When a Japanese artist is preparing to paint a picture he considers first
the space the picture is to occupy and its shape, whether square, oblong,
round or otherwise; next, the distribution of light and shade, and then
the placing of the objects in the composition so as to secure harmony and
effective contrasts. In settling these questions he relies largely on the
laws of proportion and design.
The principles of proportion (ICHI) and design (ISHO) are closely allied.
They aim to supply and express with sobriety what is essential to the
composition, proportion determining the just arrangement and distribution
of the component parts, and design the manner in which the same shall be
handled. In a landscape, proportion may require the balancing effect of
buildings and trees, while design will determine how the same may be
picturesquely presented; for instance, by making the trees partially hide
the buildings, thus provoking a desire to see more than is shown. Such
suggestion or stimulation of the imagination is called YUKASHI. The
Japanese painter is early taught the value of suppression in design—_l’art
d’ennuyer est de tout dire_.
A well-known rule of proportion, quaintly expressed in the original
Chinese and which is more or less adhered to in practice, requires in a
landscape painting that if the mountain be, for example, ten feet high the
trees should be one foot, a horse one inch and a man the size of a bean.
JO SAN SEKI JU, SUN BA TO JIN _(Plate XVII)_.
Design, called in art ISHO ZUAN or _takumi,_ is largely the personal
equation of the artist. It is his power of presenting and expressing what
he treats in an original manner. The subject may not be new, but its
treatment must be fresh and attractive. Much will depend upon the
learning and the technical ability of the artist. In the matter of design
the artists of Tokyo have always differed from those of Kyoto, the former
aiming at lively and even startling effects, while the latter seek to
produce a quieter or more subdued _(otonashi)_ result.
Where landscapes or trees are to be painted upon a single panel, panels on
each side of it may be conveniently placed and the painting designed upon
the central panel in connection with the two additional ones used for
elaboration. In this way, when the side panels are withdrawn the effect
is as though such landscape or trees were seen through an open window, and
all cramped or forced appearance is avoided. The _Ukiyo e_ artists
practiced a similar method in their _hashirakake_ or long, narrow,
panel-like prints of men and women used for decorating upright beams in a
room.
The literature of art abounds in instances illustrative of correct
proportion and design.
The artist Buncho being requested to paint a crow flying across a _fusuma_
or four sliding door-like panels, after much reflection painted the bird
in the act of disappearing from the last of these subdivisions, the space
of the other three suggesting the rapid flight which the crow had already
accomplished, and the law of proportion (ICHI) or orderly arrangement thus
observed was universally applauded.
In the wooded graveyard of the temple at Ike-gami, where the tombs of so
many of the Kano artists (including Tanyu) are to be found, is a stone
marking the grave of a Kano painter who, having executed an order for a
picture and his patron observing that it was lacking in design and that he
must add a certain gold effect in the color scheme, rather than violate
his own convictions of what he considered proper design, first refused to
comply and then committed _hara kiri._
A canon of Japanese art which is at the base of one of the peculiar charms
of Japanese pictures, not merely in the whole composition but also in
minute details that might escape the attention at first glance, requires
that there should be in every painting the sentiment of active and
passive, light and shade. This is called IN YO and is based upon the
principle of contrast for heightening effects. The term IN YO originated
in the earliest doctrines of Chinese philosophy and has always existed in
the art language of the Orient. It signifies darkness (IN) and light
(YO), negative and positive, female and male, passive and active, lower
and upper, even and odd. This term is of constant application in
painting. A picture with its lights and shades properly distributed
conforms to the law of IN YO. Two flying crows, one with its beak closed,
the other with its beak open; two tigers in their lair, one with the mouth
shut, the other with the teeth showing; or two dragons, one ascending to
the sky and the other descending to the ocean, illustrate phases of IN YO.
Mountains, waves, the petals of a flower, the eyeball of a bird, rocks,
trees—all have their negative and positive aspects, their IN and their YO.
The observance of this canon secures not only the effective contrast of
light and shade in a picture but also an equally striking contrast between
the component parts of each object composing it.
The law of form, in art called KEISHO or KAKKO, is widely applied for
determining not only the correct shape of things but also their suitable
or proper presentation according to circumstances. It has to do with all
kinds of attitudes and dress. It determines what is suitable for the
prince and for the beggar, for the courtier and for the peasant. It
regulates the shape that objects should take according to conditions
surrounding them, whether seen near or far off, in mist or in rain or
snow, in motion or in repose. The exact shape of objects in motion (as an
animal running, a bird flying or a fish swimming) no one can see, but the
painter who has observed, studied and knows by heart the form or shape of
these objects in repose can, by virtue of his skill, reproduce them in
motion, foreshortened or otherwise; that is KEISHO; and he is taught and
well understands that if in executing such work his memory of essential
details fails him hesitancy is apt to cause the picture to perish as a
work of art.
KEISHO literally means shape, but in oriental art it signifies also the
proprieties; it is a law which enforces among other things canons of good
taste and suppresses all exaggerations, inartistic peculiarities and
_grimaces._
The law touching historical subjects and the manner of painting them is
called KO JUTSU. Special principles apply to this department of Japanese
art. The historical painter must know all the historical details of the
period to which his painting relates, including a knowledge of the arms,
accoutrements, costumes, ornaments, customs and the like. This subject
covers too vast a field and is too important to be summarily treated here.
Suffice it to say that there have been many celebrated historical painters
in Japan. I recall, on the other hand, a picture once exhibited by a
distinguished Tokyo artist which was superbly executed but wholly ignored
by the jury because it violated some canon applicable to historical
painting.
The term YU SHOKU refers to the laws governing the practices of the
Imperial household, Buddhist and Shinto rites. Before attempting any work
of art in which these may figure the painter must be thoroughly versed in
the appointments of palace interiors, the rules of etiquette, the
occupations and pastimes of the Emperor, court nobles _(Kuge),_ _daimyo_
and their military attendants _(samurai),_ the costumes of the females
_(tsubone)_ of the Imperial household and their duties and
accomplishments. The Tosa school made a thorough familiarity with such
details its specialty. All Buddhist paintings come under the law of YU
SHOKU.
Let us next consider briefly some of the principles applicable to Japanese
landscape painting. Landscapes are known in art by the term SAN SUI,
which means mountain and water. This Chinese term would indicate that the
artists of China considered both mountains and water to be essential to
landscape subjects, and the tendency in a Japanese artist to introduce
both into his painting is ever noticeable. If he cannot find the water
elsewhere he takes it from the heavens in the shape of rain. Indeed, rain
and wind subjects are much in favor and wonderful effects are produced in
their pictures suggesting the coming slorm, where the wind makes the
bamboos and trees take on new, weird and fantastic shapes.
The landscape _(Plate XVIII)_ contains a lofty mountain, rocks, river,
road, trees, bridge, man, animal, et cetera. The first requisite in such,
a composition is that the picture respond to the law of TEN CHI JIN, or
heaven, earth and man. This wonderful law of Buddhism is said to pervade
the universe and is of widest application to all the art of man. TEN CHI
JIN means that whatever is worthy of contemplation must contain a
principal subject, its complimentary adjunct, and auxiliary details. Thus
is the work rounded out to its perfection.
[Tiger, by Kishi Chikudo. Plate VI.]
Tiger, by Kishi Chikudo. Plate VI.
This law of TEN CHI JIN applies not only to painting but to poetry (its
elder sister), to architecture, to garden plans, as well as to flower
arrangement; in fact, it is a universal, fundamental law of correct
construction. In _Plate XVIII_ the mountain is the dominant or principal
feature. It commands our first attention. Everything is subservient to
it. It, therefore, is called TEN, or heaven. Next in importance,
complimentary to the mountain, are the rocks. These, therefore, are CHI,
or earth; while all that contributes to the movement or life of the
picture, to wit, the trees, man, animal, bridge and river, are styled JIN,
or man, so that the picture satisfies the first law of composition,
namely, the unity in variety required by TEN CHI JIN.
There is another law which determines the general character to be given a
landscape according to the season, and is thus expressed: Mountains in
spring should suggest joyousness; in summer, green and moisture; in
autumn, abundance; in winter, drowsiness. The formula runs as follows:
SHUN-ZAN, _warau gotoshi;_ KAZAN, _arau gotoshi;_ SHUZAN, _yoso gotoshi;_
TOZAN, _nemurugotoku._
Similarly, according to the season, there are four principal ways of
painting bamboo (CHIKU). In fair-weather bamboo (SEI CHIKU) the leaves
are spread out joyously; in rainy-weather bamboo (UCHIKU) the leaves hang
down despondently; in windy-weather bamboo (FUCHIKU) the leaves cross each
other confusedly, and in the dew of early morning (ROCHIKU) the bamboo
leaves all point upwards vigorously _(Plate LIII a 1 to a 4)_.
The Kano artists differ from the Shijo painters in their manner of
combining _(kasaneru)_ the leaves and branches of the bamboo. Speaking
generally, the Shijo artists point the leaves downward, while the former
point them upward, which is more effective.
Again, in snow scenery the Kano artists first paint the bottom of the
snow-line and then by shading _(kumadori)_ above the same with very light
ink _(usui sumi)_ produce the effect of accumulated snow. The Okyo school
secures the same result in a much more brilliant manner, using but a
single dexterous stroke of the well-watered brush, the point only of which
is tipped with _sumi._
Some artisls, notably Kubota Beisen and his followers, employ both
methods, the former for near and the latter for distant snow landscapes.
Low mountains in a landscape suggest great distance. Fujiyama, the
favorite subject of all artists, should not be painted too high, else it
loses in dignity by appearing too near. In an art work written by Oishi
Shuga, Fuji is reproduced as it appears at every season of the year,
whether clad in snow, partly concealed by clouds, or plainly visible in
unobstructed outline. The book is a safe guide for artists to consult.
We may next consider some laws applicable to mountains, rocks and ledges.
It has long since been observed by the great writers on art in China that
mountains, rocks, ledges and peaks have certain characteristics which
distinguish them. These differ not only with their geological formations
but also vary with the seasons on account of the different grasses and
growths which may more or less alter or conceal them. To attempt to
reproduce them as seen were a hopeless task, there being too much
confusing detail; hence, salient features only are noted, studied and
painted according to what is called SHUN PO, or the law of ledges or
stratifications. There are eight different ways in which rocks, ledges
and the like may be represented:
The peeled hemp-bark method, called HI MA SHUN _(Plate XXIII a)_.
The large and small axe strokes on a tree, called DAI SHO FU HEKI SHUN
_(Plate XXIII b)_.