DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES IN TIME (_continued_).
_Seismic energy in relation to geological time._—If we admit that
seismic energy is only a form of volcanic energy, it must also be
admitted that any cause tending to produce a general decrease in the
amount of the latter will also produce an alteration in the amount of
the former.
The nebular hypothesis of Laplace tells us that the solar system is the
result of the whirling of a heated gaseous mass, which as it cooled
continually contracted and consequently whirls the faster. With this
hypothesis before us, we understand why all the planets and their
satellites have a similarity in the directions of their movements, why
they revolve nearly in the same plane, in orbits nearly circular, why
some have a flattened figure and are surrounded by rings or belts, why
the exterior planets should have a greater velocity of rotation, a
greater number of satellites, and a less density as compared with the
interior planets, the similarity of the elements in meteoric stones,
the sun, the stars, and those found upon our earth, and lastly why
there should be an increase in temperature as we descend into our
earth.[92] This increase in temperature as we descend into the earth
as deduced from many observations appears to be about 1° F. for every
fifty or sixty feet of descent.
To explain this and other kindred phenomena it is assumed that the
earth was once very much hotter than it is at present, and to reach its
present stage it has been gradually cooling. As the laws of cooling are
perfectly known, to calculate how many years it must have taken a body
like our earth to cool down to its present temperature is a definite
problem. Sir William Thomson, starting with the temperature of 7,000°
F., when all the rocks of the earth must have been molten and a skin or
crust upon the surface, such as is so quickly produced upon the surface
of molten lava, finds by calculation that the time taken to reach the
present temperature must have been about one hundred million years.
Into this period he and other physicists desire to compress the history
of all the stratified deposits. Geologists find this period too short.
Others seeking to reconcile the views of physicists and geologists
endeavour to show that the various agencies engaged in degrading rocks
and accumulating sediments in former ages are not to be judged of by
the agencies we now see around us; in former times they were more
active. At one period the elastic tides in the earth may have been so
great that they resulted in the fracturing off from our planet its
satellite the moon, and subsequently the moon, acting on the waters of
the earth, may, even as late as 150,000 years ago, have produced every
three hours tides 150 feet in height.
Whatever may be the value of the figures here quoted, reasonings like
these bring us to the conclusions that the various agencies which we
now know to be acting upon our earth were once far more potent than
they are at present, and if the moon, as a producer of elastic tides,
has any influence upon the occurrence of earthquakes, it must have had
a much greater influence in bygone times.
We might speak similarly with regard to the internal heat of the earth.
From the present heat gradient of our globe it is possible to calculate
how much heat flows from the earth every year.
This is equivalent to a quantity which would raise a layer of water ·67
centimetres thick, covering the whole of our globe, from a temperature
of 0° to 100° C.
Similarly, we might calculate the quantity of heat which would be lost
when the average heat gradient, instead of being 1° F. for fifty feet
of descent, was 1° F. for twenty-five feet of descent.
We might also calculate how many years ago it was since such a gradient
existed.
The general result which we should arrive at would be that in past
ages the loss of heat was more rapid than it is at present. Now the
contraction of a body as it cools is for low temperatures proportional
to its loss of heat, and this law is also probably true for contraction
as it takes place from high temperatures.
Contraction being more rapid, it is probable that phenomena like
elevations and depressions would be more rapid than they are at
present, and generally all changes due to plutonic action, as has
already been pointed out by Sir William Thomson, must have been more
active.
We have, therefore, every reason to imagine that earthquakes which
belong to the category of phenomena here referred to were also numerous
and occurred on a grander scale during the earlier stages of the
world’s history than they do at present, and seismic and volcanic
energy, when considered in reference to long periods of time, is
probably a decreasing energy.
In making this statement we must not overlook the fact that in
geological time, as testified by the records of our rocks, volcanic
action, and with it probably seismic action, has been continually
shifting, first appearing in one area and then in another, and even
in the same area we have evidence to show that these have periods
of activity and repose successively succeeding each other. Thus in
Britain, during the Palæozoic times, we have many evidences of an
intense volcanic activity. During the Mesozoic or Secondary period
volcanic energy appears to have subsided, to wake up with renewed
vigour in the Cainozoic or Tertiary period.
During this latter period it is not at all improbable that Scotland
was in past times as remarkable for its earthquakes as Japan is at the
present day.
Later on it will also be shown that earthquakes are concomitant
phenomena, with those elevatory processes which we have reason to
believe are slowly going on in certain portions of the earth’s crust.
If, therefore, we are able by the examination of the rocks which
constitute the accessible portions of our globe to determine which
periods were characterised by elevation, we may assume that such
periods were also periods of seismic activity.
Amongst these periods we have those in which various mountain ranges
appeared. Thus the Grampians, and the mountains of Scandinavia, were
probably produced before the deposition of the Old Red sandstone. The
Urals were upheaved prior to Permian times. The chief upheaval in the
Alps took place after Eocene times. The Rigi and other sub-Alpine
mountains were formed after the deposition of the Miocene beds. About
this same time the Himalayas were upheaved.[93]
The earthquakes which from time to time shake those newer mountains
apparently indicate that the process of mountain-making is hardly ended.
_Seismic energy in relation to historical time._—The distribution
of seismic energy with regard to historical time is a subject which
has been very carefully examined by Mallet, who collected together
a catalogue of between six and seven thousand earthquakes, embraced
between the periods B.C. 1606 and A.D. 1850. The earthquake of B.C.
1606 was on the occasion of the delivery of the law at Mount Sinai.
Between B.C. 1604 and B.C. 1586 an earthquake probably occurred in
Arabia, when Korah, Dathan, and Abiram were swallowed up. Another
biblical record is that of B.C. 1566, when the walls of Jericho were
overthrown.
The earliest records from China is in B.C. 595; in Japan B.C. 285; in
India A.D. 894.
By using the number of earthquakes which have been recorded in each
century as ordinates, Mallet constructed a curve, which apparently
shows a continual increase in seismic energy, especially during recent
times. This, Mallet remarks, contradicts all the analogies of the
physics of the globe, and points out that the rapid increase in the
number of earthquakes in latter years is chiefly due to the greater
number of records which have been made, and the increase of the area
of observation. No doubt many of the records made by the ancients have
been lost.
If we compare Mallet’s records, as he invites us to do, with the
great outlines of human progress, we see that the two increase
simultaneously, and we come to the conclusion that, taken as a whole,
during the historical period the seismic activity of the world has been
tolerably constant.
These conclusions, based on the evidence at our command, are not to
be confuted. If, however, instead of considering the seismic energy of
the whole world, we consider the seismic energy of particular areas,
it seems reasonable to expect that in certain instances sometimes a
decrease and sometimes an increase in this energy might be discovered,
especially, perhaps, in areas which are highly volcanic.
In France we know that volcanic activity ceased at a period closely
bordering on historical times, and it is not unlikely that seismic
activity may have ceased at a corresponding time.
In a country like Japan, it is possible that in one district seismic
energy may be on the increase, whilst in another upon the decrease.
In a country like England, it is probable that the seismic state is
constant, and, whatever changes may be now occurring, they are taking
place at so slow a rate that, even if our records of the historical
period were complete, we could hardly be expected to find these changes
sufficiently marked to be observable.
For purposes of reference, and also for examining the present question,
the table, page 240, has been compiled. The earthquakes given are
chiefly those which have been recorded in histories as being more or
less destructive.
In the second column of this table will be seen the number of
earthquakes which have occurred in Japan during each century, the
centuries being marked in the first column. In columns 3 to 18
inclusive are given the number of earthquakes which have occurred
during different centuries in the various countries and districts
mentioned at the head of each column. These latter, which are taken
from the writings of Mallet, are given for the sake of comparison with
the Japanese earthquakes. If we commence with the seventh century in
the column for Japan, we see that a great increase in the number of
earthquakes, as we come towards the present time, is not so observable
as it is in the other columns.
Key:
1 Centuries
2 Japan
3 Scandinavia and Iceland
4 British Isles and Northern Isles
5 Spanish Peninsula
6 France, Belgium, Holland
7 Rhine Basin
8 Switzerland and Rhine Basin
9 Danube Basin
10 Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta
11 Supplemental table for Italy, Sardinia, and Malta
12 Turco-Hellenic Territory, Syria, Ægean Isles, and Levant
13 United States and Canada
14 Mexico and Central America
15 Antilles
16 Cuba
17 Chili and La Plata Basin
18 Northern Zone of Asia
19 Approximate Intensity in the Kioto District of Japan
+------+--+---+---+--+---+--+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+--+
| 1 |2 | 3 | 4 |5 | 6 |7 | 8 | 9 | 10|11| 12|13|14| 15|16| 17|18|19|
+------+--+---+---+--+---+--+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+--+
|I. | 1| --| --|--| --|--| --| --| --|--| --|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|II. |--| --| --|--| --|--| --| --| --|--| --|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|III. | 1| --| --|--| --|--| --| --| --|--| --|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|IV. |--| --| --|--| --|--| --| --| 6|--| 23|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|V. | 1| --| --|--| 1|--| --| --| 5|--| 19|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|VI. | 1| --| --|--| 6|--| --|} | 3|--| 27|--|--| --|--| --|--|--|
|VII. |12| --| --|--| --|--| --|} | 1|--| 8|--|--| --|--| --|--|15|
|VIII. |11| --| --|--| --|--| --|} | 2| 1| 12|--|--| --|--| --|--|17|
|IX. |40| --| --|--| 21|--| 19|} | 6|--| 7|--|--| --|--| --|--|60|
|X. |17| --| --|--| 2|--| 2|}19| 3| 3| 5|--|--| --|--| --|--|24|
|XI. |20| --| 8| 3| 16|--| 9|} | 7| 5| 18|--|--| --|--| --|--|28|
|XII. |18| --| 11| 4| 12|--| 8|} | 18|22| 23|--|--| --|--| --|--|20|
|XIII. |16|} | 15| 3| 9|--| 3|} | 15|26| 13|--|--| --|--| --|--|16|
|XIV. |19|} | 4| 8| 21|--| 18|} | 20|51| 8|--|--| --|--| --|--|25|
|XV. |36|}28| 1| 4| 14|--| 12|} | 18|47| 11|--|--| --|--| --|--|29|
|XVI. |17|} | 8|10| 61|10| 52| 35| 32| 5| 22|--| 6| 1| 4| 5|--|17|
|XVII. |26|} | 14|10| 91|29|120| 31|121| 9| 53|10| 7| 16| 4| 9|--|11|
|XVIII.|31|111| 63|93|237|71|141| 88|438|20|124|88|24| 85| 2| 10|32| 8|
|XIX. |27|113|110|85|211|81|173|145|390|88|194|51|30|145|50|170|57| 8|
+------+--+---+---+--+---+--+---+---+---+--+---+--+--+---+--+---+--+--+
The explanation for this probably lies in the fact that Japan has
practised civilised arts for a longer period than many of the European
and other countries mentioned in the table.
In Japan, no doubt, the records of later years have been more perfect
than they were in early times, but this, although so potent an effacer
of what was probably the true state of natural phenomena in the case of
Europe, has not quite obliterated the truth in Japan; for instead of an
apparent increase of seismic energy since early times it shows a slight
decrease.
To draw up a table of earthquakes such as the one which has just been
given, and then, after the inspection of it, draw conclusions as to
whether there has been an increase or decrease in seismic energy, is,
however, hardly a just method of reasoning. The earthquakes, taken as
they are, for the whole of Japan, represent a collection of places some
of which are 1,000 miles apart. When we consider that many earthquakes
which occurred at one end of this line were never felt at the other
end, in order to justly estimate the periodicity of seismic phenomena
it would seem that we ought either to take some particular seismic area
or else the whole world.
The particular area which has been taken is that of Kioto in Central
Japan, and the earthquakes which have been felt there are enumerated in
the table.
In order to show the variation in seismic activity of this district a
curve has been plotted, fig. 35, with ordinates equal to the values
given for the Kioto earthquakes during succeeding centuries. The upper
points of these ascending and descending lines are joined by a free
curve. The lower points are similarly joined. The points of bisection
of ordinates drawn between these two curves are taken as points in a
curve to show the true secular change in seismic energy.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.—Curve of Seismic Intensity for Kioto.]
By looking at this wavy line it will be seen that the intervals between
maxima and minima are closer together in early times than they are
later on.
Thus, between the eighth century and the ninth century, points of
maximum and minimum seismic efforts occurred at times a century apart,
whilst later on, from the eleventh to the fifteenth century, they were
at intervals of 300 years apart.
By inspecting either the wavy line or the resultant curve, it will be
seen that since the ninth century down to the present time there has
been a decided decrease in seismic energy. From the ninth century down
to the fifteenth century this decrease is represented by a regular
curve. At this point, however, the decrease becomes slightly more
rapid, and is represented by a second curve. If, instead of calculating
ordinates for my curve, in which intensity has been considered, simply
the number of earthquakes are counted, a similar result is obtained.
From this it appears that the rate at which seismic energy decreased
during the last 500 years was about the same as that at which it
decreased during the 500 years previous to this period.
If the lists for the Italian and Turco-Hellenic districts could be
similarly analysed, and the earthquakes of any particular district
picked out from the others, it is very probable that a similar decrease
or alteration in seismic energy might be observed.
Provided that we have at our disposal records of the various
earthquakes which have occurred in any given district during a
sufficiently long period of time, one conclusion that we may expect
to arrive at is that we shall be able to trace some variation in
the seismic activity of that district. For the Kioto area, it has
been shown that there is a diminution in seismic activity, In other
districts, however, there may possibly be an increase.[94]
_Relative frequency of earthquakes._—A question which is of great
interest to those who dwell in shaken districts is as to how often
disturbances may be expected to occur.
From a general examination of this question, considering the
earthquakes of the whole world. Mallet arrived at the following
conclusions:—
1. While the smallest or minimum paroxysmal intervals may be a year
or two, the average interval is from five to ten years of comparative
repose.
2. The shorter intervals are in connection with periods of fewer
earthquakes—not always with those of least intensity, but usually so.
3. The alternations of paroxysm and of repose appear to follow no
absolute law deducible from these curves.
4. Two marked periods of extreme paroxysm are observable in each
century, one greater than the other—that of greatest number and
intensity occurring about the middle of each century, the other towards
the end of each.
The form of the curves which Mallet has drawn seem to indicate that
seismic energy came in sudden bursts, and then subsided, gradually
gathering strength for another exhibition. This is continually seen
in the shocks experienced in various seismic areas—a large shock, or
the maximum of the activity dying out by repeated small shocks on
succeeding days.
Mr. I. Hattori, writing on the large earthquakes of Japan, remarks that
on the average there has been one large earthquake every ten years.
They, however, occur in groups, as shown in the following table.
+------+---------------+----------+
|No. of| | |
|shocks| Period | Interval |
+------+---------------+----------+
| 6 | A.D. 827–836 | 10 years |
| 6 | „ 880–890 | 10 „ |
| 4 | „ 1040–1043 | 4 „ |
| 5 | „ 1493–1507 | 5 „ |
| 4 | „ 1510–1513 | 4 „ |
| 5 | „ 1645–1650 | 6 „ |
| 5 | „ 1662–1664 | 3 „ |
| 4 | „ 1853–1856 | 4 „ |
+------+---------------+----------+
Dr. E. Naumann, who has also written on the earthquakes in Japan,
remarks that if periods of seismic activity do not occur every 490
years, there is a repetition of the cycle after 980 years, but there
is much variability. A period of 68 years is very marked. On the
average, large earthquakes have occurred every 5·9 years. Fuchs
gives some interesting examples of the repetition of earthquakes at
definite intervals, of which the following are examples. Sometimes
earthquakes appear to have repeated themselves after 100 years. One
remarkable example of this is that of Lima, on June 17, 1578, which was
repeated on the same day in the year 1678. In Copiapo it is believed
that earthquakes occur every twenty-three years, and examples of such
repetitions are found in the years 1773, 1796, and 1819. In Canada,
near to Quebec, earthquakes lasting forty days are said to occur every
twenty-five years. The plateau of Ardebil is said to be regularly
shaken by earthquakes every two years.
A. Caldcleugh, writing on the earthquake of Chili, in 1835,[95] remarks
that the Spaniards first had the idea that a great earthquake occurs
every century. Afterwards they thought the period was every fifty
years. As a matter of fact, however, there were large earthquakes in
1812, at Caracas; in 1818, at Copiapo; in 1822, at Santiago; in 1827,
at Bogota; in 1828, at Lima; in 1829, at Santiago; and in 1832, at
Huasco.
The average period of seismic disturbances in any country probably
depends upon the subterranean volcanic activity of that country.
When the activity is great the large earthquakes may occur at short
intervals; but when the activity is small, as in England, shocks of
moderate intensity may not be felt more than once or twice per century.
A general idea of the relative frequency of the large earthquakes in
various parts of the world may be easily obtained by an inspection of
the table on page 240.
Between the years 1850 and 1857 Kluge found that in the world there had
been 4,620 earthquakes, which is, upon the average, nearly two per day.
This estimate of the frequency of earthquakes of sufficient intensity
to be recorded without the aid of instruments is, however, much below
the truth. In Japan alone there probably occurs, as a daily average, a
number at least equal to that which has been just given for the whole
world. Boussingault considered that, in the Andes, earthquakes were
occurring every instant of time.[96]
To state definitely how many earthquakes are felt in the world on the
average every day is, from the data which we have at our command, an
impossibility. Perhaps there may be ten, perhaps there may be 100. The
question is one which remains to be decided by statistics which have
yet to be compiled.
After a large earthquake, smaller shocks usually occur at short
intervals. At first the succession of disturbances are separated from
each other by perhaps only a few minutes or hours. Later on, the
intensity of these shocks usually decreases, and the intervals between
them become greater and greater, until, finally, after perhaps a few
months, the seismic activity of the area assumes a quiescent state.
The great earthquake which overtook Concepcion on February 20, 1835,
was followed by a succession of shocks like those just referred to,
there being registered, between the date of the destructive shock and
March 4, 300 smaller disturbances.
During the twenty-four hours succeeding the destruction of Lima
(October 28, 1746), 200 shocks were counted, and up to the 24th of
February in the following year 451 shocks were felt.
At St. Thomas, in 1868, 283 shocks were counted in nine and a quarter
hours.
Similar examples might be taken from the description of almost
all destructive earthquakes of which we have records. For a large
earthquake to occur, and not to be accompanied by a train of succeeding
earthquakes, is exceptional. Sometimes we find that a large number of
small earthquakes have occurred without a large one being felt. Seismic
storms of this description have happened, even in England—for instance,
in the year 1750, which appears to have been a year of earthquakes for
many portions of the globe.
In this year, which is known as the ‘earthquake year,’ shocks were felt
in England as follows: On March 14, in Surrey; March 18, in south-west
of England; April 2, at Chester; June 7, at Norwich; August 23, in
Lincolnshire; September 30, Northamptonshire.
_Synchronism of earthquakes._—One of the first writers who drew
attention to the fact that two shocks of earthquakes have been felt
simultaneously at distant places was David Milne, who published a list
of these occurrences.[97]
In two instances, February and March 1750, shocks were simultaneously
felt in England and Italy. In September 1833 shocks appear to have been
simultaneously felt in England and Peru. These and many other similar
examples are discussed by Mallet, who thinks with Milne that these
coincidences are in every probability matters of accident. According to
Fuchs, Calabria and Sicily appear often to have had earthquakes at the
same time, as for instance in 1169, 1535, 1638, when the town Euphemia
sank, and in the years 1770, 1776, 1780, and 1783.
A remarkable example of coincidence occurred on November 16, 1827, when
a terrible earthquake was felt in Columbia, and at the same time a
shock occurred on the Ochotsk plains, nearly antipodal to each other.
Kluge also gives a large number of instances of simultaneous
earthquakes; thus, on January 23, 1855, on the same day that
Wellington, New Zealand, so severely suffered, there was a heavy
earthquake in the Siebengeberge, and also in North America. To this
might be added the fact that the last destructive earthquake in Japan
occurred within a few days of this time.
Sometimes neighbouring countries where earthquakes are common are
equally remarkable by their utter want of synchronism. For example,
Southern Italy and Syria are said never to be shaken simultaneously.
_Secondary earthquakes._—Although it is possible that the simultaneous
occurrence of earthquakes in distant regions may sometimes be a
matter of chance, it must also be remarked that the shaking produced
by one earthquake may be sufficient to cause ground which is in a
critical state to give way, and thus the first disturbance becomes the
originator of a second earthquake. Admitting that an earthquake, as
it radiates from its centre, may act in such a manner, we see that a
feeble disturbance might be the ultimate cause in the production of a
destructive earthquake, just as the disturbance of a stone upon the
face of a scarp might, by its impact upon other stones, cause many tons
of material to be dislodged.
It is also easy to conceive how the seismic activity of two districts
may be dependent upon each other. Inasmuch as these secondary shocks
are direct effects of primary disturbances, they might have been
treated in a previous chapter.
As examples of consequent or secondary earthquakes Fuchs tells us that
when small earthquakes take place in Constantinople and Asia Minor,
earthquakes are felt in Bukharest, Galazy, and Kronstadt.
The great Lisbon earthquake also appears to have given rise to several
consequent disturbances. One was in Derbyshire, occurring at 11 a.m.
It was sufficiently violent to cause plaster to fall from the sides
of a room and a chasm to open on the surface of the ground. Some
miners working underground were so alarmed that they endeavoured to
escape to the surface. During twenty minutes there were three distinct
disturbances.
Another shock was felt at Cork.[98]
Although these disturbances own a consequence of the Lisbon earthquake
they might properly perhaps be attributed to the pulsations produced by
the shock at Lisbon, which spread through England and other countries
without being felt.
The shocks which men felt in New Zealand and New South Wales in 1868
were probably secondary shocks, due to the disturbance at Arequipa and
other places on the South American coast.
These so-called secondary earthquakes, although in many instances
they may be due to earth pulsations produced by earthquake, or to the
immediate sensible shaking of a large earthquake, may perhaps, in
certain instances, be attributed to some widespread disturbance beneath
the crust of the earth. The occurrence of periods where all earthquake
countries suffer, unusual disturbances indicate the probability of such
underground phenomena.