Fry (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he was

elected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was

declared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was

called to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted

for Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence

was passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote The Accuser

Shamed, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking against

"that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the Godhead." He

also wrote The Clergy in their Colors, 1650.

Fuller (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b. Cambridgeport,

Massachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In '40-42 she edited the Dial. She

also published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, '44. Among friends

she counted Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, and Mazzini. She visited

Europe and married at Rome the Marquis D'Ossoli. Returning she was

shipwrecked and drowned off the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.

Furnemont (Léon), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 April,

1861. Entered the school of Mines Liége in '76, and founded the Circle

of Progressive Students. Became president of International Congress

of Students, '84, and represented Young Belgium at the funeral of

Victor Hugo. Radical candidate at the Brussels municipal elections,

he obtained 3,500 votes, but was not elected. He is a Councillor

of the International Federation of Freethinkers and director of a

monthly journal, La Raison, 1889.

Gabarro (Bartolomé) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, Barcelona,

27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college with a view to

taking the clerical habit, he refused and went to America. After

travelling much, he established a day school in Barcelona and founded

an Anti-clerical League of Freethinkers pledged to live without

priests. This induced much clerical wrath, especially when Dr. Gabarro

founded some 200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For

denouncing the assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel,

sentenced to four years' imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere

on the frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal La

Tronada. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an important

work on Pius IX. and History.

Gabelli (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, 1830. Author

of The Religious Question in Italy, '64, Man and the Moral Sciences,

'69, in which he rejects all metaphysics and supernaturalism, and

Thoughts, 1886.

Gage (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New

York, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active

abolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in '45 she

married Henry H. Gage. From '52 till '61 she wrote and spoke against

slavery. In '72 she was made President of the National Woman's

Suffrage Association. She is joint author of The History of Woman

Suffrage with Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton, and with them considers

the Church the great obstacle to woman's progress.

Gagern (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. Educated at

Berlin, travelled in '47 to Paris where he became acquainted with

Humboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in the Pyrenees;

served in the Prussian army, became a friend of Wislicenus and the

free-religious movement. In '52 he went to Mexico; here he had an

appointment under General Miramon. In the French-Mexican expedition

he was taken prisoner in '63; released in '65 he went to New York. He

was afterwards military attaché for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought

appears in his memoirs entitled Dead and Living, 1884, and in his

volume Sword and Trowel, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.

Gall (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 March, 1758. He

practised as a physician in Vienna, devoting much time to the study of

the brain, and began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he

was prohibited from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught

their system in various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.

Galton (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in

1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King's College,

London, and graduated at Cambridge, '24. In '48 and '50 he travelled in

Africa. He wrote a popular Art of Travel, and has distinguished himself

by many writings bearing on heredity, of which we name Hereditary

Genius, '69, English Men of Science, '70. In his Inquiries into Human

Faculty and Developement, '83, he gives statistical refutation of the

theory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the British Association

from '63-68, President of the Geographical Section in '62 and '72,

and of the Anthropological Section in '77 and '85. He is President

of the Anthropological Institute.

Gambetta (Léon Michel), French orator and statesman, b. Cahors, 30

Oct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished him to become

one. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study for the

law. In '59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of Delescluze

(14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, made

him famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, he

became the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he proclaimed

the Republic and organised the national defences, leaving Paris, then

invested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he invigorated every

department, and was the inspiration of the few successes won by the

French. Gambetta preserved the Republic against all machinations,

and compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the alternatives,

"Se soumettre ou se demettre." He founded the Republique Française,

and became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was a professed

disciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open opponent of

clericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were Freethinkers. Died

31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of the largest

gatherings ever witnessed.

Gambon (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 March,

1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the Journal des

Ecoles. In '48 he was elected representative. The Empire drove him

into exile, he returned at amnesty of '59. In '69 he refused to pay

taxes. In '71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the last

defenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in '82. Formed

a League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. 1887.

Garat (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator and

writer, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of

d'Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the

Assembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As

minister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He

afterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,

and president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.

Garborg (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. Brought

up as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the University of

Christiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper Fedraheimen, written in

the dialect of the peasantry. Held an appointment for some years

in the Government Audit Office. In '81 he published a powerfully

written tale, A Freethinker, which created a deal of attention. Since

he has published Peasant Students, Tales and Legends, Youth, Men,

etc. He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on

the Norwegian press.

Garcia-Vao (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and miscellaneous

writer, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of Cardinal

Cisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards studied

at the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing several

papers, he attached himself to the staff of Las Dominicales del Libre

Pensiamento. Among his numerous works are a volume of poems, Echoes

of a Free Mind, Love and the Monks, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman

philosophy, etc. This promising student was stabbed in the back at

Madrid, 18 December, 1886.

Garde (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four little

blasphemous books at Paris in 1537.

Garibaldi (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4

July, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a

priest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a sailor's life. A trip to

Rome made him long to free his country. He joined Mazzini's movement,

"Young Italy," and being implicated in the Genoese revolt of '33,

he fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he learnt he was

sentenced to death. He went to South America and fought on behalf of

the republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his beautiful and

brave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures. Returning to

Italy he fought against the Austrians in '48, and next year was the

soul of resistance to the French troops, who came to restore Papal

authority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he escaped

with difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working for

an Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In '54 he returned

and bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In '59 he again fought the

Austrians, and in May, '60, landed at Marsala, Sicily, took Palermo,

and drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a Republican he saluted

Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the cessation of Nice to

France, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by Victor Emanuel's

troops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he wrote his Rule

of the Monk, a work exhibiting his love of liberty and hatred of

the priesthood. In '64 he visited England, and was enthusiastically

received. In '67 he again took part in an attempt to free Rome from

the Papal government. In '71 he placed his sword at the service of

the French Republic, and the only standard taken from the Germans was

captured by his men. Elected Member of the Italian Parliament in his

later years he did much to improve the city of Rome. In one of his

laconic letters of '80, he says "Dear Friend,--Man has created God,

not God man,--Yours ever, Garibaldi." He died 2 June, '82, and directed

in his will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.

Garrison (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet on The

Absence of Design in Nature, 1876.

Garth (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. Yorkshire,

1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish dispensaries,

and lashed the opposition in his poem The Dispensary. He was made

physician to King George I. Died 18 June 1719.

Gaston (H.), French author of a brochure with the title Dieu, voila,

l'ennemi, God the enemy, 1882.

Gattina (F. P. della). See Petruccelli.

Gautama (called also Gotama, Buddha, and Sakyamuni), great Hindu

reformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 B.C. Many

legends are told of his birth and life. He is said to have been a

prince, who, pained with human misery, left his home to dedicate

himself to emancipation. His system was rather a moral discipline

than a religion. Though he did not deny the Hindu gods he asserted

that all beings were subject to "Karma," the result of previous

actions. He said, "If a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the

forest, and if he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul

is grounded in true knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice

for a hundred years." According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha

died at Kusinagara, B.C. 543.

Gautier (Théophile), exquisite French poet and prose writer, b. Tarbes,

31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against priestcraft or

superstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is Pagan. His

romanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with "sacred themes"

as well as conventional morality. Baudelaire called him an impeccable

master of French literature, and Balzac said that of the two men who

could write French, one was Théophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.

Geijer (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and critic,

b. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the Swedish

Academy's first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a Conservative

in religious, philosophical, and political matters he became through

his historical researches an ardent adherent of the principles of the

French revolution. His historical work and indictment against "The

Protestant creed" was published in 1820 in a philosophical treatise,

Thorild, which was prosecuted. His acquittal by an enlightened jury

stayed religious prosecutions in Sweden for over sixty years. He

died 23 April 1847. A monument was erected to him last year at the

University of Upsala, where he was professor of history. His works

have been republished.

Geijerstam (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the

Freethinking group of Young Sweden.

Geismar (Martin von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of

the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some of the works

of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846-7. He also added pamphlets

entitled Germany in the Eighteenth Century.

Gellion-Danglar (Eugène), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became

Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, was

made sous préfect of Compiègne, '71, wrote History of the Revolution

of 1830, and A Study of the Semites, '82.

Gemistos (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan

learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost

his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court

at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Palælogus in 1438,

where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by

which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of

the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused

him of Paganism. Died 1450.

Genard (François), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote

an irreligious work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age,

with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in

the Bastille, where it is believed he finished his days.

Gendre (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15

Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a

gold medal. By reading the works of Büchner, Buckle, and Darwin

she became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed

to the Revue Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the

Nouvelle Revue, etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under

the title Etudes Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by

Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.

Gener (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member

of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution

of ideas entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, '80. This able work is

dedicated to Renan and has a preface by Littré. The author has since

translated it into Spanish.

Genestet (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam,

21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant

minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal,

2 July, 1861.

Genin (François), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He

became one of the editors of the National, of Paris, about '37, and

wrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works

on The Jesuits and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In

'45 the French Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language

of Molière. He edited Diderot, '47, and is known for his researches

into the origin of the French language and literature. Died Paris,

20 Dec. 1856.

Genovesi (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1

Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his

substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself

many attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is

his Italian Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.

Gensonne (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the

Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the

Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the

struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonné was one of the most active and

eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues

31 Oct. 1793.

Gentilis (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples,

about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558

he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of

sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,

where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his

innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland,

where he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial

he was condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne,

26 (?) Sept. 1566. Ladvocat says "He died very impiously, saying he

thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father,

whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of

the Son."

Geoffrin (Marie Therèse, neé Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a

patroness of learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She

was a friend of Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot,

and the encyclopædists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at

Paris, 6 Oct. 1777.

Gerhard (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at

an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy,

and Switzerland, and in '61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De

Dageraad, and was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July,

1886.

Gerhard (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April,

1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of

De Dageraad.

Germond (J. B. L.), editor of Marèchal's Dictionnaire des Athées,

Brussels, 1833.

Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.

Ghillany (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18

April, 1807. In '35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His

principal work is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg,

'42. He also wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first

four centuries. Under the pseudonym of "Richard von der Alm" he wrote

Theological Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of

the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries

upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.

Giannone (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May,

1676. He devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples,

in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled

to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was

removed on his avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria

and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone

was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He

found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed

into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia,

and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.

Gibbon (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney,

27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a

Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting

the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing

the Decline and Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the

appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application,

his investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and

political activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental

work, bridging the old world and the new, is an historic exposure

of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to

Parliament in '74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy,

in London, 16 Jan. 1794.

Gibson (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May,

1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought

her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil

War she organised Ladies' Soldiers' Aid Societies, and was elected

chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln

endorsed the appointment, which was questioned. She has written

anonymously Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the

Truthseeker, Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own

signature and that of "Lilian."

Giessenburg (Rudolf Charles d'Ablaing van), one of the most notable of

Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever

in youth, in '47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a

bookseller under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and Günst,

he started de Dageraad, and from '56-68 was one of the contributors,

usually under his name "Rudolf Charles." He is a man of great

erudition, has written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of

Freethought); de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary

in the Field of Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal

of Inquiry); Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity);

Curiositeiten van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has

also published the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch

and Brooksbank's work on Revelation. He was the first who published

a complete edition of the famous Testament du Curé Jean Meslier in

three parts ('64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other

writers, and also Curieuse Gebruiken.

Gilbert (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had

printed at Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle

des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du

Christianisme. The book has neither the name of author or printer. It

was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought

in 1784 by the Duc de La Vallière for 120 livres. It was in form of a

dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert

married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.

Gill (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University

of that city. In '83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution

of Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before

Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his

name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on

the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop

Laurence's Book of Enoch, 1883.

Giles (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26

Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he

graduated B.A. as a double first-class in '28. He was appointed

head-master of the City of London School, which post he left for

the Church. The author of over 150 volumes of educational works,

including the Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed

Freethinker, intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on

theology show his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850,

Christian Records 1854. These two were published together in amended

form in 1877. He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852,

Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and

Apostolic Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.

Ginguene (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April,

1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a

teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais,

and collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French

Revolution. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the

fall of Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His

principal work is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11

Nov. 1816.

Gilliland (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little

work on The Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.

Gioja (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20

Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a

bureau of statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo

he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and

Rewards and The Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.

Girard (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France,

24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760;

rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle

in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest

merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole

of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels

after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire,

Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public improvements

and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests to

Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a college

for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister

of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or

even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the

institution are required to instruct the pupils in secular morality

and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has

been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.

Glain (D. de Saint). See Saint Glain.

Glennie (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and

writer, author of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and

transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter

of which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and

Osiris. He has also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion

in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle,

1875.

Glisson (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham,

Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there

appointed Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He

discovered Glisson's capsule in the liver, and was the first to

attribute irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura

substantiæ energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in

considering matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account

for the operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey,

and Boerhaave called him "the most accurate of all anatomists that

ever lived." Died in 1677.

Godwin (Mary). See Wollstonecraft.

Godwin (William), English historian, political writer and novelist,

b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting

minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton

College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making

the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his

views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection

of the supernatural. In '93 he published his republican work on

Political Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful

novel of Caleb Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, '96; wrote,

in addition to several novels and educational works, On Population,

in answer to Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, '24-28;

Thoughts on Man, '31; Lives of the Necromancers, '34. Some Freethought

essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius

of Christianity Unveiled, were first published in '73. They comprise

papers on such subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles,

and character of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian

religion. Died 7 April, 1836.

Goethe (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany's greatest poet,

b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his

seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his

mind with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several

languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic

University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed

his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771,

and in the same year composed his drama "Goetz von Berlichingen." He

went to Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at

once made him famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of

Saxe-Weimar and loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy

of distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and

his own dramas, of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work

is Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He

declared himself "decidedly non-Christian," and said his objects of

hate were "the cross and bugs." He was averse to abstractions and

refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy

he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular

creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: "You look upon the gospel as

it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not

convince me that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives

without a man, and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is

more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of

ancient and modern inspired men are equally beautiful." Goethe was

opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits "stood in opposition

to Christianity not merely on points of theological form, but to

a certain extent on points of substance too." Goethe devoted much

attention to science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis

of plants on evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.

Goldstuecker (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a

Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn

under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing

himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and

assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A

democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of '49 and came

to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his

Sanskrit-English Dictionary. He contributed important articles on

Indian literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athenæum

and Chambers' Encyclopædia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.

Goldziher (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg,

1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is

author of Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated

by Russell Martineau, '77, and has written many studies on Semitic

theology and literature.

Gordon (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells,

Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he

supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished

himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which

recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and

with whom he published Cato's Letters and a periodical entitled The

Independent Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard's

death, marrying that writer's widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and

translated from Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All

Ages. He also translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died

28 July, 1750, leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial

for Low Spirits and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.

Gorlæus (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end

of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account

of his speculations in a work published after his death entitled

Exercitationes Philosophicæ, Leyden 1620.

Govea or Gouvea [Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet,

b. 1505, studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal

writings. Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers,

as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin,

5 March, 1565.

Gratiolet (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July

1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the

brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.

Graves (Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865,

and The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue,

but little value.

Gray (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co.,

New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote

Elements of Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard,

and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an

Examination of Darwin's Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of

Smithsonian Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge,

Mass., 30 Jan. 1888.

Green (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the

Freethinker's Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.

Greg (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated

at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic studies

and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester

Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League,

and author of one of its prize essays. In '40 he wrote on Efforts for

the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In '50 he published his

Creed of Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in

1872 his Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in

his life. He published also Essays on Political and Social Science,

and was a regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works

exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at

Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.

Grenier (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord,

1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free will,

'68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans,

imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of

Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.

"Grile (Dod)," pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who

wrote on the San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and

Fiend's Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and

published Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.

Grimm (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in

French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted

with D'Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but

afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans,

and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary

bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. In

1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,

and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia

her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is

chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published

in seventeen vols. 1812-1813.

Gringore (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised

the pope and clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.

Grisebach (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied

law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at

Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of

which the best known is The New Tanhäuser, first published anonymously

in '69, and followed by Tanhäuser in Rome, '75. Has also translated

Kin Ku Ki Kuan, Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose

bibliography he has compiled, 1888.

Grote (George), the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent,

17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for

the employment of a banker and was put to business at the age of

sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and became

a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he

married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in '22 his Analysis of

the Influence of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under

the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster

Review. In '33 he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London

and retained his seat till '41. He was chiefly known in Parliament

for his advocacy of the ballot. In '46-'56 he published his famous

History of Greece, which cost him the best years of his life; this was

followed by Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review

of J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,

'61, showed he retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He

died 18 June '71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Grote (Harriet) nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his

opinions and wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.

Gruen (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, Lüdenschied, Westphalia,

studied at Bonn and Berlin. In '44 he came to Paris, was a friend

to Proudhon and translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in

'49 and condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till '62, when he was

made professor at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the

College of Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening

News and he wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, '44, and Feuerbach,

'71. A Culture History of the 16th-17th Centuries, and The Philosophy

of the Present, '76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.

Gruet (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for

blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death

papers were found in his possession directed against religion. They

were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.

Gruyer (Louis Auguste Jean François-Philippe), Belgian philosopher,

b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy,

1828, Tablettès Philosophiques, '42. Principles of Physical

Philosophy, '45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter

was eternal. Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.

Guadet (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde),

20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in

'81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was

elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins

contributed to the destruction of his party, after which he took

refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.

Gubernatis (Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.

Guépin (Ange), French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became

M.D. in '28. After the revolution of July, '30, Dr. Guépin was made

Professor at the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first

scientific and philosophical congress, held there in '33. In '48 he

became Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in '50 was deprived

of his situation. In '54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth

Century. After the fall of the Empire, M. Guépin became Prefet of La

Loire Inférieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes,

21 May, 1873, and was buried without any religious ceremony.

Gueroult (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29

Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote

to the Journal des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and

founded l'Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in '63,

when he advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy,

21 July, 1872.

Guerra Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a

poem on The Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of

Jehovah, an assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of

Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.

Guerrini (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated

at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine

poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova

Polemica he declares "Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio" ("First

of all I say do not believe in God.")

Gueudeville (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a

Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness

of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped

to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature

and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la

Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels

of La Hontan, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter

criticism of Christian usages. He translated Erasmus's Praise of Folly

(1713), More's Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and

Vanity of Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.

Guichard (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became

Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He

was exiled in '52, but again elected in '71. His principal work is

La Liberté de Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris,

11th Nov. 1884.

Guild (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In '35 he became

a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became turned

Universalist. In '44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference,

which went through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con,

in which he gives the arguments for and against Christianity.

Guirlando (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice

for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.

Gundling (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher,

b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy

of Morals, 1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German

eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived

all ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.

Gunning (William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg,

Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life

History of our Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open

Court. Died Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.

Günst (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam,

19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied

at Berne, where he was promoted '47. Returning to Holland he became

bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of

the City Theatre. Günst contributed to many periodicals, and became

a friend of Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of

the Dutch Freethinkers, which he edited from '55 to '67. He usually

contributed under pseudonyms as "Mephistho" or ([therefore]). He was

for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,

"Post Nubila Lux," and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of

the Freemasons. He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken

(Holy Water for the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche

Inquisitie (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, '63); and Heidenen

en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits,

a comparison of their morals, '67). In his life and conversation he

was frater gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.

Guyau (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the

age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian

morality. In the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy

at the Condorcet lycée at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of

work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself

with literature. His principal works are La Morale d'Epicure (the

morality of Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878,

La Morale Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), '79,

crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,

'81. Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of

morality without obligation or sanction,) '84, and L'Irreligion de

l'Avenir (the Irreligion of the Future) '87. M. Guyau was a follower of

M. Fouillée, but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and

originality. A chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone,

31 March, 1888.

Guyot (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote

with Sigismond Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity,

'73, and a work on morality in the Bibliothèque Matérialiste. Elected

on the Municipal Council of Paris '74-78, he has since been a deputy

to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has written

the Principles of Social Economy, '84, and many works on that topic;

has edited Diderot's La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l'homme

and le Bien public.

Gwynne (George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National

Reformer, under the pen-name of "Aliquis." His reply to J. H. Newman's

Grammar of Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by

pen and purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.

Gyllenborg (Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was

one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor

of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc.,

among which may be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were

Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.

Haeckel (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam,

16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin,

and Vienna. In '59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples,

and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between

'66 and '75 he travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt,

and later he visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account

of his travels. He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his

Natural History of Creation, '68, having gone through many editions,

and been translated into English '76, as have also his Evolution

of Man, 2 vols. '79, and Pedigree of Man, '83. Besides numerous

monographs and an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel

has published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on

Freedom in Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by

Professor Huxley, '79.

Hagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year

1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they

received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen,

and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby,

where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also

deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.

Halley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime

as "the Infidel Mathematician," b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656;

educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets

and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena

where he prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, '79. He also

found how to take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of

Mercury or Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later

he made observation on "Halley's comet," and in '83 published his

theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir

Isaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he

commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he

was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He

then undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz:

to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He

lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who

conceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in

his Biographical Dictionary says, "It must be deeply regretted that

he cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought

it not beneath them to be Christians."

Hammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.

Hamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright,

of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding

"that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly,

a human invention, a mere fable." He had previously been set in the

pillory and had both his ears cut off.

Hannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some

time editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical

Theology, '46; Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of Philosophical

Studies, '72; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life

by sensibility.

Hanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia,

b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in

London, and wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took

part in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he

became Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief

Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865,

The Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters

to and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by

C.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.

Hardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke,

F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and

in '86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent

of the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school

of Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific

periodicals.

Hardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26

Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a

member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the

principal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for

Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up

a press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the

publishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of

Mr. Foote ('84), and Evolution and Creation ('87). He has contributed

to the Agnostic Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain,

Italy and Morocco ('89).

Harriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied

Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was

noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says "He was a Deist." Died

21 July 1621.

Harrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831,

educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He

was called to the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor

of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important

articles in the high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning

of History, Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other

Literary Pieces, '86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte's Positive

Polity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70,

and of Newton Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine

articles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters.

Hartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist

philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian

army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the

publication of his Philosophy of the Unconscious in '69, he became

famous, though it was not translated into English until '84. He

has since written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution

of Christianity and The Religion of the Future, '75, The Crisis of

Christianity in Modern Theology, '80, The Religious Consciousness of

Mankind, '81, and Modern Problems, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned

his attention to the philosophy of politics.

Hartogh Heys van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer,

b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden,

and graduated doctor of law in '64 and doctor of natural philosophy in

'66. In '66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a

treatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time

professor of chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at

Delft, where he was made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled

through Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the

guest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of

Man and Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations

of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works

of Ludwig Büchner and "Carus Sterne," from the German, and works from

the French, besides writing several original essays on anthropology,

natural history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely

to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In '72 he visited the

United States and the Pacific coast. Since '73 he has resided at

Assen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could

not take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of

the Provincial Archæological Museum at Assen, and a member of the

Dutch Literary Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India,

and other scientific associations. For a long while he was a member

of the Dutch Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became

president. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works,

such as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin

of Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.

Haslam (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April,

1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a

Socialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations,

showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their

doctrines, '38. This work went through several editions, and the

publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to

the Bishop of Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question

whether or not the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who

are the Infidels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since

lived. In '85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.

Hassell (Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years

imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May,

1824. He died in October 1826.

Hattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a

follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had

several followers. Died 1706.

Haureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the

age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work

on The Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced

many important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy,

'44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite

Critical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50.

Hauy (Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He

devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the

institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders

of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till

1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris

18 March, 1822.

Havet (Ernest August Eugène), French scholar and critic, b. Paris,

11 April, 1813. In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature

at the Normal School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence

at the Collége de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de Jesus in

the Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards

published separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins,

4 vols. 1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.

Hawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about

1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine and editor of

the Adventurer. In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that

author. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis,

Carteret, and Cook for government, for which he received £6,000;

but the work was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of

Providence. His novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at

Bromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773.

Hawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the

terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.

Hebert (Jacques René), French revolutionist, b. Alençon 15 Nov. 1757,

published the notorious Père Duchêsne, and with Chaumette instituted

the Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined

2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few

days later.

Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart,

27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tübingen, but, becoming acquainted

with Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopædia

of the Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and

two schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement

of Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel

said students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to

have remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him,

and he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg,

and Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried

beside Fichte.

Heine (Heinrich), German poet and littérateur, b. of Jewish parents

at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and

Göttingen; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and

Hegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and

was baptised. The change was only formal. He satirised all forms

of religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with

favor and translated by himself into French. His other principal

works are the Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany,

The Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other

poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris,

where "the Voltaire of Germany" became more French than German. About

1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed

himself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After

an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his

"mattress grave," he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and

most influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a

Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the

forces of reaction.

Heinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician,

b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn,

and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne

1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work

on the Prussian Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to

seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune

and the Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but

returned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again

"the regicide" had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He

wrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker),

first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from

'59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism,

which appeared in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The

Heroes of German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal,

Six Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century,

and What is Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.

Hellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842,

and in addition to many works on various countries has written an

able Culture History, 1875.

Helmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam

31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics

and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers

in Europe. Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847),

and Popular Scientific Lectures (1865-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects

the design hypothesis.

Helvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18

Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a

large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted

by reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general

to devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work

On the Mind (De L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII,

31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the

hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said "he told

everybody's secret." It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He

also wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and

Education. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest

of Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, née Anne Catherine

De Lingville, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her

house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet,

Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was

known as the Société d'Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.

Henault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century,

son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to

see Spinoza. Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three

different systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet

is on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.

Henin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer,

b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice,

and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at

Arcola, 26 Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in

1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of

his Archives du Magnétisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of

Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt

in Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes

committed in the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy

of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.

Hennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809,

author of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity,

first published in '38, a work which powerfully influenced "George

Eliot," and a translation of which was introduced to German readers

by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced "George Eliot"

to translate Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian

Theism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married

at London in '39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.

Herault de Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of

noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and

Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the

Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made

President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known

as the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at

the national festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmity

of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins,

5 April, 1794.

Herbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was

made professor of philosophy at Göttingen, and in 1808 became Kant's

successor at Königsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously

disposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was

recalled to Göttingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.

Herbert (Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery

Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his

travels. On his return he was made one of the king's counsellors,

and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the

Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself

by romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in

'31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of

Parliament. His principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of

which was to assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from

revelation. He also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History

of Henry VIII., etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.

Hertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some

years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three

small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence

in favour of State secularization.

Hertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of

the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at

Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was

arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished

to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in '37. He was expelled

from Russia in '42, visited Italy, joined the "Reds" at Paris in '48,

took refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set

up in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works

prohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in

large numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42;

Letters on the Study of Nature, '45-46; Who's to Blame? '57; Memoirs

of the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the

magazine the Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son,

Alessandro Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes,

learnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, where

he did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated

Maudsley's Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis

of human free will.

Herwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31

May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for

Literature. His Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man)

aroused attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop

and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and

Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.

Hetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho,

London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic

of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He

also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which

was the germ both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He

resisted the "taxes upon knowledge" by issuing unstamped The Poor Man's

Guardian, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to

"law," to try the power of "might" against "right," '31-35. For this

he twice suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards

published The Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing

the taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence

of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40,

he was tried for "blasphemous libel" for publishing Haslam's Letters

to the Clergy, and received four month's imprisonment. Hetherington

published A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought

works. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He

died 24 Aug. 1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.

Hetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland;

was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of

the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance

on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.

Heusden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several

works, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer,

etc.

Hibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the

imprisonment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his

publications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had

received a gift of £1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner

should not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same

amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly £1,000 in fitting up Carlile's

shop in Fleet Street. He contributed "Theological Dialogues" to the

Republican, and also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert

set up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns,

'27, and also Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which

he wrote a life of Plutarch and appended valuable essays "on the

supposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar"; "various definitions

of an important word" [God], and a catalogue of the principal

modern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary

of Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British

Freethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James

Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left £500 each. Died

December 1834.

Hedin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the "Andra Kammaren" [House

of Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical

candidate, '61. Edited the Aftonbladet, '74-76. Has written many

radical works.

Higgins (Godfrey), English archæologist, b. Skellow Grange, near

Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar,

but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's

property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he

reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was

entitled Horæ Sabbaticæ, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In

'29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and

Celtic Druids, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure

of priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the

origin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily

for about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,

under the title of "Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of

the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations,

and Religions."

Hillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at

Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor

at Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany,

Karl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to

France. He taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary

to Heine. On the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a

naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During

the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was

taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he

translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to

the Fortnightly Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes,

North American Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the

French in the second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence,

18 Oct. 1884.

Hins (Eugène), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal

Athenæum, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the

International, he edited L'Internationale, in which he laid stress

on anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberté, and was

one of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and

La Libre-pensée of Brussels. He has written La Russie dé voilée au

moyen de sa littérature populaire, 1883, and other works.

Hippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen,

Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law,

and became in 1780 burgomaster of Königsberg. His writings, which were

published anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg,

23 April, 1796.

Hittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences

against Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for

Pantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California,

a History of San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York,

1875), and St. Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883).

Hoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July,

1836. He studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar,

and in '51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He

afterwards resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one

of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in

the public schools.

Hobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,

1588. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,

with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the

acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650

appeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following

year his famous Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension,

but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness,

passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter

years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire,

Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.

Hodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's

System of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two

years for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison

he wrote The Commonwealth of Reason.

Hoelderlin (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet,

b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at

Tübingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a

fine romance (1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of

thought. Died Tübingen, 7 June, 1843.

Hoijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi,

Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University '83,

and teacher of philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his

liberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he

contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor

of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.

Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim

Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich

and generous he was the patron of the Encyclopædists. Buffon, Diderot,

d'Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac,

and other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin,

and Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the

German several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English,

Mark Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many

articles to the Encyclopédie. In 1765 he visited England, and from

this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put

out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam

Christianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the

Clergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was

partly rewritten by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural

History of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard

and Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the

French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published

The History of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ,

Letters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed

to Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais],

Religious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from

the English. He also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland,

and Collins's Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a

work with the title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly

conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the

secret of their authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach

escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The

System of Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This

text-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted

by Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made

a great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary

under the title of Good Sense, attributed to the curé Meslier. In

1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last

important work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded

upon Nature. D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to

by many, was depicted in Rousseau's Nouvelle Héloise as the benevolent

Atheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789.

Holcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively

a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies

"Duplicity," 1781, and "The Road to Ruin," 1792, were very

successful. He translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the

Great, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he

was indicted for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794,

but was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.

Holland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836,

graduated at Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister

at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has

since written in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His

principal work is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.

Hollick (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was

educated at the Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of

the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion

with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on "What is Christianity?" On

the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works

popularising medical science have had a large circulation.

Hollis (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious

Reasons for Scepticism, 1796; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed

Religion, 1799; and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks

26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an opulent dissenting family, was

distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom,

and by his beneficence.

Holmes (William Vamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up

from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced

to two years' imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous

and seditious libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain,

and when in prison was told that "if hard labor was not expressed in

his sentence, it was implied." On his release Holmes went to Sheffield

and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.

Holwell (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black

Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon,

went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah

Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the

"Black Hole," 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He

succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England

he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special

providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to

the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.

Holyoake (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27

Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of

Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the

abolition of the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk and danger had

to be met--and he co-operated with his brother in the production of

the Reasoner and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after

this he printed and sub-edited the National Reformer, in which

many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may

be mentioned Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,

Thoughts on Atheism, the Book of Esther, and Daniel the Dreamer. He

also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride

in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting

its welfare. His amiable spirit endeared him to all who knew him. He

died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed,

in which he repudiated all belief in theology.

Holyoake (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became

mathematical teacher of the Mechanics' Institution. Influenced by Combe

and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in '40 a Socialist missionary. In

'42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in the Oracle of Reason,

Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wrote The Spirit of

Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech

at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put

the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. '42, he was sentenced to six months

imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in his Last Trial by

Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. '43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall

the Movement, bearing the motto from Bentham, "Maximise morals,

minimise religion." The same policy was pursued in The Reasoner,

which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must

notice the Logic of Death, '50, which went through numerous editions,

and was included in his most important Freethought work, The Trial

of Theism. In '49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In

'51 he first used the term "Secularist," and in Oct. '52 the first

Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In

Jan. '53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,

and again in Oct. '54. He purchased the business of James Watson,

and issued many Freethought works, notably The Library of Reason--a

series, The Cabinet of Reason, his own Secularism, The Philosophy of

the People, etc. In '60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out

to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge,

and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a

history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.

Home (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was

made known by his publication of Remarkable Decisions of the Court of

Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He

published Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion

(1751), Elements of Criticism (1762), and Sketches of the History

of Man, in which he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27

Dec. 1782.

Hon, Le (Henri). See Le Hon.

Hooker (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He

studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D '39. In '55 he

became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from '65-85 sole

director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of

science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.

Hope (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his

anonymous Anastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an

original work on The Origin and Prospects of Man '31. Died at London

3 Feb. 1831.

Houten (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837;

he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In '69 he was

chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on

political economy. In '88 he wrote a book entitled Das Causalitätgesetz

(The Law of Causality).

Houston (George). Was the translator of d'Holbach's Ecce Homo, first

published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph

Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and

was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards

went to New York, where he edited the Minerva (1822). In Jan. 1827,

he started The Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly

Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He

also republished Ecce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a

"Free Press Association" and a Society of Free Inquirers.

Hovelacque (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied

law and made part of the groupe of la Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline,

Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca

and published many articles in the Revue d'Anthropologie. He founded

with Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The "Bibliothèque des sciences

contemporains" and published therein La Linguistique. He also founded

with the same the library of anthropological science and published in

collaboration with G. Hervé a prècis of Anthropology and a study of

the Negroes of Africa. He has also contributed to the Dictionary of

Anthropology. For the "Bibliothèque Materialiste" he wrote a work on

Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works

of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language,

and a work on the Avesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In '78 he was made a

member of the municipal council of Paris, and in '81 was elected deputy

to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.

Howdon (John), author of A Rational Investigation of the Principles

of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington,

1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.

Huber (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,

1694. In a work on the System of Theologians, 1731, she opposed

the dogma of eternal punishment. In '38 published Letters on the

Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the

same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections

from the Spectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.