Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876)
and Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also
written in the National Reformer, using his initials only.
Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian
Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title
Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in
Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had
the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens,
and was republished in '81.
Mittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich,
5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became
professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained
a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in
Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part
in the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction
of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.
Mittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make
money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by
other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.
Mocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian
philosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva,
1588, with the Peripatetic Question of Cæsalpinus and the books of
Telesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum
Philosophicarum.
Moleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's
Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated
M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at
Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator,
and in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has
written Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches,
and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him "the father
of the modern Materialistic movement."
Molesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth
baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was
returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In
'53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary
for the Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the
Westminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition
of Hobbes was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to
the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.
Mommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30
Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became
Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by his
History of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness
in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world
was improved by Christianity.
Monboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James).
Monge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught
physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a
member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence
of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of
the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator,
created him Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many
services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was
deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and
Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.
Mongez (Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June
1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy
of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said "he had
the honor to be an Atheist." He was one of the most ardent members of
the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.
Monroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age,
b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford,
where he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the
Rochford Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil
War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some
hard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published
his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became
more Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to
Indianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards
Monroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man,
with a remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are
poems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible
Stories.
Montaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family
castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge
at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous "Essays,"
which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent
spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in
literature. Emerson says, "Montaigne is the frankest and honestest
of all writers." Montaigne took as his motto: Que sçais-je? [What
know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of
custom. Buckle says, "Under the guise of a mere man of the world,
expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a
spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been
the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning
people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of
the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.
Monteil (Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire,
26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During
the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un
Frère Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,
and condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000
francs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published
at Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La République Française. In '80
he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected
in '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has
compiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.
Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer,
b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was
entitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of
the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground
that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the
Spirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the
positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery
are written in a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced
to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.
Montgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh
1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer,
and afterwards attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and
Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and
published at Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted
from the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On
the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to
Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written
in the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and
Mind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God,
but that there is evidence to the contrary.
Montgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first
to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and
La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26
June 1810.
Mook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied
philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study
medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to
a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus,
published at Zürich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in
the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847,
is a physician who has published some poems.
Moor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu
Pantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.
Moreau (Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical
and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and
satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe
and the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery,
terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected,
with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.
Moreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a
distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral
Faculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological
works.
Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century,
b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work called Code de la Nature,
sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges
that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.
Morgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The
Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for
Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited
Radicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks
to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses "a more fabulous
romantic writer than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of
miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication
of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny
Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over
the signature "Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology,
1741. Lechler calls Morgan "the modern Marcion." Died at London,
14 Jan. 1743.
Morgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In
1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm
friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of
Sketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals,
'19. The Examiner says, "He was never at a loss for a witty or wise
passage from Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843.
Morin (André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28
Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30
he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48
he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated
vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the
signature "Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pensée
of Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was
intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni,
and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination
of Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his
True Value has gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique
Religieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders
of the Bibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several
anti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into
English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal
Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing
a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.
Morison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters,
b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In
'63 he published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of
the founders of the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as
in the Athenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to
Morley's "Men of Letters" Series. In '86 he published his striking work
The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which
shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and
its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He
collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would
have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of
a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did
justice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until
he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a
brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George
Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead,
26 Feb. 1888.
Morley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn,
24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was
J.C. Morison. He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review,
edited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which
appeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise,
Voltaire, '72; Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclopædists
'78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in
that review. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall
Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected
to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by
Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.
Morselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena,
1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide
in the International Scientific Series, and a study on "The Religion
of Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has
translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.
Mortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan
(Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in
'49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He
has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written
Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man,
'64. The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution
to the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man,
'82. He contributed to the Revue Indépendante, Pensée Nouvelle,
etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was
elected Deputy in 1885.
Moss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written
numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of
Freethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower
Animals, Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to
the Secular Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker,
and other journals, and has had a written debate on "Was Jesus God
or Man." A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from
lecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been
published, 1889.
Mothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer.
Mott (Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3
Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society
in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A
strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist
movement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention
in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of
Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights
conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.
Muhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder
of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died
about 849.
Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.
Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.
Muhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar.
Muller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed
good articles to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of
modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.
Murger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue
des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in
"Winter Nights" he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds
lui que j'ai lu Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes
of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.
Musset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11
Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the
Romantic school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle,
'36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among
his finest works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to
the Revue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in
'52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.
Naber (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July,
1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium,
and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal
of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia
(1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character
of the Epistles attributed to Paul.
Nachtigal (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23
Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became
private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and
wrote an account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul
General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.
Naigeon (Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an
art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became
copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to
Amsterdam to be printed. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, notably
the articles Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe,
or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This
was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He
took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in the
Theologie Portative. He published the Recuéil Philosophique, 2 vols.,
Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his
Morale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays
of Montaigne and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His
principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in
the Encyclopédie Méthodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National
Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold
the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of
man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.
Naquet (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834,
became M.D. in '59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for
belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue
Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack
on theism. In '69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family,
which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment,
a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil
rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he
has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new
law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's
energetic advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late
has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.
Nascimento (Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23
Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière's
Tartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life
from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of
"Filinto Elysio." Died 25 Feb. 1819.
Navez (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pensée,
of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International
Federation of Freethinkers.
Nelson (Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to
be the author of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions,
a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been
taken from Paganism.
Newcomb (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova
Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was
appointed computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior
professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated
with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many
works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political
Economy, 1885.
Newman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London
1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol
College '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to
comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then
went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission,
but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously
undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical
teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at
London University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49,
he states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he
explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A
History of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical,
'58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of
the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the
Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History,
'77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its
Cradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.
Neymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and
colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.
Nicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural
philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon
returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published
useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted
the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He
also wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of
Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and
also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.
Nicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March,
1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted
for founding "The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of
Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.
Nietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844,
author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of
Morgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.
Nieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht,
3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25,
'77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in
Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed
to De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds
(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist
paper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and
Freethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against
Socialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason,
The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one
years' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and
was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was
liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.
Noeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,
1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been
professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He
has written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and
a Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated
into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.
Noire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen,
and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of
Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist
philosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends
that language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in
associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.
Noorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an
Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with
the Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.
Nordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He
became a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels
and made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our
Civilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.
Nork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).
Nott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South
Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish
Race, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55;
the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of
disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile,
31 March, 1873.
Noun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.
Noyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.
Nunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He
has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is
a follower of Mill and Spencer.
Nuytz (Louis André). See Andre-Nuytz.
Nystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15
Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund,
'68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian
war of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has
established a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written
a History of Civilisation.
Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the
eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a
translation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an
English version.
Ochino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A
popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to
the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited
to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached
in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went
to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about
1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the
Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He
went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,
and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of
Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the
special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.
O'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near
Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went
to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried
for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to
distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet,
whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the
Journal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.
O'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about
1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin,
but became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry
into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element
in religion, at New York, 1880.
Oest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems
published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.
Offen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He
emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of
Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism
and A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the
Correspondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York,
12 May, 1848.
Offray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.
O'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On
the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks
disparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was
classed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.
O'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author
of Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers,
published by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of
short papers suggestive of religious Theism.
Oken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg,
2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became a privat-docent in
that university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802,
he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work
on Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He
was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From
'17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became
a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.
Oliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.
Omar Khayyam. See Khayyam.
Omboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June,
1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific
works.
Onimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near
Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,
and wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological
Sciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition,
and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the
Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the
Revue Positive and other periodicals.
Oort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied
theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many
works, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated
by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with
Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.
Orelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich,
13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of
Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed
Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.
Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an
adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was
popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint
against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was
passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.
Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its
Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict
with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and
mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the
Son of God as Christian mythology."
Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).
Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular
school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.
Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated
as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history,
and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has
contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other
journals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the
Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education,
'82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity
is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles
of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural
History in Brazil.
O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at
Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he
"denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie
of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the
flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the
Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the
Apostolic see erronious."
"Ouida," See Ramée (Louise de la).
Ouvry (Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics
of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several
works on the land question.
Overton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics,
1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam,
1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.
Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14
March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that
he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter
of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager
at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and
improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New
Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he
caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world
were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In
'24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the
Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure,
as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In
'28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of
Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's
Journal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social
System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind
began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,
17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in
the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for
his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.
Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was
educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's
school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid
in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the
failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28,
the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till
'32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on
the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he
ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts
of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;
Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He
was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he
secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He
became charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he
strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a
Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.
Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark),
26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of
the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity
(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz,
1800). Died 20 May, 1824.
Paepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.
Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian
jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at
Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor
of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes
(1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal
Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional
Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner
by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.
Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of
introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through
many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited
Life Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?,
'67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He
became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert
Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges
of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.
Paget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon
Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and
Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has
lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews,
an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of
Unbelief" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show
a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.
Pageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the
Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.
Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father
was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He
left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he
married the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He
was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a
paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then
in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine
went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the
Pennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal
a strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776,
advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything
else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of
the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's
order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely
to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was
declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state
of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to
mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored
to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution,
he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In
1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this
he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he
was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of
the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison,
where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time
he wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed
on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor
points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas,
and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As
a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander
by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own
direction was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to
have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.
Pajot (François). See Liniere.
Paleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and
martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he
went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of
court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired
to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on
the Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor
of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He
had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of
letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the
flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to
him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.
Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin,
22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,
he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural
History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled
in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8
Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him
the founder of modern geology.
Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He
became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some
satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his
head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the
Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.
Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March,
1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought
up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while
still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80
he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club,
for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the
Freethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper
with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was
cremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering
an eulogium.
Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,
1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but
became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an
attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society
in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802,
a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also
wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer
was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New
York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.
Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic,
and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a
moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the
world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On
Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis.
Died in Athens 111 B.C.
Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26
Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert,
Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire,
whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out
the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopédie
Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur,
1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.
Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian
Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.
Papillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort,
5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,
'65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue
des Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life,
'73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.
Paquet (Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29
Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris,
where he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to
literature. Under the anagram of "Nérée Quépat" he has published La
Lorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little
philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist
Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.
Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11
Aug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth,
also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at
Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert
Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.
Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30
Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical
brochures. After the coup d'état he took refuge in Belgium. In '71
was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.
Parfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of
L'Arsenal de la Dévotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of
superstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des Pélerinages, '77,
and other pieces. Died 1881.
Parisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoilée par
la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems
to have occasioned its suppression.
Parker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24
Aug. 1810. From his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence
of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he
studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the
farm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June,
'37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known
as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete
rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society
was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame
was established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion,
'47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged
De Wette's Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless
opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own
house. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his
duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of
13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.
Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said
to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy
about 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are
preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and
considered nature eternal.
Parny (Évariste Désiré de Forges de), Viscount. French poet,
b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he
chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole
inspired his "Amatory Poems," and he afterwards wrote the audacious
War of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His
poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been
named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy
in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.
Parton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken
to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married
Miss Willis, "Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including
Lives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also
written on Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided
in New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.
Parvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and
Christian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was
issued in 1746.
Pasquier (Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at
Paris. Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He
defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked
in a bitter satire, Catéchisme des Jésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.
Passerano (Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last
century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets
written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and
his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of
Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving
his goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil
de Pièces curieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc.,
which contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses),
an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and
comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem;
also a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in
1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a
pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising
the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.
Pasteur (Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor
in '47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received
the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries
in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion
of honor in '53, he was made commander '68 and grand officer '78. His
researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers
have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He
was elected to the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name
as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.
Pastoret (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Marquis, French statesman
and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by
the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an Elege de Voltaire. By
his works on Zoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses
Considered as Legislator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the
infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned
History of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817-37), in which he passes in
review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became
President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the
erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the
conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the
19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of
the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as
deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of
the French Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,
and in '29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.
Pater (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. 1839. B.A. at
Oxford in '62, M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the
Westminster Review, Macmillan, and the Fortnightly Review. In '73
he published The Renaissance, and in '85 Marius the Epicurean, His
Sensations and Ideas.
Paterson (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After
the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle of
Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced
27 Jan. 1843 to three months' imprisonment. His trial was reported
under the title God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering
God as the plaintiff and in quoting from "the Jew book" to show
the plaintiff's bad character. When released he went to Scotland to
uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to
fifteen months' imprisonment for selling "blasphemous" publications
at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6
April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.
Patin (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais
31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His
reputation is chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked
superstition. Larousse says "C'était un libre penseur de la famille
de Rabelais." Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.