All these changed circumstances variously modified the organization
of the Jewish communities. Napoleon’s attempt in 1807, as the result
of the Sanhedrin which he had convened in Paris, to found this
organization upon a modern basis, dividing the Jews of France into
certain consistories and arrondissements, had an effect not only upon
France, but also upon those countries which for a time were under his
influence (Holland, Belgium, etc.), and even upon many of the German
states. In 1808 such consistories were established in Westphalia and
Cassel; in 1809, an Oberrath was created in Baden; and in 1828 and 1831
an Oberkirchenbehoerde in Würtemberg. It was due also to Napoleon that
in France and Germany the Jews were obliged to adopt family names,
they having, in most cases, still retained the Oriental custom of
simply adding to their own prænomen that of their father. Prussia was
the only one of the German states which was not so affected. There the
state exercises a supervisory influence, compelling all the Jews to be
members of the Jewish community, but in no way further regulating the
communal life. When the Reform tendencies commenced to make themselves
felt in the larger Jewish communities, the Orthodox members safeguarded
their own interests by making use of the law passed in 1873, mainly
through the efforts of the Jew Lasker, which enabled the people to
declare themselves “confessionslos” and form their own synagogues,
thus nearing in a measure the system followed in English-speaking
countries. In England and America no such organization was effected,
as the state does not there take cognizance of the religious belief of
the people. In both these countries attempts have been made by the Jews
themselves to organize under one head upon a purely religious basis,
but without much success. In France there is a Chief Rabbi of the
Jews who is recognized by the state as their rabbi and head. But the
Chief Rabbi of the Jews in the British Empire, though he is nominally
the head of the Jews in the kingdom, has no actual position as such,
and is even not recognized by certain schools of Jews themselves. The
Sefardim, or descendants of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, have always
kept themselves distinct, and have their own Chief Rabbi, or Haham. In
the year 1840, the more liberal-minded element among the London Jews
cut themselves loose from the United Synagogue and formed a Reform
party, their example being followed in Manchester and Bradford. Neither
they nor the recent immigrants from Russia, who have formed their own
“Federation of Synagogues” recognize the authority of the Chief Rabbi.
This more congregational system has been carried to its utmost limits
in the United States, where each congregation is a law unto itself and
absolutely rejects any interference on the part of any larger body.
From time to time a desire has been manifested to supersede this purely
congregational system by some form of union. The late Dr. Isaac M.
Wise, of Cincinnati, had at various times attempted to bring the Jews
of the United States together with an authoritative synod at their
head. Out of this and other attempts have come the Central Conference
of American Rabbis and The Union of American Congregations (founded
in 1873), which now comprises about ninety-one congregations. These
organizations, however, do not by any means represent either all of
the Jewish ministers or all of the Jewish congregations, and the Union
itself is merely a deliberative body having no power to do anything in
the internal affairs of one of its constituent synagogues. Since the
union of American Jewish congregations comprises only such as stand
upon a Reform platform, a union of Orthodox congregations was formed in
New York two or three years ago, and it is hoped that this organization
will do much towards binding together the very many congregations of
those who adhere strictly to traditional Judaism.
But the organization of Jews as a church has not been found sufficient.
Spread over so large a portion of the earth and coming under such
varying influences, it was inevitable that the theological differences
which already existed should grow apace, and a great cleavage be made
between the Orthodox and the Reform wing of the synagogue. It was early
felt that some more secular bond must be found which should unite the
Jews of various persuasions for common and concerted action. The first
attempt in this direction was nobly made by Narcisse Leven, Eugene
Emanuel, Charles Netter, and a few others, in founding (1880) the
“Alliance Israélite Universelle” in Paris, whose object it was to aid
in removing Jewish disabilities wherever they might exist, and to raise
the spiritual condition of their coreligionists in Northern Africa,
Eastern Europe, and Western Asia by the founding of schools. From these
small beginnings the Alliance has grown to be an important factor in
the conservation of Jewish interests. Faithful to its programme, it has
established a large number of elementary and technical schools, and
has intervened actively in Algeria, Morocco, the Turkish Empire, and
Persia whenever Jews or Jewish interests were in any way threatened.
Its attempt, however, to represent the whole Jewish people has not
been successful; for the reason that it has been allied too closely
with French national interests; and side by side with the “Alliance
Française” it has been an active propagandist of the French language
and of French culture in the East. This one-sidedness of its work is
best seen in the fact that by its side similar organizations have
been created in other countries, “The Board of Delegates of American
Israelites” in the United States, “The Anglo-Jewish Association” in
England, “The Israeli-tisch Alliance” in Austria, and the “Deutsche
Gemeindebund” in Germany. At one time it was hoped that the B’nai
B’rith, established in this country in 1843, by Isidor Busch,
Julius Bien, and others, would form such a union of Jews, where the
theological differences would be eliminated. But though this order,
which has 315 lodges in, the United States and Canada, has established
itself in such countries as Germany, Roumania, Austria, Algeria,
Bulgaria, and Egypt, and despite the good work it has so far done, the
mere fact that it is a secret organization prevents it from standing
forth as the representative of international Jewry. Where, then, and
in what manner is such a body to be found?