.

“In the interior of Judea, towards the west, are the Essenes, who

differ from the usages of all other nations in their marvellous

constitutions, and who, according to my opinion, have been appointed by

divine providence for this mode of life. No woman is to be found there;

connubial pleasures they have entirely renounced; money they know not,

and palm-berries are their food. [69] Not a single birth takes place

there, and yet there is no want of population. The place itself is

devoted to modesty. Although a very large number of persons run to it

from all quarters, yet none is admitted who is not thought to possess

purity, fidelity and innocence; for, if one has been guilty of the

slightest misdemeanour, though he endeavour to obtain admission by

offering never so large a fortune, he is excluded by a divine decree.

Thus it is that through an immense space of ages (per immensum spatium

saeculorum), incredible to relate, [70] this society is perpetuated

though no child is born among them.”

The next account is that of Porphyry, the neo-Platonic philosopher and

celebrated antagonist of Christianity, who was born 233 A.D. and died

about 306 A.D. His description of the Essenes, which is given in his

treatise On the Abstinence from Animal Food (Lugduni ap. Morillon,

1620, p. 381, &c.), is, as he himself tells us, taken from Josephus. He

has, however, made some alterations, as may be seen from the following:

“There were three sorts of philosophers among the Jews, the first were

headed by the Pharisees, the second by the Sadducees, and the third,

who seemed the most honourable (σεμνοτάτη), by the Essenes. The latter

formed such a society as Josephus has described it in different parts

of his works, as well as in the second book of the Jewish History,

which he composed in seven books, as in the eighteenth book of his

Antiquities, which he composed in twenty books, and in the second part

to the Greeks. [71]

“The Essenes are Jews by birth, and love one another more than other

people. They avoid sensual enjoyments as vices, and regard continence

and the power to resist the passions as the first virtue; they despise

marriage and adopt the children of strangers, whilst still young and

suitable for instruction, regard them as their own, and train them in

their usages. They do not repudiate matrimony and child birth in

themselves, but they guard against the sensuality of women. They

despise riches, and there is a wonderful community of goods among them.

There is no one found among them who occupies a distinguished position

through his wealth; for they have a law that those who enter the

society give up their possessions to the brotherhood, so that there is

no such thing among them as abjectness of poverty or arrogance of

riches; but the possessions of all put together form a fraternal and

common property. If one of them happens to be inadvertently anointed,

he immediately washes his whole body; for they regard it as

praiseworthy to have a dry skin, and they are always dressed in white.

They appoint stewards to manage their common property; and every one,

without distinction, is eligible for all the offices.

“They are not confined to one city, but live in different places, and

everything they have is at the service of the members who happen to

come from another city. Though meeting for the first time they at once

salute each other as intimate friends (ἴσασιν ὥσπερ συνήθεις); hence

they travel without taking anything with them. They do not change

either garments or sandals till they are torn or worn out by age; they

neither buy nor sell, but every one gives of that which he has to him

that wants it, and receives that which he needs; but even without

receiving anything in return they freely communicate to him that wants.

Their piety towards God is extraordinary. None of them speak about

anything profane before the sun rises; but they offer to it some of the

prayers transmitted to them by their forefathers, as if they

supplicated it to rise, &c., &c.” He repeats almost literally the whole

of § 5 of Josephus On the Jewish War, book ii. chap. viii., which we

have given above, p, 43.

Porphyry omits § 6 of Josephus, but gives, with a few verbal

alterations, both the whole of § 7, which describes the admission into

the order, and § 8, which describes the punishment. He omits the

greater part of § 9, and adds the following statement, which is not to

be found in Josephus. “Their food is so poor and scanty that they do

not require to ease nature on the Sabbath, [72] which they devote to

singing praises to God and to rest.” He omits from § 10 the description

of the division of the Essenes into four classes, and simply mentions

firmness in suffering and death. He also omits from § 11 the whole

piece beginning with the words “In harmony with the opinion of the

Greeks, &c.;” whilst he not only gives the whole of § 12, but has also

the following addition, “With such a manner of life, and with their

firm adhesion to truthfulness and piety, there are naturally many among

them who can foretel future events, &c.;” and concludes with the words,

“This is the nature of the order of the Essenes among the Jews,”

omitting altogether what Josephus says in § 13 about those Essenes who

marry.

Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia and metropolitan of Cyprus, who was

born in Bezanduca, a small town of Palestine, in the first part of the

fourth century, and died in 403, has also given us some brief notices

of the Essenes in his celebrated work Against the Heretics. His first

notice is to be found in Adver. Haer., lib. i. ord. x. p. 28, ed. Col.,

1682, under the title Against the Essenes and the Samaritans, and is as

follows:

“The Essenes continue in their first position, and have not altered at

all. According to them there have been some dissensions among the

Gorthenes, in consequence of some difference of opinion which has taken

place among them—I mean among the Sebuens, Essenes and Gorthenes. The

difference of opinion relates to the following matter. The law of Moses

commands the Israelites of all places to come up to Jerusalem to the

three festivals, viz., the feasts of the Passover, Pentecost and

Tabernacles. As the Jews in Judea and Samaria were largely dispersed,

it is supposed that those of them who made their pilgrimage to

Jerusalem went through Samaritan cities, and as the Samaritans assemble

at the same time to celebrate the festivals, a conflict arose between

them.”

Epiphanius speaks of them again (Adv. Haer., lib. i. ord. xix. p. 39),

and under the title, Against the Ossenes (κατὰ Ὀσσηνῶν), as follows:

“Next follow the Ossenes, who were closely connected with the former

sect. They too are Jews, hypocrites in their demeanour, and peculiar

people in their conceits. [73] They originated, according to the

tradition which I received, in the regions of Nabatea, Itruria,

Moabitis and Antilis, (Ἀρηϊλίτις), in the surrounding neighbourhood of

the so-called Dead Sea.... The name Ossenes, according to its

etymology, signifies the stout race (στιβυρὸν γένος).... A certain

person named Elxai joined them at the time of the Emperor Trajan, after

the advent of the Saviour, who was a false prophet. He wrote a

so-called prophetical book, which he pretended to be according to

divine wisdom. He had a brother named Jeeus, who also misled people in

their manner of life, and caused them to err with his doctrine. A Jew

by birth, and professing the Jewish doctrines, he did not live

according to the Mosaic law, but introduced quite different things, and

misled his own sect.... He joined the sect of the Ossenes, of which

some remnants are still to be found in the same regions of Nabatea and

Perea towards Moabitis. These people are now called Simseans.” [74]

“But hear the Sadducee’s nonsense (comp. ibid., p. 42): he rejects the

sacrificial and altar services, as repulsive to the Deity, and as

things which, according to the meaning of the fathers and the Mosaic

law, were never offered to the Lord in a worthy manner. Yet he says

that we must pray with our faces to Jerusalem, where the sacrificial

altar and the sacrifices have their place. He rejects the eating of

animal flesh which is common among the Jews, and other things; nay,

even the sacrificial altar and the sacrificial fire, as being foreign

to the Deity. The purifying water, he says, is worthy of God, but the

fire is unworthy, because of the declaration of the prophet: ‘Children,

go ye not there to see the fire of the sacrifices, for ye err; yea, it

is already an error to think such a thing.’ ‘If you look at the fire

very closely,’ says he, ‘it is still far off. Moreover, go ye not to

look at the sacrificial fire, but go ye rather to the doctrine of the

water....’ There is much more of such idle talk to be found among the

Ossenes.” [75]

These are the sources from which writers upon the Essenes have, till

within very lately, drawn their information. As to the account of

Eusebius (comp. Hist. Ecclesiast., lib. ii, cap. xvii), to which appeal

is often made, it is nothing but a Christianized reproduction of the

so-called Philonic description of the Therapeutae. It would therefore

be useless to give it. In looking through these accounts, it will be

seen that there are only three independent ones among them,

namely—Philo’s, Josephus’s and Pliny’s; as the notice of Solinus is

merely a repetition of Pliny, the description of Porphyry is almost a

literal reproduction of Josephus; whilst the distorted scraps of

Epiphanius are not only worse than useless, but are unworthy of him,

and the account of Eusebius is simply misleading, inasmuch as it is a

repetition of an apocryphal story, which has nothing to do with the

Essenes.