§ 4. THE CONTENTS OF THE ROMANCE.

Before entering on an inquiry into the sources of the romance, it may be

expedient to give a short account of its contents.

In Portugal once reigned a mighty king, whose name was Calamond.

He had an only daughter, the fair and gentle Desonelle, who was

loved by a young knight called Torrent, son of a Portuguese count.

As he could not win her, save by distinguishing himself by valiant

exploits, he undertook several adventurous expeditions. First he

set out, by the order of the king, against a mischievous and

dangerous giant, whom he found lying fast asleep on a hill. He

roused the giant by sounding his bugle, and challenged him to

fight. Instantly a fierce combat ensued, in which the awkward

giant lost his life. In the giant’s castle the young hero

delivered a maiden, Eleonore, daughter of the king of Gales, from

captivity, and rescued at the same time four princes, whom the

giant had taken some time before and imprisoned in an iron cage.

After a short rest Torrent returned into Portugal. He was kindly

received by King Calamond, and splendid festivities were

celebrated in his honour. The kings of Gales and of Provence

showed their gratitude by bestowing on him rich presents, among

them a precious sword wrought by Wayland Smith. Desonelle gave him

one of her fine palfreys. Calamond, however, shrewd as he was, and

envious of the hero’s fame, plotted his ruin. He caused him, by a

counterfeit letter of Desonelle, to catch her a falcon in the

forest of Maudlen, which was the haunt of a dangerous giant,

Rochense, and of many wild beasts. Torrent and his squire set out

immediately, but separated on entering the forest, to hunt in the

thicket each by himself. Torrent soon encountered a huge dragon,

and killed it by vehement strokes. The squire, having meanwhile

fallen in with the giant, had been slain by him. The hero, called

to the place by the tumult of battle, attacked the giant, and

overcame him after a hard struggle. He cut off his head to bear

with him as a trophy. He then went into the giant’s castle, where

he found a great many jewels, and a bright sword called

Mownpolyard. Having returned to the royal court, he ordered five

priests to say masses for his squire’s soul. At this very time it

happened that the king of Arragon sent messengers to the king of

Portugal, in order to bring about a marriage between Desonelle and

his youngest son. Calamond would not listen to the advice of his

spouse, that he should no longer refuse Desonelle to Torrent, but

he promised her to the prince of Arragon, and at the same time

sent the hero once more against a giant, Slogus of Foulles in

Calabre.

Torrent departed well armed, and after a prosperous voyage arrived

in Calabre. There he soon met the giant, who was one-eyed like the

Cyclops, and bore a huge cudgel as his only weapon. Torrent threw

his spear into the fiend’s eye, and thus overcame him without any

long struggle. The king of Calabre graciously welcomed the hero,

and largely rewarded him for the service he had rendered his

country. Having returned into Portugal, Torrent heard that in a

few weeks Desonelle was to be married to the prince of Arragon.

Arrayed in knightly dress, he rode right off to Calamond’s court,

and challenged his rival to fight. After a short struggle he

completely vanquished his antagonist, stretching him on the

ground. The next day, as the king, surrounded by his noble guests,

banqueted in the great hall of the castle, Torrent entered with

the giant’s head in his hand, and harshly demanded the king’s

daughter; he called all the lords to witness of Calamond’s

perfidy.

The Emperor of Rome now interceded, and it was agreed at his

suggestion that Torrent should fight once more against a giant

named Cate; if he vanquished that adversary, he should obtain

Desonelle and half Arragon. On an isle near the sea-shore the

struggle began in presence of the assembled knights. Torrent

struck the club out of the giant’s hand, put him to flight, and

killed him as he ran away, casting stones at him. Then the Emperor

decided, with the approbation of all his knights, that the hero

had won both the land and the maiden.

Torrent obtained Desonelle, and rejoiced in the possession of her,

but no solemn marriage was performed.

Twelve weeks after, he left his spouse, impelled by his venturous

and ambitious mind; for the king of Norway asked him to fight

against a wild giant who had carried off his daughter and was

destroying his castles. Torrent bade his mistress farewell,

leaving her two golden rings as talismans, and set off with fifty

companions. Arrived at the coast of Norway, he and his companions

entered a dense forest, in which a great many wild beasts lived.

His companions, seized with fear, parted from him, and continued

their voyage at sea. They told the king of Norway the false tale

that Torrent had perished on shore. The king then set out himself

to rescue his daughter. Torrent meanwhile encountered a giant

named Weraunt, Cate’s brother, and slew him in a hard struggle,

but was himself wounded. In the giant’s castle he saved Gendres,

daughter of the Norwegian king, and conducted her to her father.

On the road they were met by a large train of gallant knights, and

were then convoyed in triumph to the king’s court. There Torrent

soon recovered from his wounds, and was amply rewarded with

honours and presents. He stayed above twelve months at the

Norwegian court. The false companions of Torrent were drowned in

the sea by the king’s command, but one squire escaped to Portugal,

and reported the tidings that Torrent yet remained in Norway. Soon

after, as Desonelle was delivered of twins, the hatred of Calamond

suddenly broke out against her. By his order, Desonelle and her

two children were put to sea in a small boat; but a favourable

wind saved them from ruin, and drove the boat upon the coast of

Palestine. As she, helpless, wandered about the downs, a huge

dragon (griffin or gripe) appeared, and seized one of her

children, and immediately after a wild leopard dragged away the

other. With submission she suffered her miserable fate, relying on

the help of the Holy Virgin.

The king of Jerusalem, just returning from a voyage, happened to

find the leopard with the child, which he ordered to be saved and

delivered to him. Seeing from the foundling’s golden ring that the

child was of noble descent, and pitying its helpless state, he

took it into his palace, and brought him up as his own son (as it

were) at his court. The child was named Leobertus.

The dragon or gripe with the other child was seen by a pious

hermit, St. Antony, who, though son of the king of Greece, had in

his youth forsaken the world. Through his prayer St. Mary made the

dragon put down the infant; Antony carried him to his father, who

adopted him and ordered him to be baptized. He was named Antony

fice Greffoun (Antony, son of the griffin or gripe).

Desonelle wandered up and down, after the loss of her children,

till she happened to meet the king of Nazareth hunting. He,

recognizing her as the king of Portugal’s daughter, gave her a

kind welcome and assistance. At his court she lived several years

in happy retirement. Torrent returned at length into Portugal,

notwithstanding all the entreaties of the Norwegian king that he

would dwell in Norway somewhat longer. At his arrival, King

Calamond took refuge in his stronghold, and greeted him from

thence with scornful words. Torrent, after having summoned his

friends from Arragon, Provence, and Calabre, conquered the castle,

and took Calamond prisoner. The traitor was sent out to sea in a

leaky boat, and perished.

In his stead, Torrent was elected king by all the noblemen of the

empire, and took the crown. But forty days after this, he quitted

his realm, having intrusted two knights with its government, and

passed to the Holy Land at the head of a large force. There he

fought fifteen years against the infidels, conquered several

towns, and got immeasurable treasures as booty. The king of

Jerusalem, hearing about Torrent’s deeds, and anxious for his own

security, sent his son Leobertus, with an army of 50,000 men,

against Torrent. A pitched battle began, but it was for a long

time doubtful to which side victory would incline, till at last

the two chiefs encountered. The son vanquishing his father decided

the fate of the battle. Torrent was conveyed as a prisoner to

Jerusalem, and thrown into a dungeon. There he lay above a year,

till he was once overheard complaining his misfortunes by his son,

who, touched with pity, prevailed upon the king to set Torrent at

liberty. In this new state Torrent soon found an opportunity to

show his valour and skill in arms, when a grand tournament was

held at Jerusalem. There he proved sole victor over all the

knights, and got the chief prize. The king of Nazareth, who had

assisted at this joust, telling his folk at home who had won the

prize, described the arms and escutcheon of the valiant knight. By

these Desonelle recognized her beloved spouse. At her request the

king called princes and knights from all parts of the world to a

great tournament. The kings of Jerusalem, Greece, Leobertus,

Antony fice Greffoun, and Torrent answered the call. Before an

illustrious assembly of mighty princes and noble ladies, all of

whom were surpassed by Desonelle in beauty and grace, the

tournament began. Leobertus and Antony excelled in it, but the

chief was Torrent, who performed wonders in the joust, vanquishing

all valiant adversaries. The next morning Desonelle could no

longer brook reserve, and was about to discover herself to

Torrent; but overwhelmed with joy she fainted, when she had

scarcely uttered the first words of greeting. It was not till

midday that she was able to tell Torrent and the other knights her

fates and those of her children. Then parents and children

passionately embraced on recognizing each other. At Torrent’s

request, all of them, with the kings of Nazareth, Jerusalem, and

Greece, and many attendants, sailed for Portugal. There the

nuptials of Torrent with Desonelle were celebrated with a great

round of splendid festivities. Torrent was finally elected Emperor

of Rome, and reigned a long time gloriously. He lies there buried

in a fair abbey.

A benediction finishes the romance.

If we take a survey of the poem, we shall recognize in its conception a

harmonious plan and a certain unity of action, which, as in most of the

romances, is founded on the hero and the interest he affects us with

(See Ten Brink, _Engl. Literat._, I. p. 317). In the centre of the

action is placed Torrent’s love of Desonelle; for all the various

combats that he undertakes against dragons and giants, against the

prince of Arragon and King Calamond, are undertaken solely to gain him

Desonelle. Even his expedition against the infidels and the fighting

with his son are designed by Providence to make him find again his lost

love. Halliwell (Preface, p. vii), therefore, is not right in deeming

the romance ‘a rambling poem of adventures without much plot.’ The

length and tediousness of the episodes may have prevented him from

recognizing the unity of the whole. At the same time, however, it must

be admitted that the poem cannot rank with the masterpieces of romantic

poetry written in the same metre, like _Amis and Amiloun_, _Ipomadon_,

_Kyng of Tars_, _Octavian_, either in the invention of plot or in the

dissection of passions. The diction is so swelled with stereotyped

phrases, and so surfeited with trivialities, that we may justly suppose

the poem to have been composed at a period when romantic poetry had

passed its best time, and had begun to decay. As to the authorship of

the poem, it was probably composed by a monk. It is an easy thing to

show peculiarities in the course of the story which are essentially

monkish. As the romance begins and ends with a benediction, in the same

way each deed and each adventure of the hero is introduced and finished

by long prayers. Moreover, the poet points frequently to a direct

interposition of Heaven (ll. 675, 1568, 1948); he describes the anguish

and sorrow that Desonelle feels about her children’s baptism (ll.

1892-1896 and 2074-76); he mentions emphatically Communion and

Confession (1272 and 2139), Masses (756 and 813); he finally praises the

Emperor for founding churches and abbeys (l. 2658). On the other side,

we find very few of those marks which characterize the works of

minstrels: the poet seldom predicts the fates of his heroes to excite

the attention of his auditors; he mentions only by the way the

performances of the gleemen, and nowhere speaks of the rewards that they

get.

Passing to a special inquiry into the origin of the story of Torrent,

I cannot persuade myself that it is of the poet’s own invention, as that

would be the only instance of a Middle-English romance not being taken

from foreign originals (except, of course, Chaucer’s _Sir Thopas_, which

was written to ridicule this whole branch of poetry), whilst slight

alterations or additions were frequently introduced by the translators.

A French original of the romance is supposed by Halliwell to have

existed (Preface, vi). He says, ‘It is probably, like the second copy of

the romance of Horn, a modernized version of an older English romance,

which was itself translated from the French. I have not been able to

discover any traces of the French original, but there are some singular

allusions to its origin in the poem itself. I allude to the frequent

references to the _Book of Rome_.[3] This term was applied to the French

language, in which most of the old romances were originally written.’ As

for me, I don’t think that we can much rely upon references of this

kind, because they are common to all of these Middle-English romances.

Of a somewhat greater weight is perhaps the fact that one or two of the

proper names are French; and even the oath, ‘par l’amour de dieu,’ is

worth mentioning. After all, there is no evident proof as to the French

origin. But there is no doubt that the story of Torrent in its principal

features--the adversities of a family separated by misfortunes, the

mother robbed of her children by wild beasts, at last united

again--proceeded from the old Eustache legend.[4-5] Therewith another

motive is combined, that of the woman innocently condemned, on which

motive a large stock of legends is founded; for instance, those of

Crescentia, Sibilla, Oliva, Genovefa, Griseldis and Octavian legends.

Upon this motive and its old origin from India, see Streve, ‘The

Octavian legend,’ _Erlangen Dissert._, 84.

[Footnote 3: On this term see _Octavian_, ed. Sarrazin,

p. xxxviii.]

[Footnote 4: See Warton’s opinion upon the legendary origin of

many romances, _History of Engl. Poetry_, London, 1824, I.

p. ccxliv: ‘Many romances were at first little more than legends

of devotion, containing the pilgrimage of an old warrior. At

length, as chivalry came into vogue, the youthful and active part

of the pilgrim’s life was also written. The penitent changed into

the knight-errant.’ Sometimes, of course, the opposite change may

have taken place, as for instance is probably the case with the

story of the two faithful friends, Amis and Amiloun (cf. Koelbing,

_Amis_, p. lxxxi), and with the story of Robert the Devil (cf.

_Sir Gowther_, ed. Breul, p. 74).]

[Footnote 5: See the edition of _The worthie Hystorie of

Plasidas_, 1566, by H. H. Gibbs, for the Roxburghe Club, 1873.]

I will consider first the legend of Eustache in its original version.

According to the Greek Martyr Acts, which were probably composed in the

eighth century, this saint was before his baptism a captain of Trajan,

named Placidus. As he one day hunted in the forest, the Saviour appeared

to him between the antlers of a hart, and converted him. Placidus

changed his name into Eustache, when he was baptized with his wife and

sons. God announced to him by an angel his future martyrdom. Eustache

was afflicted by dreadful calamities, lost all his estate, and was

compelled to go abroad as a beggar with his wife and his children. As he

went on board a ship bound for Egypt, his wife was seized by the

shipmaster and carried off. Soon after, when Eustache was travelling

along the shore, his two children were borne away by a lion and a

leopard. Eustache then worked for a long time as a journeyman, till he

was discovered by the Emperor Trajan, who had sent out messengers for

him, and called him to his court. Reappointed captain, Eustache

undertook an expedition against the Dacians. During this war he found

his wife in a cottage as a gardener,--the shipmaster had fallen dead to

the ground as he ventured to touch her,--and in the same cottage he

found again his two sons as soldiers: herdsmen had rescued them from the

wild beasts, and brought them up. Glad was their meeting again! But as

they returned to Rome, they were all burnt in a glowing bull of brass by

the Emperor’s order, because they refused to sacrifice to the heathen

gods.

This legend, which reminds us at once of the story of Job, has been

incorporated in almost all mediæval collections of legends, and upon it

are founded some mediæval poems, which are enumerated by H. Knust in his

splendid work _Dos Obras Didácticas y dos Leyendas_, Madrid, 1878; cf.

R. Köhler, _Zeitschrift für rom. phil._ III, p. 272 ff., Varnhagen,

_Anglia_, III, p. 399 ff.; two latin versions are edited by the same,

_Zeitschrift für deutsches Alterthum_ XXIV, p. 241 ff., and XXV,

p. 1 ff.