CHANTRIES.
One of the characteristics of the ecclesiastical life of this country
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the institution of
chantries; altogether upwards of 2,000 of them are known to have been
founded during the period. As chantry priests played an important part in
connection with the provision of educational facilities in England, the
topic of chantries calls for careful consideration.
A chantry may be defined as a foundation for the purpose of providing a
priest who shall pray daily, primarily for the soul of the founder, and
secondly for the souls of all Christian people. The earliest instances of
chantries definitely recognised as such, date from the latter part of the
thirteenth century. The "Taxatio of Pope Nicholas" only mentions two; one
which was founded by Hugh of Lincoln, who died in 1225, and the other
which existed at Hatherton in the county of Warwick. The custom gradually
grew, but did not become common until the fifteenth century, the period in
which the number of such institutions largely increased.[457]
The idea of offering prayers for the souls of the faithful departed was
not a new one. The practice is at least as old as the institution of the
Christian faith, and is a custom which is perfectly natural to those who
believe in the immortality of the soul, and a state of future personal
existence. It had also been a custom, "from time immemorial," that
prayers for the souls of the founders were regularly offered up in
religious houses and other ecclesiastical foundations. A list of donors
and benefactors was carefully preserved, and prayers for their good estate
were offered up for them while they were living, and for the repose of
their soul after death. Thus, the "Catalogus Benefactorum" of St. Albans
Monastery, with its detailed account of every benefaction, is still
preserved in the British Museum.[458] The distinctive mark of a chantry
was, that it was expressly founded for the apparently selfish purpose of
making financial provision to secure the prayers of others for the future
well-being of the soul of the founder.
But though this selfish and personal purpose may have been the dominating
thought in the case of some foundations, yet it is probable that it was
not the only purpose of the majority of these institutions. The primary
point to be remembered is that it is a laudable desire to wish to
perpetuate one's memory, especially if the memorial should take a form
which will benefit the social community. In the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, the prevailing method of doing this was by establishing a
chantry.
In attempting to investigate the reasons why chantries were founded, we
are faced from the outset with a difficulty. The licence in mortmain, by
which permission to assign lands for the support of the chantry priest was
effected, scarcely ever mentions any other object for the memorial except
the chantry itself, whilst the foundation statutes, which enumerate more
specifically the purpose of the founder, are very rarely forthcoming.
An example will make this clear. In 1414 Langley, Bishop of Durham, issues
to himself an episcopal licence empowering the founding of the chantry he
wished to endow. In the same year he, in his temporal capacity as Earl of
a County Palatine, grants a licence in mortmain, authorising the chantry
to hold lands and to make the chantry priest a corporation.[459] Both
these records are available, but in neither of them is there any
reference to the _real_ objects for which the chantry was to be
instituted. Consequently, if further information was not forthcoming, we
would assume that all that the Bishop of Durham had done was to evince, in
some tangible manner, his belief in the efficacy of masses for the
departed.
Fortunately, however, there still survives a lengthy deed,[460] dated the
day after the licences to which we have referred were granted. This deed
specifies that the priests appointed to the chantry were to keep schools
of grammar and of song respectively, in addition to offering prayers for
the souls of the departed, and that a certain sum of money out of the
proceeds of the chantry was to be used for the purpose of distribution to
the poor.[461]
Strangely enough, we are dependent for information as to the purposes of
chantries, on the instrument which brought about their destruction. In
1545 was passed the Chantries' Act of Henry VIII. This Act began by
reciting that many people had been appropriating the endowments of
"Colleges, Freechapelles, Chantries, Hospitalles, Fraternities,
Brotherhoods, Guilds and Stipendarie Priests," and that the expenses of
the war with France and Scotland had been heavy, and then proceeded to
give authority to the king to send out commissioners to investigate the
nature of these endowments and afterwards to take such action as he
thought fit.
"Apparently, Henry had a fit of reaction after the Chantries' Act was
passed. He is reported to have dissolved Parliament with a speech in which
he said he was going to reform chantries, not destroy them."[462]
A new Chantries' Act was passed in the first parliament of Edward VI.[463]
The object of this Act was essentially different from that of its
predecessor. The preamble to the Act specified that it was thought that "a
great part of superstition and errors in Christian religion has been
brought into the minds and estimation of men, by reason of their
ignorance of the very true and perfect Salvation through Christ Jesus, and
by devising and fancying vain opinions of purgatory and masses
satisfactory to be done for them which be departed, the which doctrine and
vain opinion by nothing more is maintained and upholden than by the abuse
of trentals, chantries, and other provisions made for the continuance of
the said blindness and ignorance."
The Act proceeded to vest in the Crown "all Colleges, Free Chapels and
Chantries"; "all Lands given for the finding of a Stipendiary Priest for
ever"; "all payments made by corporations, gilds, fraternities, companies,
or fellowships, of mysteries or crafts."
A commission was to be issued, under the Great Seal, to investigate the
origin and purpose of the various chantries, etc., to arrange for the
continuance of such charitable objects as they deemed necessary, and to
assign pensions to the incumbents whose office was abolished.
It is to the returns that were made to these commissioners that we are
mainly indebted for a knowledge of the objects and purposes for which the
chantries were provided. The purposes, which are most frequently
mentioned, are:--
1. Provision of a priest to teach children freely.
2. Assistance of the parish priest.
3. Care of bridges.
4. Relief of the poor.
5. Provision of almshouses.
6. Repairing the parish church.
7. Equipping soldiers.
8. Repairing the sea walls.
9. Provision of lamps.
10. Provision of dowries.
Of these purposes, the most important was probably the provision of an
endowment to enable a priest to keep a school. Mr. Leach, who was the
first writer to realise fully the significance of the chantries in
relation to the provision of facilities for education, states that "in
all 259 schools appear in these records."[464] Two or three examples will
serve to make clear the nature of the provision for education made by the
chantry bequests.
"WYMBORNE.
Cantaria Margarite Comitisse Rychemond et Derbie matris Domini Regis
Henrici Septimi.
Memorandum that this was foundyd to the intent that the incumbent thereof
should say masse for the solles of the founders and to be a Scolemaster,
to teche frely almanner of childern Gramer within the said College."[465]
"THE PARISH OF NEWLAND.
Gryndoures chauntrye.
Foundyd to Fynde a preste and a gramer scole half free for ever and to
kepe a scoller sufficientt to teche under hym contynually."[466]
"TOWCESTER.
The Colledg or Spones Chauntree.
Founded to mayntene 2 Prestes, beyng men of good knoweledg. The one to
preach the Worde of God. And the other to kepe a Grammar Scole."[467]
Our task is now that of attempting to interpret the reasons why the
chantries were founded.
We must give due weight to the ostensible object, which must be also
regarded as the primary one. A widespread belief in the efficacy of
prayers for the departed existed; unfortunately, there also prevailed,
apparently, a belief in the value of hired prayers. It must be clearly
realised that it was for the purpose of securing prayer for the welfare
of the living and the repose of the departed soul that these chantries
were founded.
But, side by side with this main object, there also existed in the minds
of the majority of the founders a desire to benefit the community. We have
already enumerated the main directions in which it was proposed to effect
the benefit. The remarkable fact is, that, in as many as 259 cases,
education was regarded as of such importance that specific arrangements
were made to provide for it.
In a large number of cases, it is specified that the proceeds of the
chantry are to be devoted to the support of a priest to assist the parish
priest. We venture to suggest that there is to be found here a clue to the
explanation of many of the unspecified trusts and particularly of those in
which it is expressly laid down that it was a purpose of the chantry to
provide a priest for educational purposes. We have previously shown that
it was a recognised duty of the parish priest to keep a school. The growth
in the duties of a parish priest would make it difficult for him
effectively to discharge this function; possibly, in some cases, he might
be incapable of doing so; moreover, the progress of the universities had
caused the profession of a teacher to be a definite one. Our analysis of
the social structure[468] has enabled us to realise that the increasing
complexity of our industrial system and the social and economic changes
which occurred, had caused education to be more necessary and to be
esteemed more highly. The "Paston Letters" show that the dependents and
servants of great households were able to read and write.[469] Thorold
Rogers states that the accounts of bailiffs afford proof that they were
not illiterate, and he also evidences that artisans were able to write out
an account.[470] We must not, however, assume that a knowledge of reading
and writing, though probably widespread, was universal. It is interesting
to note that, of the twenty witnesses who were examined in connection with
the enquiry touching Sir John Fastolf's will in 1446, eleven were
described as "illiterate"; they consisted of five husbandmen, one
gentleman, one smith, one cook, one roper, one tailor, and one mariner.
The description "literatus" was applied to seven persons, two husbandmen,
two merchants, and one whose occupation was not specified.[471] The two
remaining witnesses could both read and write.
Our hypothesis is, that the founder of the chantry desired to be of
assistance, both to the parish priest himself, and to the children of the
parish. He sought to accomplish this by leaving lands to provide an
endowment to support a priest who would relieve the parish priest of his
duties as a teacher. This hypothesis would also help to explain the
gradual disappearance of the parish priest as the responsible master of
the parochial school, a disappearance which would be accelerated by the
increasing recognition of the fact that teaching was a specialist
function, to be entrusted to a person expressly appointed for that
purpose.
A most important and noteworthy feature of some chantries is, that in
certain parishes they were founded by the inhabitants themselves, for the
express purpose of providing educational facilities. We do not imply that
the religious element was lacking, or that the doctrine of the efficacy of
prayer for the departed was lightly held. In all probability, the
religious motive was a strong impelling force. For our present purpose,
the significant fact is, that in certain communities some of the
inhabitants founded chantries with the provision of facilities for
education as the expressed object. We have been able to trace the origin
of the following schools to the action of the inhabitants, but it is not
claimed that the list is exhaustive.
Aldeborough. Wragby.
Basingstoke. Bridgenorth.
Deritend. East Retford.
Eccleshall. Lancaster.
Eye. Truro.
Gargrave. Coggeshall.
Northallerton. Thaxted.
Odiham. Prittlewell.
Staunton. Berkhampstead.
Thirsk.
We may now consider the establishment of typical cases.
BASINGSTOKE.
The school at Basingstoke was founded "by the decision of the inhabitantes
at the begynnyng."[472] Apparently, the inhabitants of the town had formed
themselves into a gild called the "Brotherhood of the Holy Ghost" for this
special purpose. Their school can be traced back to 1244, and is the
earliest school of which at present we have any knowledge, whose origin
may be attributed to the enterprise of the inhabitants.
NORTHALLERTON.
This school existed before 1321, as is evidenced by the fact that in that
year the master was appointed to the school by the prior of Durham.[473]
It was founded by "certen well disposed persones--for the better bringinge
up of the children of the towne."[474]
DERITEND.
The existence of this school can be traced back as far as 1448, and is due
to the enterprise of "the inhabitans of the same hamlet cauled
Deretende."[475]
LANCASTER.
The first available reference to a school at Lancaster occurs in a deed in
the priory chartulary which dates from the reign of Henry III.[476] The
school was "ordeyned and founded by the Mayor and burgesses of
Lancaster."[477]
ALDEBOROUGH.
"Having no foundacion but presented by certain feoffees of severall landes
gyven by syndry persons of the said paroch."[478]
ECCLESHALL.
"The enhabitants of Eccleshall did among themselfes, without
incorporacion, erect two Gyylds ... and one of the same priestes have
alwais kept a scole and taught pore mens children of the same parishe
freely."[479]
EAST RETFORD.
"Founded by the predecessors of the bailiffs, burgesses, and Commywalts of
the said towne."[480]
GARGRAVE.
"Founded by the inhabitants there."[481]
ODEHAM.
"Founded of the devocion of the inhabitantes ... to the intente to teche
children gramer."[482]
STAUNTON.
"Founded by the parishenours there upon theyr Devocion." It was the
purpose of this chantry that the priest appointed should assist the
incumbent "in his necessitie"; apparently this assistance included the
teaching of "many pore mens chylderne."[483]
WRAGBY.
"There is no foundacion of the same but certen landes and tenementes
purchased by the parishioners to th'entente ... to teach chyldren in the
saide paroche."[484]
TRURO.
"Of the Benyvolence of the Mayer and burges of the saide Towne to fynde a
preste for ever to mynyster in the parish churche and to kepe a scole
there."[485]
As we have stated, these instances we have quoted cannot claim to be
exhaustive. They are examples which are available, and they serve to
indicate the noteworthy fact that a consciousness of the value of
education existed among the inhabitants of many towns and villages in
England in the Middle Ages. The question is sometimes raised, whether
these schools were elementary or secondary schools, or whether some of
them might be classed as elementary and others as secondary.[486] The
question is quite irrelevant. The distinction between elementary and
secondary education is entirely a modern one. In fact, it is difficult,
even now, to determine the meaning of these terms. If we regard the
elementary school as one in which the chief academic aim is to teach the
children to read and write English, and to work elementary problems in
arithmetic, and a secondary school as one in which the classical languages
form an important part of the curriculum, then we have set out the
difference between two types of schools which were prevalent during the
greater part of the eighteenth and nineteenth century; but this
distinction is inapplicable to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The
chantry school did not attempt to teach English, but Latin, as Latin still
continued to be the language of the Church of this country. Of the 259
instances of chantry schools which Mr. Leach has collected, 193 of them he
regards as grammar schools; the remaining schools he classes either as
song schools or as elementary schools.[487] The distinction is quite
unnecessary. The chantry schools were simply the parochial church schools,
which were now supported by a separate endowment, and taught by a priest
who was practically able to devote his whole time to the work, instead of
being under the control of the parish priest who, in many cases, would
scarcely be able to set aside a definite part of each day for the work of
teaching.
We have pointed out that the child who attended these church schools was
required previously to have obtained a knowledge of the alphabet at least.
If Colet was setting out the current practice in the statutes which he
drew up for St. Paul's School, even more knowledge was required antecedent
to admission, as he states that "the master shall admit these children as
they be offirid from tyme to tyme; but first se that they can saye the
catechyzon, and also that he can rede and write competently, else let him
not be admitted."
In the case of some of the chantry schools, express arrangements were made
for elementary teaching. Thus, the bell ringer at Glasney was required to
teach the ABC as a part of his duty[488] at Brecon; at Chumleigh it was
expressly stipulated that the ABC was to be taught by the chaplain;[489]
at Launceston it was stipulated that an old man chosen by the mayor was to
teach the alphabet.[490] Then, the chantry priest at Newland was required
to provide "meate, dryncke, clothe and all other necessaries" to one of
his scholars who, in return, was to assist with the teaching of the little
ones.[491]
The provision of exhibitions to assist in supporting poor scholars at
schools and universities was also a purpose of some chantries. Thus, at
Brecon, twenty poor scholars were to receive 24/- each annually:[492] at
Chumleigh, a part of the proceeds of the chantry was employed to support
"a lyttle childe who goythe to scole, and hathe no other profyttes
towardes his fynding and sustentacion"[493]; at Eton "70 scollers, 13
poore children and 10 choristours" were to be supported:[494] at Stamford
"the Revenues and proffyttes thereof hathe byn convertyd only to the use
of ... an infant of the age of 13 or 14 yeres, towards his exhibicion at
Schole."[495] Other instances of the provision of school exhibitions are
to be found in the chantry certificates relating to Houghton, Hull,
Lincoln, Lyme Regis, Newland, Rotherham, Sullington, Thornton, Winchester,
and Wotton-under-Edge.
Turning next to the chantries which were employed for the purpose of
supporting students at the universities, we find that the return to the
chantry commissioners, which relates to the chantry of North Wroxall,
states that: "the sayd Incumbent is a student in Oxforde, but no prieste;
and, ferthermore, a verey pore man, havynge no parentis, or any other
lyvinge to kepe hym to scole."[496] In the return for the chantry at
Norton are given the names of 8 men, among whom the proceeds of the
chantry are shared, so as to enable them "to studye at the
universite."[497] Other instances of chantry foundations for the purpose
of supporting university students are those of Asserton, Calne, Crediton,
Denton, Dorchester, Holbeach, etc.
The analysis of the chantry foundations we have given, serves to
illustrate our contention that, not only was there a growing appreciation
of education but that there also existed a growing sense of the
responsibility of the community, or of representative members of the
community, to make provision for education, and that the responsibility
for making this provision did not rest on the Church alone. At the same
time, the Church was alive to the necessity of emphasising the duty of the
clergy to interest themselves in education, as is evidenced by the canon
promulgated at the Convocation of Canterbury in 1529 which intimated to
the "rectors, vicars and chantry priests that when divine service is done,
they shall be employed in study, prayer, lectures or other proper
business, becoming their profession: namely, teaching boys the alphabet,
reading, singing, or grammar; and on three days in the week, for three or
at least two hours a day, shall, in the absence of some lawful hindrance,
occupy themselves in reading Holy Scriptures or some approved doctor. And
the ordinaries shall make diligent inquiry about this in their
visitations, to the end that they may severely chastise and punish lazy
priests, or those who spend their time badly."[498]
This canon was practically reiterated by the Royal Injunctions of 1547,
which prescribed that "all chauntery priests shall exercise themselves in
teaching youth to read and write, and bring them up in good manners and
other vertuous exercises."[499]
The practical effect of the Chantries' Act of 1547 was that it put an end
to the educational provision which the founders of the chantries had made.
This was not contemplated by the Act. On the contrary, the Act gave to the
commissioners "full power and authoritie to assigne and shall appoynte, in
every place where guylde fraternitye, the Preist or Incumbent of anny
Chauntrye in Esse ... oughte to have kepte a gramer scoole or a preacher"
for the continuance of such school.[500] The usual practice of the
commissioners was to vest the chantry lands in the Crown, and to make a
Crown charge of a certain annual sum, equivalent to the stipend which the
teacher of the grammar school was then receiving. But as the value of
money has now decreased to so considerable an extent, and the value of
land has so enormously increased, the practical effect of this
legislation, as we have indicated, was the disendowment of the educational
provision which had been made by the founders of gilds, colleges, and
chantries.